STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Class 11 Chemistry
NOTES
Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of the matter. Atom is made of electron,
proton and neutrons.
PARTICLE ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON
Discovery Sir. J. J. Thomson Goldstein (1886) Chadwick (1932)
(1869)
Nature of Negative Positive Neutral
charge
Amount of 1.6 x 10-19Coloumb 1.6 x 10- 0
19
charge Coloumb
Mass 9.11 x 10-31kg 1.672614 x 10-27kg 1.67492 x10-27kg
Electrons were discovered using cathode ray discharge tube experiment.
Nucleus was discovered by Rutherford in 1911.
Cathode ray discharge tube experiment: A cathode ray discharge tube madeof
glass is taken with two electrodes. At very low pressure and high voltage,current
starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in the tube fromcathode to
anode. These rays were called cathode rays. When a perforatedanode was taken,
the cathode rays struck the other end of the glass tube atthe fluorescent coating
and a bright spot on the coating was developed
Results of Rutherford experiments:
a. Cathode rays consist of negatively charged electrons.
b. Cathode rays themselves are not visible but their behavior can be observed
with help of fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.
c. In absence of electrical or magnetic field cathode rays travel in straight linesd.
In presence of electrical or magnetic field, behaviour of cathode rays is similar to
that shown by electrons
e. The characteristics of the cathode rays do not depend upon the material of the
electrodes and the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray tube.
Charge to mass ratio of an electron was determined by Thomson. The chargeto
mass ratio of an electron as 1.758820 x 1011. C kg-1
Charge on an electron was determined by R A Millikan by using an oil
dropexperiment. The value of the charge on an electron is -1.6 x 10-19C.
The mass on an electron was determined by combining the results ofThomson’s
experiment and Millikan’s oil drop experiment. The mass of anelectron was
determined to be 9.1094 x 10-31kg.
Discovery of protons and canal rays:
Modified cathode ray tube experimentwas carried out which led to the discovery
of protons.
Characteristics of positively charged particles:
a. Charge to mass ratio of particles depends on gas from which these originateb.
The positively charged particles depend upon the nature of gas present in the
cathode ray discharge tube
c. Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of fundamental of
electrical charge.d. Behaviour of positively charged particles in electrical or
magnetic field is opposite to that observed for cathode rays
Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick by bombarding a thin sheet of
beryllium by α- particles. They are electrically neutral particles having a mass
slightly greater than that of the protons.
Atomic number (Z) : the number of protons present in the
nucleus(Moseley1913).
Mass Number (A) :Sum of the number of protons and neutrons present in
thenucleus.
Thomson model of an atom:
This model proposed that atom is considered asa uniform positively charged
sphere and electrons are embedded in [Link] important feature of Thomson model
of an atom was that mass of atom isconsidered to be evenly spread over the
[Link] model of atom is also called as Plum pudding, raisin pudding
orwatermelon model Thomson model of atom was iscarded because it could not
explain certainexperimental results like the scattering of α- particles by thin metal
foils.
Observations from α- particles scattering experiment by Rutherford:
a. Most of the α- particles passed through gold foil un deflected
b. A small fraction of α- particles got deflected through small angles
c. Very few α- particles did not pass through foil but suffered large deflection
nearly180o
Conclusions Rutherford drew from α- particles scattering experiment:
a. Since most of the α-particles passed through foil undeflected, it means most of
the space in atom is empty
b. Since some of the α-particles are deflected to certain angles, it means that
there is positively mass present in atom
c. Since only some of the α-particles suffered large deflections, the positively
charged mass must be occupying very small space
d. Strong deflections or even bouncing back of α-particles from metal foil were
due to direct collision with positively charged mass in atom
Rutherford’s model of atom :
This model explained that atom consists ofnucleus which is concentrated in a
very small volume. The nucleus comprisesof protons and neutrons. The electrons
revolve around the nucleus in fixedorbits. Electrons and nucleus are held together
by electrostatic forces ofattraction.
Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom :
a. According to Rutherford’s model of atom, electrons which are negatively
charged particles revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. Thus,
b. theelectrons undergo acceleration. According to electromagnetic theory of
Maxwell, a charged particle undergoing acceleration should emitelectromagnetic
radiation. Thus, an electron in an orbit should emitradiation. Thus, the orbit
should shrink. But this does not happen.c. The model does not give any
information about how electrons aredistributed around nucleus and what are
energies of these electrons
Isotopes: These are the atoms of the same element having the same
atomicnumber but different mass number.e g 1H1,1H2,1H3
Isobars: Isobars are the atoms of different elements having the same
massnumber but different atomic number.e g 18Ar40 , 20Ca40
Isoelectronic species: These are those species which have the same numberof
electrons.
Electromagnetic radiations:
The radiations which are associated withelectrical and magnetic fields are called
electromagnetic radiations. When anelectrically charged particle moves under
acceleration, alternating electricaland magnetic fields are produced and
transmitted. These fields aretransmitted in the form of waves. These waves are
called electromagneticwaves or electromagnetic radiations.
Properties of electromagnetic radiations:
a. Oscillating electric and magnetic field are produced by oscillating charged
particles. These fields are perpendicular to each other and both areperpendicular
to the direction of propagation of the wave.
b. They do not need a medium to travel. That means they can even travel
invacuum.
Characteristics of electromagnetic radiations:
a. Wavelength: It may be defined as the distance between two neighbouring
crests or troughs of wave as shown. It is denoted by λ.
b. Frequency (ν): It may be defined as the number of waves which passthrough a
particular point in one second.
c. Velocity (v): It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave in onesecond. In
vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations travel with thesame velocity. Its
value is 3 ×10 8m sec-1. It is denoted by v
d. Wave number: Wave number is defined as the number of wavelengths per
unit length.
Velocity = frequency ×wavelength c = νλ
Planck's Quantum Theory-
o The radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously
in the form of small discrete packets of energy called ‘quantum’. In case of light ,
the quantum of energy is called a ‘photon’
o The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency of the
radiation, i.e. E α υ or E= hυ where h= Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-27 Js
o Energy is always emitted or absorbed as integral multiple of this uantum. E=nhυ
Where n=1,2,3,4,.....
Black body: An ideal body, which emits and absorbs all frequencies, is calleda
black body. The radiation emitted by such a body is called black body radiation.
Photoelectric effect:
The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from thesurface of metal when light of
suitable frequency strikes it is calledphotoelectric effect. The ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons.
Experimental results observed for the experiment of Photoelectric effect-
o When beam of light falls on a metal surface electrons are ejectedimmediately.
o Number of electrons ejected is proportional to intensity or brightness of light
o Threshold frequency (vo): For each metal there is a characteristicminimum
frequency below which photoelectric effect is not observed. Thisis called
threshold frequency.
o If frequency of light is less than the threshold frequency there is noejection of
electrons no matter how long it falls on surface or how high isits intensity.
Photoelectric work function (Wo): The minimum energy required to
ejectelectrons is called photoelectric work [Link]= hvo
Energy of the ejected electrons :
Dual behavior of electromagnetic radiation
The light possesses both particle and wave like properties, i.e., light has dual
behavior . whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like
properties.(Black body radiation and photoelectric effect) Wave like properties are
exhibited when it propagates(interference an diffraction)
Spectrm :-
When a white light is passed through a prism, it splits into a series ofcoloured
bands known as spectrum.
Spectrum is of two types:
(a) Continuous and line spectrum The spectrum which consists of all the
wavelengths is called continuous
spectrum.
(b) line spectrum A spectrum in which only specific wavelengths are present is
known as a line spectrum. It has bright lines with dark spaces between them.
Electromagnetic spectrum is a continuous spectrum. It consists of a range
ofelectromagnetic radiations arranged in the order of increasing wavelengths
ordecreasing frequencies. It extends from radio waves to gamma rays.
Spectrum is also classified as emission and line spectrum.
o Emission spectrum: The spectrum of radiationemitted by a substance that has
absorbed energy is called an emissionspectrum.
o Absorption spectrum is the spectrum obtained when radiation is
passedthrough a sample of material. The sample absorbs radiation of
certainwavelengths. The wavelengths which are absorbed are missing and
comeas dark lines.
The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred as spectroscopy.
Spectral Lines for atomic hydrogen:
Rydberg equation
R = Rydberg’s constant = 109677 cm-1
Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom:
a. An electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular
path of fixed radius and energy. These paths are called orbits orenergy levels.
These orbits are arranged concentrically around thenucleus
b. As long as an electron remains in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain
energy and its energy remains constant.
c. When transition occurs between two stationary states that differ inenergy, the
frequency of the radiation absorbed or emitted can be calculated
d. An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angularmomentum is
an integral multiple of h/2π
The radius of the nth orbit is given byrn =52.9 pm xn2/Z
energy of electron in nth orbit is :
Limitations of Bohr’s model of atom:
a. Bohr’s model failed to account for the finer details of the hydrogen spectrum.
b. Bohr’s model was also unable to explain spectrum of atoms containing more
than one electron.