Unit 17 – Inheritance
Inheritance is the process by which genetic information is passed on from
parent to child.
This is why members of the same family tend to have similar
characteristics.
A characteristic that changes gradually over a range of values
shows continuous variation.
Ex: height, weight
Clearly defined differences in a characteristic that can be observed in a
population are discontinuous variations.
Ex: garden peas are either wrinkled or smooth, person’s blood group
DNA – (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
This is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms and
found in the nucleus of the cell.
Composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other
to form a double helix.
DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar
group and a nitrogenous base.
The four types of nitrogen bases are,
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C)
Base pairing rule :
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or
genetic code.
Chromosomes
A chromosome is a strand of DNA that is encoded with genes.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. (46 chromosomes)
22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XX
in females and XY in males)
What is an allele?
“Each of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation
and are found at the same place on a chromosome.”
Dominant and recessive
Dominant traits are always expressed when the connected allele
is dominant in the chromosome, even if only one copy of the dominant
trait exists.
Recessive traits are expressed only if both the connected alleles
are recessive in the chromosome.
Phenotype and genotype
A phenotype is an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color,
and blood type.
The genetic contribution to the phenotype is called the genotype.
Some traits are largely determined by the genotype, while other traits are
largely determined by environmental factors.
Mutations
A Mutation is a change in the structure of a gene or a change in the
chromosome number.
Ex:
1) Sickle cell anaemia (a change in the structure of the gene)
Sickle cell anemia is autosomally inherited red
blood cell disorder, in which there aren't enough
healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen.
This is caused by a mutation in the
hemoglobin-Beta gene found on chromosome 11.
Sickle cell anemia is visible in a person who is
homozygous dominant with the faulty gene.
But it is not visible when the person is heterozygous
or homozygous recessive.
The people carrying this faulty gene are far less susceptible to malaria
as malaria parasite multiplies inside normal RBCs.
2) Down’s syndrome (change in the chromosome number)
This is caused by trisomy 21 ; the person has three copies of
chromosome 21, instead of the usual two copies, in all cells.
This is caused by abnormal cell division during the development of the
sperm cell or the egg cell.
Many mutations are harmful, but some are neutral and a few are
beneficial.
The chemical or physical agents that cause mutations are called
mutagens.
Ex : physical mutagens - ultraviolet (UV) and gamma radiation
Chemical mutagens - Carcinogens, Ethylene Dichlorides
We cannot always get expected ratios (such as 3:1) in genetic crosses
practically, when there are small numbers of progeny.
We can use a punnett square when
finding possible genotypes of F1
generation.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is the mechanism by which new species arise.
If the environment of a species changes and that species is no longer
adapted to survive in the new condition, it may become extinct.
(Ex: Natural selection in antibiotic resistant bacteria)
Evolution is a gradual change in range of organisms on the Earth.
We can artificially select (Selective breeding) organisms to produce
economically important plants and animals rather than leaving the species to
evolve and change gradually, like in natural selection.
Ex : Plants are artificially bred to obtain higher yields
pest resistant plants
higher nutritional value
Animals are artificially bred to obtain higher milk yield
more meat
more fur
DNA and protein synthesis
Proteins are made of long chains of amino acids. And there are 20 different
amino acids.
DNA contains a code that determines exactly what sequence of amino acids
a cell should string together when it makes a particular protein.
The code called triplet which contains three nucleotides is responsible to
bring the relevant amino acid to make the chain of protein.
Protein synthesis takes place in the ribosome. To carry information from
DNA to the ribosome, a messenger molecule called mRNA is used.
Genetic modification
Genes can be transferred between cells of the same species or different
species.
A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal, plant, or microbe
whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
Ex : Plants
Herbicide tolerance Soybean
Insect resistance Corn
Animals
cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, fish, rats, and mice
We use GM bacteria to commercially produce insulin, by inserting insulin
production gene into the bacteria.