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Chapter
Introductory Chapter: Quantum
Entanglement at High
Energies – Experiment, Theory,
and Interdisciplinarity
Oliver K. Baker
1. Introduction
One of the most recent publications that includes descriptions of quantum
entanglement in the context of quantum mechanics is found in the textbook [1].
The book contains passages that describe the development of quantum mechanics,
in general, and quantum entanglement. The authors of [1] point out that the divergence
of opinions about the theory is trying to inform us about our possible lack of under-
standing of the nature of reality and that physicists’ attention is turned to the frenetic
development of different technologies that make use of an understanding of the ques-
tion, “ … what is the interpretation of quantum mechanics?” which in this author’s
opinion can be expanded to the inquiry “ … why are there so many interpretations of
quantum entanglement, especially in high energy physics?”
More specifically, proposed interpretations appear to be more concerned with the
original form of the theory, seemingly ignoring it’s most advanced form. The purpose
of the interpretations in [1] is to encourage taking a step back and then attempting to
retrace the development of the theory by investigating original sources for the original
published papers and letters of the participants.
In a publication on the subject of physical reality, correctness, and completeness [2],
questions are asked by the authors and explained concerning physical reality being
considered complete when using a quantum mechanical description of that physical
reality. As pointed out in that publication, the first question to ask is if the theoretical
completion is correct and complete, that is, in this particular case, do the quantum
mechanical results line up correctly with the experimental results (the data) that are
acquired and measured, and to what degree is there agreement?
The second question asked by the authors is whether the theoretical description is
complete in explaining the theory, again the quantum mechanical description in this
particular case. The second question was given the priority in [2], that each element of
the physical reality acquired and measured experimentally must have a match, a
companion in the theoretical completion.
This is especially true and important when questions, especially the second ques-
tion concerning high energy research results, are at the measurement frontier: (i) The
Energy Frontier that makes use of the world’s largest high energy facility which is in
1
Quantum Entanglement in High Energy Physics
Geneva, Switzerland, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN [3]; (ii) The Preci-
sion Frontier of High Energy Physics where the facilities at Fermi National Accelerator
Laboratory (FNAL) in Evanston, Illinois, near Chicago, comprise its epicenter; and
(iii) The Cosmic Frontier where space-based and ground-based sensors and detectors,
along with their data acquisition systems, are being constructed and tested currently,
in several countries worldwide.
2. Quantum entanglement, Higgs bosons, and physical reality
An example of this importance can be understood in the experimental discovery of
the theoretically proposed, and now confirmed, Higgs boson. Evidence of this parti-
cle’s observation was made by both the ATLAS [4] and CMS [5] experimental
collaborations at CERN’s LHC in 2012. The Nobel Prize for the discovery of this, the
first and only Standard Model fundamental boson with zero intrinsic spin angular
momentum, was awarded in 2013 for theory contributions that showed how
fundamental Standard Model particles acquire mass from the Higgs boson. The Higgs
boson’s existence (via Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking in the early universe) was
considered by many theorists to be the most likely of several other, different,
proposals.
Figure 1 shows the Feynman Diagram of a Higgs boson decay to two vector bosons
(Z-bosons) and the vector boson decays to leptons in the “Golden Channel” (fewer
background events) H ! Z0 Z0 ∗ ! 4leptons. The Z 0 particle shown in the figure is
one of those vector bosons that have a mass of 91.19 GeV/c2 at the middle of its
resonance peak in the data’s spectrum, corresponding to the listing in the Particle Data
Group booklet, while the Z 0 ∗ particle shown is the vector boson that has a mass
smaller than the Particle Data Group booklet value. The latter boson that has a mass of
between 15 GeV/c2 and 60 GeV/c2 is given the label “off-mass-shell” Z0 ∗ -boson,
while the former bosons are simply Z0 -boson, which is “on-mass-shell”. The [g]
particle lettering in Figure 1 corresponds to two gluons that collide and couple to form
particles as shown by the lines that are in the shape of a triangle in the figure, so this is
a gluon-gluon fusion collision process. Gluons mediate the strong interaction in high
energy physics. The Higgs boson couples to mass, so the closed triangle in Figure 1
represents what are mainly the most massive particles of the Standard Model of
Particle Physics - top plus anti-top quarks for example. Since the vector bosons shown
here are neutral, they each decay into two same flavor, opposite-charge leptons, as
shown in this particular type of decay. An electron-positron pair and a positively
charged muon along with a negatively charged muon make up the four leptons.
Figure 1.
Higgs boson decay Feynman diagram: H ! Z0 Z0 ∗ ! 4leptons the symbols shown here are defined and
explained in the main text.
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Introductory Chapter: Quantum Entanglement at High Energies – Experiment, Theory…
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Discovery of the Higgs via this process required the coincident measurement of each
of these four leptons’ position and energy, or momentum, relative to the decayed
vector boson linear momentum direction prior to its decay. This Figure 1 process
occurs about one out of every 10n th proton-proton collisions, where n≈10 for a 7 TeV
proton-proton collision energy, while n is smaller for higher proton-proton collision
energies.
The Introduction section of this Introductory Chapter makes use of the Higgs
boson production and decay [6] discussion in order to help clarify, in an overview,
both quantum entanglement in High Energy Physics as well as the process that leads
to the chosen final result. It is based upon research measurements and analysis,
followed in order, to correctly search for signals of quantum entanglement, entangle-
ment entropy, Bell’s Inequality studies, and quantum computing at collider energies in
both particle and nuclear physics. The Higgs decay process discussed and shown
above is one of the two decay channel processes that existed in the Higgs boson
discovery. The quantum entanglement overview analysis discussed in this chapter
makes use of both theoretical and experimental descriptions.
When two or more particles (qubits) are produced and interact with each other so
that the final quantum state under analysis will have contributions from both (in a
bipartite (qubit A, qubit B) system) or the group (in the system of multiple qubits) of
particles, they are both (bipartite) or all (multipartite) entangled with each other.
Every particle involved must be described by a quantum state that depends upon
the quantum state of the other particle, or particles, involved in the bipartite or
multipartite system, respectively. And, there is no dependence on the distance
between the states.
The quantum entanglement definition is shown in Figure 2. When there is quan-
tum entanglement, there is a sum of terms used in describing the quantum state. It is
labeled as superposition in this context.
New discoveries in high energy nuclear and particle physics can give rise to new
phenomena that require new interpretations of, or additions to, quantum entangle-
ment [7–9], that is, further experimental and theoretical research may need to be
carried out and completed prior to complete physical reality success in discoveries at
the energy frontier in order to make fully proper statements about quantum
Figure 2.
Quantum entanglement definition. See details in main text.
3
Quantum Entanglement in High Energy Physics
entanglement in those cases. Quantum entanglement, while shown to exist experi-
mentally and theoretically in quantum mechanics, is so far not observed in classical
mechanics.
In production and then decay of the Higgs boson, further measurements and
analyses, along with theoretical research, have been carried out [10–15] for CP-
violation and further measurements, respectively, as a few examples even after the
Higgs boson discovery, in order for them to be considered correct and complete when
using a quantum mechanical description, as indicated in the Introduction section of
this Introductory chapter.
Experimental searches are currently underway for evidence of quantum entangle-
ment, entropy of entanglement, and Bell’s Inequality violation signatures using Higgs
bosons’ decays to vector bosons, in the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s Large
Hadron Collider [16]. Additionally, theory calculations and data analyses are being
studied in collaboration with the experimentalists [17–21]. In both cases, Monte Carlo-
simulated events are used for analysis at this stage of ongoing research.
3. Conclusions
As underscored in the Introduction of this Introductory chapter [2], each element
of physical reality acquired and measured experimentally must have a match, a com-
panion in theoretical completion, that is, both must be correct and complete. And, the
elements of each physical reality and theoretical completion sets must match.
We may gain in understanding by reinforcing very similar statements from
another giant in science [22] whose quote “The proper method for inquiring after the
properties of things is to deduce them from experiments” points to the importance of
proper physics experiments at high energies. In addition, a follow-up quote from the
same scientist [22], “It is the weight, not numbers of experiments that is to be
regarded,” emphasizes that there is essentialness and significance in follow-up exper-
iments to a major discovery such as the Standard Model Higgs boson [4, 5, 10–15] as
described in the previous section of this Introductory Chapter. Significance is impor-
tant since it is, in this particular case, the Higgs boson observation along with its
production and decay to vector bosons that is used in quantum entanglement mea-
surement significance at these high energies. And finally, the quote [22] “If the
experiments I urge be defective, it cannot be difficult to show the defects; but if valid,
then by proving the theory, they must render all objections invalid” points to the
essence of correct and complete theoretical research (again, in this case, involving
the Higgs boson and its decays to vector bosons) for successful measurement and
reliability.
The concept, as well as the interdisciplinarity, of quantum entanglement has
grown, especially in Condensed Matter Physics, Atomic, Molecular, and Optical
Physics (the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Alain Aspect, John Clauser, and
Anton Zeilinger in 2022 for research results that tested the purity of quantum
mechanics as we know it and use it by detecting evidence for Bell’s Inequality violation
[23]), quantum communications [24], and most recently, more, new quantum entan-
glement applications and results in nuclear and particle physics as highlighted in the
preceding section (Section 2) of this Introductory Chapter and referenced in [7–9].
It will be interesting to compare the current research topics, their methods, means,
and results, listed in this book with those that will show themselves in the next several
generations!
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Introductory Chapter: Quantum Entanglement at High Energies – Experiment, Theory…
DOI: [Link]
Acknowledgements
The author (OKB) gratefully acknowledges helpful scientific discussions with Pro-
fessor Steven Lamoreaux for our collaboration in completing this Introductory Chap-
ter of the current book. And sincere thanks to Yale University for providing financial
support.
Conflict of interest
The author has no conflict of interest.
Author details
Oliver K. Baker
Wright Laboratory, Department of Physics, Yale University, USA
*Address all correspondence to: [Link]@[Link]
© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link]
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
5
Quantum Entanglement in High Energy Physics
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