Herbal Monograph

Rhizoma Zingiberis

Definition:

Rhizoma Zingiberis is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)

Synonyms:

Amomum zingiber L., Zingiber blancoi Massk

Selected Vernacular Names:

• Ada
• Adrak
• African ginger
• Common ginger

Description:

A perennial herb with a subterranean, digitately branched rhizome producing stems up to 1.50
m in height with linear lanceolate sheathing leaves (5–30 cm long and 8–20 mm wide) that are
alternate, smooth, and pale green. Flower stems shorter than leaf stems and bearing a few
flowers, each surrounded by a thin bract and situated in axils of large, greenish yellow obtuse
bracts, which are closely arranged at end of flower stem forming collectively an ovate-oblong
spike. Each flower shows a superior tubular calyx, split part way down one side; an orange
yellow corolla composed of a tube divided above into three linearoblong, blunt lobes; six
staminodes in two rows, the outer row of three inserted at mouth of corolla; the posterior two,
small, horn-like; the anterior petaloid, purple and
spotted and divided into three rounded lobes; an
inferior, 3-celled ovary with tufted stigma. Fruit a
capsule with small arillate seeds.

Plant Material of Interest:

Dried rhizome

General Appearance:

Ginger occurs in horizontal, laterally flattened,

irregularly branching pieces; 3–16 cm long, 3–4 cm
wide, up to 2 cm thick; sometimes split
longitudinally; pale yellowish buff or light brown
externally, longitudinally striated, somewhat fibrous;
branches known as ‘fingers’ arise obliquely from the rhizomes, are flattish, obovate, short,
about 1–3 cm long; fracture, short, and starchy with projecting fibers. Internally, yellowish
brown, showing a yellow endodermis separating the narrow cortex from the wide stele, and
numerous scattered fibrovascular bundles, abundant scattered oleoresin cells with yellow
contents and numerous larger grayish points, vascular bundles, scattered on the whole surface.

Organoleptic Properties:

Odor, characteristic aromatic; taste, pungent, and aromatic; color, internally pale yellow to
brown

Microscopic Characteristics:

Cortex of isodiametric, thin-walled parenchyma cells contains abundant starch granules, each
with a pointed hilum up to 50 μm long and 25 μm wide and 7 μm thick, and showing scattered
secretion cells with suberized walls and yellowish brown oleoresinous content, and scattered
bundles of the leaf-traces accompanied by fibers; endodermis, of pale brown, thin-walled cells
with suberized radial walls; stele, with parenchymatous ground tissue, numerous yellow
oleoresin secretion cells and numerous scattered, closed collateral vascular bundles with non-
lignified, reticulate, scalariform, and spiral vessels, often accompanied by narrow cells;
containing a dark brown pigment, and supported by thin-walled fibers with wide lumen, small
oblique slit-like pits, and lignified middle lamella; some of the fibers are septate.
Powdered Plant Material:

Powdered ginger is yellowish white to yellowish brown; characterized by numerous fragments

of thin-walled parenchyma cells containing starch granules; fragments of thin-walled septate
fibers with oblique slit-like pits; fragments of non-lignified scalariform, reticulate, and spiral
vessels, often accompanied by dark pigment cells; oleoresin in fragments or droplets with oil
cells and resin cells scattered in parenchyma; numerous starch granules, simple, flat, oval,
oblong with terminal protuberance, in which the hilum is pointed, 5–60 μm usually 15–30 μm
long, 5–40 μm (usually 18–25 μm) wide, 6–12 μm (usually 8–10 μm) thick with somewhat
marked fine transverse striations.

Geographical Distribution:
The plant is probably native to Southeast Asia and is cultivated in the tropical regions in both
the eastern and western hemispheres. It is commercially grown in Africa, China, India, and
Jamaica; India is the world’s largest producer.

General Identity Tests:

Rhizoma Zingiberis is identified by its macroscopic and organoleptic characteristics, including

its characteristic form, color, pungent taste, and volatile oil content and by microchemical tests.

Purity Tests:

• Microbiology: The test for Salmonella spp. in Rhizoma Zingiberis products should be
negative. The maximum acceptable limits of other microorganisms are as follows:
o For the preparation of decoction: aerobic bacteria, not more than 107/g; fungi,
not more than 105/g; Escherichia coli, not more than 102/g
o Preparations for internal use: aerobic bacteria, not more than 105/g or ml; fungi,
not more than 104/g or ml; enterobacteria and certain Gram-negative bacteria,
not more than 103/g or ml; Escherichia coli, 0/g or ml
• Foreign organic matter: Not more than 2.0% (1). Powdered ginger is frequently
adulterated with exhausted ginger
• Total ash: Not more than 6.0%
o Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 2.0%
o Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 10%
o Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 4.5%
• Pesticide residues: To be established in accordance with national requirements.
Normally, the maximum residue limit of aldrin and dieldrin in Rhizoma Zingiberis is
not more than 0.05 mg/kg. For other pesticides, see WHO guidelines on quality control
methods for medicinal plants and guidelines for predicting dietary intake of pesticide
residue.
• Heavy metals: Recommended lead and cadmium levels are not more than 10 and 0.3
mg/kg, respectively, in the final dosage form of the plant material.
• Radioactive residues: For analysis of strontium-90, iodine-131, cesium-134, cesium-
137, and plutonium-239, see WHO guidelines on quality control methods for medicinal
plants.
 • Other purity tests: Chemical and moisture tests to be established in accordance with
national requirements.

Chemical Assays:

Contains not less than 2% v/w of volatile oil, as determined by the method described in WHO
guidelines. Qualitative analysis by thin-layer chromatography; qualitative and quantitative gas
chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography analyses of ginger oils for
gingerols, shogaols, a-zingiberene, b-bisabolene, b-sesquiphellandrene, and ar-curcumene.

Major Chemical Constituents:

The rhizome contains 1–4% essential oil and an oleoresin. The composition of the essential oil
varies as a function of geographical origin, but the chief constituent sesquiterpene
hydrocarbons (responsible for the aroma) seem to remain constant. These compounds include
(−)-zingiberene, (+)-arcurcumene, (−)-b-sesquiphellandrene, and b-bisabolene. Monoterpene
aldehydes and alcohols are also present. The constituents responsible for the pungent taste of
the drug and possibly part of its antiemetic properties have been identified as 1-(3′-methoxy-
4′-hydroxyphenyl)-5-hydroxyalkan-3-ones, known as [3–6]-, [8]-, [10]-,and [12]-gingerols
(having a side chain with 7–10, 12, 14, or 16 carbon atoms, respectively) and their
corresponding dehydration products, which are known as shogaols (1, 4, 6, 14, 19).
Representative structures of zingiberene, gingerols, and shogaols are presented below.

Dosage Forms:
Dried root powder, extract, tablets, and tincture. Powdered ginger should be stored in well-
closed containers (not plastic) which prevent access of moisture. Store protected from light in
a cool, dry place.

Medicinal Uses:

• Uses supported by clinical data: The prophylaxis of nausea and vomiting associated
with motion sickness, postoperative nausea, pernicious vomiting in pregnancy, and
seasickness.
• Uses described in pharmacopoeias and in traditional systems of medicine: The
treatment of dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, vomiting, diarrhea, spasms, and other stomach
complaints. Powdered ginger is further employed in the treatment of colds and flu, to
stimulate the appetite, as a narcotic antagonist and as an anti-inflammatory agent in the
treatment of migraine headache and rheumatic and muscular disorders.
• Uses described in folk medicine, not supported by experimental or clinical data:
To treat cataracts, toothache, insomnia, baldness, and hemorrhoids and to increase
longevity.

Pharmacology:

Experimental pharmacology

• Cholagogic activity: Intraduodenal administration of an acetone extract (mainly

essential oils) of ginger root to rats increased bile secretion for 3 h after dosing, while
the aqueous extract was not active. The active constituents of the essential oil were
identified as [6]- and [10]-gingerol. Oral administration of an acetone extract of ginger
(75 mg/kg), [6]-shogaol (2.5 mg/kg), or [6]-, [8]-, or [10]-gingerol enhanced
gastrointestinal motility in mice (30), and the activity was comparable to or slightly
weaker than that of metoclopramide (10 mg/kg) and domperidone. The [6]-, [8]-, or
[10]-gingerols are reported to have antiserotoninergic activity, and it has been suggested
that the effects of ginger on gastrointestinal motility may be due to this activity. The
mode of administration appears to play a critical role in studies on gastrointestinal
motility. For example, both [6]-gingerol and [6]-shogaol inhibited intestinal motility
when administered intravenously but accentuated gastrointestinal motility after oral
administration.
 • Antiemetic activity: The emetic action of the peripherally acting agent copper sulfate
was inhibited in dogs given an intragastric dose of ginger extract, but emesis in pigeons
treated with centrally acting emetics such as apomorphine and digitalis could not be
inhibited by a ginger extract. These results suggest that ginger’s antiemetic activity is
peripheral and does not involve the central nervous system. The antiemetic action of
ginger has been attributed to the combined action of zingerones and shogaols.
• Anti-inflammatory activity: One of the mechanisms of inflammation is increased
oxygenation of arachidonic acid, which is metabolized by cyclooxygenase and 5-
lipoxygenase, leading to prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene B4, two potent mediators of
inflammation (28). In vitro studies have demonstrated that a hot-water extract of ginger
inhibited the activities of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase in the arachidonic acid
cascade; thus, its anti-inflammatory effects may be due to a decrease in the formation
of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The drug was also a potent inhibitor of thromboxane
synthase and raised prostacyclin levels without a concomitant rise in prostaglandins E2
or F2a. In vivo studies have shown that oral administration of ginger extracts decreased
rat paw edema. The potency of the extracts was comparable to that of acetylsalicylic
acid. [6]-Shogaol inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats by inhibiting
cyclooxygenase activity. Recently, two labdane-type diterpene dialdehydes isolated
from ginger extracts have been shown to be inhibitors of human 5-lipoxygenase in vitro.

Clinical Pharmacology

• Antinausea and antiemetic activities: Clinical studies have demonstrated that oral
administration of powdered ginger root (940 mg) was more effective than
dimenhydrinate (100 mg) in preventing the gastrointestinal symptoms of kinetosis
(motion sickness). The results of this study further suggested that ginger did not act
centrally on the vomiting center, but had a direct effect on the gastrointestinal tract
through its aromatic, carminative, and absorbent properties, by increasing gastric
motility and adsorption of toxins and acids.
• In clinical double-blind randomized studies, the effect of powdered ginger root was
tested as a prophylactic treatment for seasickness. The results of one study
demonstrated that orally administered ginger was statistically better than a placebo in
decreasing the incidence of vomiting and cold sweating 4 h after ingestion (27). The
other investigation compared the effects of seven over-the-counter and prescription
 antiemetic drugs on prevention of seasickness in 1489 subjects. This study concluded
that ginger was as effective as the other antiemetic drugs tested.
• At least eight clinical studies have assessed the effects of ginger root on the symptoms
of motion sickness. Four of these investigations showed that orally administered ginger
root was effective for prophylactic therapy of nausea and vomiting. The other three
studies showed that ginger was no more effective than a placebo in treating motion
sickness. The conflicting results appear to be a function of the focus of these studies.
Clinical studies that focused on the gastrointestinal reactions involved in motion
sickness recorded better responses than those studies that concentrated primarily on
responses involving the central nervous system.
• The hypothesis that an increase in gastric emptying may be involved in the antiemetic
effects of ginger has recently come under scrutiny. Two clinical studies demonstrated
that oral doses of ginger did not affect the gastric emptying rate, as measured by
sequential gastric scintigraphy or the paracetamol absorption technique.
• In a double-blind, randomized, cross-over trial, oral administration of powdered ginger
(250 mg, 4 times daily) effectively treated pernicious vomiting in pregnancy. Both the
degree of nausea and the number of vomiting attacks were significantly reduced.
Furthermore, in a prospective, randomized, double-blind study, there were statistically
significantly fewer cases of postoperative nausea and vomiting in 60 patients receiving
ginger compared to a placebo. The effect of ginger on postoperative nausea and
vomiting was reported to be as good as or better than that of metoclopramid. In contrast,
another double-blind randomized study concluded that orally administered ginger BP
(prepared according to the British pharmacopoeia) was ineffective in reducing the
incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.
• Anti-inflammatory activity: One study in China reported that 113 patients with
rheumatic pain and chronic lower back pain, injected with a 5–10% ginger extract into
the painful points or reaction nodules, experienced full or partial relief of pain, decrease
in joint swelling, and improvement or recovery in joint function. Oral administration of
powdered ginger to patients with rheumatism and musculoskeletal disorders has been
reported to provide varying degrees of relief from pain and swelling.

Contraindications:

No information available.
Warnings:

No information available.

Precautions:

• General: Patients taking anticoagulant drugs or those with blood coagulation disorders
should consult their physician prior to self-medication with ginger. Patients with
gallstones should consult their physician before using ginger preparations.
• Drug interactions: Ginger may affect bleeding times and immunological parameters
owing to its ability to inhibit thromboxane synthase and to act as a prostacyclin agonist.
However, a randomized, double-blind study of the effects of dried ginger (2 g daily,
orally for 14 days) on platelet function showed no differences in bleeding times in
patients receiving ginger or a placebo. Large doses (12–14 g) of ginger may enhance
the hypothrombinemic effects of anticoagulant therapy, but the clinical significance has
yet to be evaluated. Carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, impairment of fertility: The
mutagenicity of ginger extracts is a controversial subject. A hot-water extract of ginger
was reported to be mutagenic in B291I cells and Salmonella typhimurium strain TA
100, but not in strain TA 98. A number of constituents of fresh ginger have been
identified as mutagens. Both [6]-gingerol and shogaols have been determined to be
mutagenic in a Salmonella/microsome assay, and increased mutagenesis was observed
in an Hs30 strain of Escherichia coli treated with [6]-gingerol. However, the
mutagenicity of [6]-gingerol and shogaols was suppressed in the presence of various
concentrations of zingerone, an antimutagenic constituent of ginger. Furthermore,
ginger juice was reported to be antimutagenic and suppressed the spontaneous
mutations induced by [6]-gingerol, except in cases where the mutagenic chemicals 2-
(2-furyl)-3-(5-nitro-2-furyl)acryl amide and N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine
were added to [6]-gingerol. Other investigators have also reported that ginger juice is
antimutagenic.
• Pregnancy: teratogenic effects: In a double-blind randomized cross-over clinical trial,
ginger (250 mg by mouth, 4 times daily) effectively treated pernicious vomiting in
pregnancy. No teratogenic aberrations were observed in infants born during this study,
and all newborn babies had Apgar scores of 9 or 10 after 5 min.
• Pediatric Use: Not recommended for children less than 6 years of age.
 • Other Precautions: No information available concerning drug and laboratory test
interactions, or non-teratogenic effects on pregnancy or nursing mothers.

Adverse Reactions:

Contact dermatitis of the fingertips has been reported in sensitive patients.

Posology:

For motion sickness in adults and children more than 6 years: 0.5 g, 2–4 times daily. Dyspepsia,
2–4 g daily, as powdered plant material or extracts.

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