REPRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In form 1, reproduction was introduced as the life process by which all organisms give rise
offspring of the same kind. Reproduction may be asexual, if it involves a single parent or
sexual when two parents participate in forming offspring.
In this chapter you will appreciate how new independent plants develop asexually from
plants to form clones (genetically identical offspring).
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This is a type of reproduction, which does not involve fusion of gametes, and therefore
only one individual is involved.
Asexual reproduction in plants comprises of natural vegetative reproduction and artificial
vegetative reproduction.
Question;
Brainstorm and write at least 8 examples of plants that don’t require seeds to grow into new
plants.
NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Natural vegetative propagation is any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in
which a plant self-propagates to form new plants. It occurs by means of creeping stems,
underground stems and shoots, adventitious buds, bulbils, roots and stem tubers.
Forms of natural vegetative reproduction.
1. Rhizome.
Rhizomes are modified stems that grow underground. They usually grow horizontally
from the parent stock to form new plant. The underground part consist of a stem swollen
with stored food, buds, scale leaves, nodes, internodes and adventitious roots
Examples of plants that can be grown from rhizomes include; ginger, turmeric, lotus,
cannalily etc.
2. Bulb.
Bulbs are short underground stems that store food. They are made up of enclosed fleshy
layered leaves. Bulbs produce smaller lateral buds that appear between layers of the
parent plant bulb, these can be separated from the parent bulb and planted to develop into
new plants.
Examples of plants that can be grown from bulbs include; onions, garlic, etc.
3. Stolon.
This is a stem that grows creeping along the ground surface or underground, developing
adventitious roots at the nodes along its length to form new plants.
 Examples of plants that be grown from a stolon include; couch grass, spear grass,
Colocasia.
4. Runner.
This grows on the surface, develops adventitious roots, internodes and lateral buds. The
runner continues to grow new stems and keeps running. When you cut off and plant
runner stems with buds on them, they will grow to become mature plants.
Example of plants that can be grown from runners include; strawberries, spider grass,
commelina
5. Corms.
Corms are swollen underground storage stems growing vertically, with dry scale leaves,
adventitious roots, buds, nodes and internodes. Example of corms include; yams.
6. Suckers.
Some plants reproduce from suckers, which sprout from the plants’ stem. These suckers
create new plants that emerge from the ground alongside the parent plant.
Examples of plants that can be grown from suckers include banana, pineapple etc.

Features of plants that enable them to reproduce by natural vegetative means

✓ Presence of nodes where new roots develop to form new plants
✓ Presence of auxiliary buds that grow into a lateral shoot and develop its own roots
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
This is the type of plant reproduction which involves human intervention to propagate
plants from parts of old plant, such as leaves, roots and stems
Methods of artificial vegetative propagation in Uganda
• Cutting
• Layering
• Suckering
• Grafting
• Tissue culture
• Budding

Layering propagation method

Layering occurs when the stem of a parent plant is bent to touch the ground and allow
them to develop roots while still attached to the parent plant. The rooted part is then cut
from the parent plant to grow as a separate self-supporting new plant.
Examples of plants propagated by simple layering include; climbing roses.
Grafting propagation method
Grafting is a technique used to join parts from two plants so that they appear to grow as a
single plant. In grafting the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (root
stock) of another plant but of the same species.
Note; The scion and stock should be of different varieties but of the same species.

Use of cuttings
A cutting is a stem or root part from a parent plant, buried in the soil. It should have at
least one leaf node. The cutting is able to produce new roots and shoot, usually at the
node thereby forming a whole new plant.

Artificial Budding
In the process of budding, a bud develops as an out growth due to repeated cell division
at one specific site of one plant. The bud of the plant to be propagated is grafted on to the
stem of another plant in suitable conditions where it continues to develop.

Plant Tissue culture

It is the collection of techniques used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs
under sterile conditions on nutrient culture medium of known composition. It is widely
used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micro propagation.
How vegetative propagation has enabled successful growth of crops on a large scale.
➢ Plant grows faster when vegetative plant parts are used to develop new plants of the same
kind
➢ Most of the vegetative parts to be planted can easily be obtained from the grown plants
any time
Impact of plants grown by vegetative propagation on livelihood of the people
▪ Provision of employment opportunities to the people working on the farms
▪ Provision of market to those in agro- based industries such as in the fertilizers, pesticide
and insecticide industries.
▪ Generate income for households by selling produce, thus improving quality of life.
▪ Solved issue of food insecurity in Uganda by enabling the growth of plants on a large
scale
Project work
Growing plants by artificial vegetative propagation.
In groups of 5 students;
1) Use the allocated area in the school garden to grow any of the following plants;
sugar canes, pineapples, tomatoes or mango trees.
2) Propagate one of the 4 plants following one of the principles of vegetative
propagation for not more than eight months.
3) Make reports which include;
a) Description of how each method of vegetative method was used
b) Skills acquired
c) Reasons for success or failure of application of the principle of the
vegetative propagation used.
Advantages of vegetative propagation
✓ New plants resemble the parent plant and any good quality in the parent is retained
✓ The growth of the new plant is rapid
✓ Large areas of plantations can be covered by use of plant parts in a relatively short time
✓ It does not involve processes like pollination, fertilization or dispersal agents are not
required
✓ Some vegetative parts store plenty of food which the new plant uses
Disadvantages of vegetative propagation
• If the parent plant has poor characteristics, they can be maintained by the offspring
planted
• Shortage of water and mineral salts is likely to occur due to competition.
• Diseases of the parent plant can be transmitted to the young plants
• It leads to overcrowding of the same plant in the area

CHAPTER 2

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

INTRODUCTION
In this chapter you will learn about where and how sexual reproduction occurs in
flowering plants. Sexual reproduction requires two parents, whereby each of produces
reproductive cells called gametes. These are produced by a type of cell division called
meiosis, so they are haploid that is they contain only half the number of chromosomes
found in the other cells of the organism. During fertilization, the gametes unite (fuse) to
form a zygote. The zygote starts as a diploid cell, then grows and develops.

Flower structure
Sexual reproduction in plants occurs in special organs called flowers. Flowers exist in
different shapes, sizes and colours. Sexual reproduction in plants involves processes of
pollination, fertilization, and seed and fruit development.
Structure of a dicot flower
 Structure of a monocot flower

Functions of parts of a flower

1. Sepals. Protect the unopened flower while in its bud stage
2. Palea. Protect the unopened flower while in its bud stage
3. Lemma. Protect the unopened flower while in its bud stage
4. Petals. They are brightly coloured to attract insects for pollination
5. Stamen. The male parts of the flower.
6. Anthers. Produce male sex cells (pollen grains)
7. Filament. Holds the anther heads
8. Stigma. Its where pollen grains are deposited
9. Ovary. Produce female sex cells. These cells are contained in ovules
10. Receptacle. Elongated structure that holds the flower on to the stem

Comparison of pollen grains on dicot and monocot flower.

Pollen grains on dicot Pollen grains on monocot
Are few Are many
Are large Are light
Are sticky Not sticky

POLLINATION
Pollination. Is the transfer of pollen grains from mature anthers to mature stigma of the
same flower species. It may occur within the same flower or different flowers on the
same plant or between flowers on separate plants of the same species.
Pollination enables fertilization and production of seeds. Pollination is most often by
insects, animals or by wind.

Types of pollination
• Self-pollination
• Cross pollination
Self-pollination.
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower
or
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on the
same plant.
Cross pollination
Cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of
another flower on a different plant of the same species.
Arrangements that promote self-fertilization (arrangements preventing cross pollination)
i) Maturation of both male and female parts of the flower at the same time.
ii) Flowers borne underground.
iii) Flowers being bi-sexual.
iv) Flowers remaining closed.
v) Anthers being higher than stigma
Arrangements that promote cross pollination (arrangements preventing self-pollination)
i) Possession of unisexual flowers such that both sexes appear on different plants
(dioecious). E.g., in pawpaw
ii) Self-sterility in monoecious plants like maize.
iii) Dichogamy, a condition in which the stamens and pistils do not ripen at the same
time. This results in failure of self-fertilization. If the stamens ripen before the
pistil the condition is referred to as protandry while if the pistil ripens before the
stamens, it is called protogyny.
iv) Stigmas being higher than anthers.
Agents of pollination
As the pollen grains are not capable of their own locomotion, pollination involves some agents
that help in the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigma.
This process is most often done by pollinating agents such as insects, birds, water, and wind and
even plant themselves, when self-pollination occurs within a closed flower.
Flower adaptation to pollination
Parts involved in pollination and how each part suits its function
1. Petals. Their function is to attract pollinators. They are suited to attract pollinators in the
following ways
• Some petals are scented to attract night feeding pollinators like moths
• Some are brightly coloured to attract pollinators
• Some petals are large (conspicuous) to allow insect pollinators to settle on them
 2. Anther heads. Their function is to produce pollen grains. They are adapted in the
following ways
• They are large to increase surface area for production of many pollen grains
3. Stigma. Its function is to receive pollen grains. Its adapted in the following ways
• They are broad to increase surface area for receiving enough pollen grains
4. Pollen grain.
• Some are hairy and sticky so that they can attach to the insect easily
Practical activity
You are provided with a hibiscus flower and maize flower or guinea grass
1. Study the structures of each flower and state their adaptation to their mode pollination
2. Acquire pollen grains from anther heads of each flower. Note the amount given off by
each, their size and whether they are sticky or not.
3. Use a table format below to compare different structures and features of hibiscus and
guinea flower.
Structure of a flower Hibiscus flower Guinea grass flower
Stigma
Anther
Petals
Bracts
Pollen grains

Note; skip a page to answer from that activity.

FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
Question; what happens when pollen grains are received by the stigma of a flower
This is the fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote. Fertilization in plants is internal
taking place inside the ovary in the structure called embryo sac.
Plants fertilization involves two male nuclei (sperm cells) fusing with egg cell and two polar
nuclei to form two different structures in the embryo hence name double fertilization.
Double fertilization. Is a process that occurs in plants where two sperm cells fertilize two
different cells in the ovary.
Process of fertilization in plants
▪ Pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower of the same species.
▪ On the stigma, pollen grain absorbs water, nutrients and then germinates to form a pollen
tube which grows through the style under the control of the tube nucleus at the tip.
 ▪ Pollen grain has two nuclei i.e. generative nucleus and pollen tube nucleus. The
generative nucleus divides mitotically to form two male nuclei which lie behind the
pollen tube nucleus.

▪ The pollen tube enters the ovary and the tip of the pollen tube breaks. The pollen tube
nucleus disappears and the two male nuclei are discharged into the embryo sac.
▪ One of the male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form a zygote which divides
mitotically to form embryo.
▪ The other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to form a triploid endosperm which
develops into endosperm. This is called double fertilization.
Self-fertilization
Self-fertilization is the union of male and female gametes of the same individual. Many plants
are self-fertilizing, meaning they acts as both mother and father to their own seeds.
Self-fertilization is achieved through self-pollination where pollen grains of the same flowers
drop into the stigma of the same flower.
Self-fertilization guarantees reproduction but, over time, leads to reduced genetic diversity of the
organisms and the accumulation of harmful mutations. Hence, most of organisms use preventive
methods stop self-fertilization.
Advantages of self-fertilization
❖ It maintains desirable genetic traits in off springs for generations
Disadvantage of self-fertilization
❖ It leads to reduced genetic diversity
❖ It leads to accumulation of bad characters in off springs
Cross fertilization
Cross fertilization is the union of male and female gametes of different individuals of the same
species. It’s achieved through cross-pollination, when pollen grains are transferred from flowers
of one plant to flowers of another plant of the same species.
Advantages cross fertilization
➢ By recombining genetic material from two parents, cross fertilization helps maintain a
greater range of variability for natural selection. Hence, increasing a species’ capacity to
adopt to environmental change.
Differences between self and cross fertilization
Self-fertilization Cross fertilization
Involves one individual Involves two different individuals of the same
species
Achieved through self-pollination Through cross pollination
It is seen in bisexual flowering plants It is seen in unisexual plants
It reduces genetic diversity of the organisms It increases the diversity of the organisms
from their parent plants

Events that occur after fertilization

✓ The zygote divides mitotically followed by growth and development resulting into an
embryo.
✓ The triploid endosperm divides mitotically to form endosperm.
✓ The ovules develop into seeds.
✓ The integuments become the seed coat.
✓ The ovary develops into a fruit and ovary wall develops into a fruit wall which protects
the seeds.
✓ Petals, stigma, style and stamen wither and fall off while the calyx may wither and fall
off or may remain in shriveled form.
SEEDS AND FRUITS
After fertilization, ovules begin to develop into seeds whereas the ovary begin to develop into a
fruit.
Structural differences between a fruit and seed
Fruit Seed
Consist of fruit wall(pericarp) Consist of a thin seed coat (testa) which is not
divided into regions
Consist of a placenta from which the seeds Consist of one or two solid cotyledons
arise
Consist of one or many seeds Consist of an embryo near the micropyle
Consist of two scars (stalk and style scar) Consist of one scar (stalk scar only)
Drawings of a bean fruit (pod)

Functions of the structures identified on the bean fruit and bean seed
Parts on Bean seed
1. Testa. This is a protective covering of the embryo of the seed formed from the
integuments. It is usually hard and dry. It protects the seed from fungi, bacteria and
insects
2. Micropyle. It is a small opening into the seed. It’s through which water, mineral salts and
oxygen enter during germination
3. Radicle. It is a seed root (embryo root). It develops into a primary root of the plant
4. Plumule. This is a seed shoot which develop into the primary shoot of the plant
5. Endosperm. Stores food especially starch for the embryo
6. Cotyledons. These contain stored food like starch, proteins and lipids for the initial
growth of the embryo during germination.
Parts on bean fruit
1. Pericarp. It dries and splits to disperse seeds
2. Placenta. Point at which seeds arise and are attached on the fruit
3. Funicle. Structure by which seeds are attached to the placenta of the fruit. It is through
the Funicle that the seeds are supplied with water and nutrients.
TYPES OF FRUITS
After pollination, fertilization takes place inside ovules to form seeds within the fruit.
Although the biological classification of fruits continues to change in light of new information
discovered from time to time, presently, the main categories of fruits are; simple fruits, multiple
fruits, Aggregate fruits and accessory fruit.
Simple fruits
These are fruits derived from a single ovary having one or many seeds.
They are divided into 3 sub categories
a) Dry indehiscent. These are fruits with a dry pericarp that splits (dehisces) to release
seeds. The fruits split at particular lines of weakness known as sutures. These fruits are
categorized into the following different groups depending on the number of splits that
occur on the pericarp. These fruits include, Follicles, Legume, Capsule and Schizocarp
Follicles
• It splits open along one longitudinal suture/ side
• Example include; Sodom apple,
Legumes
• Legumes form pods which contain one seed or many seeds
• Pods vary size, colour and shape
• Pods split open along two sutures/sides
• Examples include; Beans, peas, soya beans, peanuts, flamboyant and Barbados
pride
Capsule
• It splits open along many vertical slits (from the apex to base)
• Examples include; Dutchman’s pipe, eucalyptus, balsam, cotton, mahogany, datura
etc.
Schizocarp.
• This is a dry several seeded fruit, which breaks up into separate parts each
containing one seed, e.g. Desmodium, sweet hearts

b) Dry indehiscent. These are fruits with a dry pericarp that does not split up (dehisce) to
release seeds. This category contains five types of fruits. These are Achene, Nut,
Caryopsis, Cypsela and Samara.
Achene
✓ It is a small, dry one seeded fruit covered by a dry pericarp, which does not split
open
✓ Examples include; buckwheat, buttercup, caraway, cannabis, amaranth,
Nut
✓ It is a dry fruit consisting of a hard shell covering one seed e.g. cashew nuts
 Caryopsis.
✓ It is popularly called a grain
✓ Specialized type of dry, one seeded fruit
✓ The fruit wall is fused together with the seed coat, making it difficult to separate
the two except by special milling process
✓ Examples include; maize, wheat, rice, corn
Cypsela
✓ It is a dry one seeded indehiscent fruit e.g., sunflower
Samara
✓ It is a type of dry fruit with seeds surrounded by a papery wing to enable the
dispersal by wind
✓ Examples include; whirlybird, helicopter-y fruits of elm, ash and marple.
c) Succulent fruits.
✓ These are fleshy fruits. They are either entirely fleshy or have part of it fleshy.
They are further divided into 2 types.
• Drupes. These are fruits with only one seed and only part of it fleshy (epicarp
and mesocarp). The endocarp is fibrous and hard, e.g., mango and avocado.
• Berry. This is a fruit with many seeds and the whole of it fleshy, e.g.,
tomatoes, guavas, oranges, bananas etc.
Multiple fruits
These are formed from several flowers and the ovaries become fused after fertilization e.g.
jackfruit and pineapple.
Aggregate fruits
These are fruits formed from a single flower but with multiple ovaries e.g., strawberries
Accessory fruits (false fruits)
These fruits develop from the association of ovaries and other floral parts such as receptacle.
Examples include; pomes like apples and pears
FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL
This is the spreading of seeds and fruits away from parent plants so as to settle where conditions
are suitable for germination.
Types of seed and fruit dispersal
• Animal dispersal
• Water dispersal
• Wind dispersal
• Self-dispersal
 Agents of dispersal
o Animals
o Wind
o Water
o Self-explosive plant mechanism
Adaptations for dispersal
For every method of dispersal, the fruit or seed must possess specialized structures or
characteristics that suit the specific method of dispersal
Adaptions of seeds and fruits dispersed by animals
➢ Have hooks which stick on the fur of animals or on clothing of people making it easier to
be carried and dropped to another location
Adaptations of seeds and fruits dispersed by wind
➢ Have parachute-like hair called pappus which enable them to fly in air when being
blown by wind
➢ They are small in size and dry which makes them light to be blown and dispersed by
wind easily
Adaptations of seeds and fruits dispersed by water
➢ They contain air space inside which makes them, reducing its relative density, thus
enabling them to float on water
➢ The fruit wall is fibrous making it tough to protect the seed during dispersal on water
Adaptations for self-dispersal
➢ They are dry when mature making them to easily split open
➢ Have two sutures (lines of weakness) along which they split open to release seeds
Importance of seed and fruit dispersal
❖ Fruit and seed dispersal allows plants to colonize new areas
❖ It prevents extinction of plants in case of the occurrence of a catastrophe that destroys
plants in a specific location
❖ It prevents over crowding of new plants around the parent plants
❖ It reduces competition for nutrients among plants of same plant
❖ It minimizes spread of epidemic diseases especially in seedlings from the parent plant
Activity 1
1. Describe how the seeds or fruits of the following plants are dispersed in nature
a) Mango
b) Tridax
c) Blackjack (Bidens Pilosa)
 d) Coconut
e) Tomatoes
f) Jackfruit
2. Discuss the importance of seed or fruit dispersal to plants

CHAPTER 3
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
In this chapter you will understand that sexual reproduction in humans involves two parents (the
father and mother), each with specialized reproductive organs that make up the reproductive
system.
Mammalian reproductive system
Male reproductive system
Functions of a male reproductive system
Seminal vesicle. Secretes viscous-containing fructose which acts as a nutrient for sperm cells.
Prostate gland. Secretes an alkaline, milky-white fluid that neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
Penis. Delivers sperms into the female reproductive organ
Testis. Manufactures and stores sperm. Testes in humans are found outside the abdominal cavity
because sperm production is favoured by slightly lower temperature than the body’s core
temperature, therefore, they are located outside to stay cooler than the rest of the body
Scrotal sac. Protects the testis
Vas deferens. Conducts sperms from the testis to urethra during ejaculation
Urethra. Passage of sperms and semen during ejaculation
Cowper’s gland. Produces a watery alkaline fluid that lubricates urethra, facilitating the passage
of sperm during ejaculation and reducing friction during sexual activity
Female reproductive system

Functions of female reproductive system

Uterus. Provides suitable environment for growth and development of the fetus. It is also an area
for implantation
Vulva. It’s the external genetalia made up of two skin folds i.e. inner fold (labia minora) and
outer fleshy fold (labia majora). It protects the internal reproductive organs from infections and
physical injury
Labia minora. Contains mucus secreting glands which lubricates the vagina during copulation
Labia majora. Cushions the vagina and enables sexual arousal
Clitoris. Bean-shaped, most sensitive part of the female reproductive system, which brings about
sexual excitement in females when stroked by penis during copulation.
Vagina; - it secretes acidic mucus, which controls growth of bacteria and fungi within the female
reproductive tract. The mucus also lubricates the vagina during sexual intercourse
✓ It’s the passage of blood during menstruation
✓ It’s a birth canal, that is passage for the baby during birth
✓ Receives the erect penis during intercourse
Cervix. It’s the gate way to the uterus for sperms during copulation and the baby during birth
Oviduct (fallopian tube). It’s where fertilization takes place
Ovary. Produces ova (egg cells)
Secondary sexual characteristics
At the beginning of adolescence in both boys and girls, testes and ovaries become active and
start to release mature gametes. The endocrine glands in the body secrete hormones that when
released influence the body to undergo various changes
Activity
Identify changes that occur in boys and girls at puberty
HUMAN MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle involves a series of changes in the female reproductive system, controlled
by hormones, which include; oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH).
These hormones cause the growth of follicles (fluid filled sac containing eggs) in the ovaries, the
release of an egg (ovulation) and the growth and shedding of the uterine lining, which is called
menstruation
1. Menstrual phase. (Days 1-5)
❖ What happens; The lining of the uterus (endometrium) is shed, resulting in menstrual
bleeding. This occurs if pregnancy has not taken place. This is due to low levels of
progesterone which leads to breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus
(endometrium). This flows out from the body through the vagina as menstrual fluid.
❖ Menstrual fluid consists of blood, cells from endometrium and mucus
Hormonal changes; levels of oestrogen and progesterone are low.
Symptoms; cramping, fatigue, and mood swings
2. Follicular phase (Days 1-13)
❖ What happens; the pituitary gland releases follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which
stimulates the ovaries to produce follicles. One follicle will mature into an egg.
❖ The growth of follicles stimulates production of oestrogen hormone and thus leading to
its rise from day 3 to day 12. the rise in in the levels of oestrogen, in turn stimulates the
repair and thickening of the lining of the uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy
❖ Hormonal changes; oestrogen levels rise which stimulates the repair and thickening of
the lining of the uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy
❖ Symptoms; increased energy, and improved mood
3. Ovulation phase (day 14)
Ovulation is the release of mature egg from the ovary. It usually occurs around two
weeks before menstruation starts
❖ What happens; the rising levels of oestrogen towards 14th day is recognized by the
hypothalamus which instructs the pituitary gland to produce and release luteinizing
hormone and follicle stimulating hormone.
❖ The increased levels of luteinizing hormone triggers ovulation which occurs within two
days. The egg is released into the fallopian tube and it moves by waves of small hair-like
projections. If the egg is not fertilized by a sperm with in 24 hours, it dies.
❖ Symptoms; mild pelvic pain, increased cervical mucus, slight rise in basal body
temperature
4. Luteal phase (Days 15-28)
❖ what happens; The ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum (a yellow body
formed from the follicle), which secretes progesterone to maintain the thickening of the
uterine lining. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down, leading to a
drop in progesterone and oestrogen levels which cause the breakdown of the thickened
uterine lining i.e., the cycle begins again (menstruation starts again)
❖ symptoms; breast tenderness, mood swings
activity 2
Racheal and John, a couple in kyengera town has in most of the cases suffered from
unplanned births that have made them go into unplanned expenses. The couple plans to have
another pregnancy and has decided to visit Nsangi Referral Hospital. Dr Sennyonga, a
medical doctor at Nsangi Referral Hospital informs the couple that their challenge has always
come in due to their failure to understand and interpret the dynamics of the Oestral cycle. He
informs them that it is incorporated by the changes in the hormonal levels in blood. Dr.
 Sennyonga receives an emergency call that invites him to attend to an important ceremony on
which he is the Guest of Honor. This leaves the couple in suspense.
Task
As a biology student;
a) Help Racheal and John understand the events that occur during the Oestral cycle
b) Explain to the couple the hormones involved in the Oestral cycle and their effects
MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
In humans there are two types of gametes namely; male and female gametes. Male
gametes are called sperms, while female gametes are called ova or egg cells
Human male gamete

Functions of parts of a sperm

o Acrosome; contains juice together with enzymes which dissolve the egg membrane
(Vitelline) to bring about fertilization.
o Nucleus; contains genetic material which is responsible for transmission of characters
from the parent to the off spring.
o Middle piece; contains mitochondria which provides energy required for the movement
of the sperm.
o Tail; propels the sperm forward as it swims towards the ovum.
o Neck; connects the head and tail of the sperm.
Human Female gamete
 o Cytoplasm. It acts as food store for the embryo
o Vitelline membrane. It provides protection to the inner parts of the egg. It allows
exchange of materials around the egg and its surrounding
o Zona pellucida. It’s a jelly coat layer which acts as a barrier to sperm entry
o Corona radiata. It provides support and nourishment to the egg cell
o Cortical granule. It contains enzymes that aid in formation of an envelope around the
ovum after fertilization to ensure no other sperm enters the egg
o Nucleus. It contains half the genetic material to be passed on from the mother to the baby
after fertilization.
FERTILIZATION PROCESS
During fertilization the haploid sperm fuses with the haploid egg (ovum) to form a diploid
zygote (fertilized egg)
❖ Fertilization in man occurs after copulation where erect penis is inserted into the vagina.
At orgasm, the penis releases large number of sperms (200-300 million) near the cervix.
The cervix relaxes and opens as sperms swim through its opening to the uterus then to the
oviduct where fertilization takes place. When a sperm gets into contact with the egg
membrane, it releases enzymes from acrosome which breaks the egg membrane and
enable the sperm cell penetrate into the cytoplasm of the ovum. When the sperm cell
enters, the egg membrane becomes thickened to form the fertilization membrane which
serves as a barrier preventing the entry of other sperm cells. This ensures only one sperm
cell fertilizes the ovum. The nuclear membrane of the two gametes breaks down and male
nucleus fuse with a female nucleus to form a fertilized egg, (zygote)

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE

After fertilization, a zygote is formed. The time taken for the development from conception to
birth is known as the gestation period or pregnancy period. In humans this period lasts for nine
months.
Events that occur to the zygote from conception to birth
a) Zygotic/germinal stage (2 weeks after conception)
The single-celled zygote divides into a solid ball of cells, which then becomes a hollow
ball of cells called a blastocyst. Within about a week, this moves down to the uterus aide
by constrictions of the oviduct and becomes attached to the lining of the mother’s uterus,
a process known as implantation. Implantation results from the outer cells of the
blastocyst burrowing into the uterus; this in turn results into development of the placenta.
b) Embryonic stage (3weeks to 8 weeks)
The embryo develops within the amniotic sac, under the lining of the uterus on one side.
This stage is characterized with elongation of the embryo suggesting a human shape and
 the formation of the major internal organs and external features such as the heart, brain
and the spinal cord become visible, while the arms and legs start to develop
c) Fetal stage (9 weeks until birth)
At the end of the 8th week after fertilization, the embryo is considered a foetus. During
this stage, the structures that have already formed grow and develop. The foetus fills the
entire uterus, sex organs become distinct that sex can be determined at this stage. The
fetal movements can be felt by the mother. The brain continues to accumulate new cells.
Th lungs continue to mature until near the time of delivery
The placenta develops further, it extends tiny hairlike projections (villi) into the wall of
the uterus. The projections branch and re-branch in a complicated tree-like arrangement.
This arrangement greatly increases the area of contact between the walk of the uterus and
the placenta, to enable the placenta carry out its functions effectively. After birth, the
foetus is considered a baby
Functions of different structures during pregnancy
Placenta
✓ Allows exchange of materials without the mother’s blood mixing with that of the foetus
✓ Allows transfer of oxygen. Water, glucose, amino acids and other substances into the
foetus to the mother’s blood
✓ Enables transfer of wastes such as carbon dioxide and urea from the blood circulatory
system of the foetus to the mother’s blood to cross to the foetus.
✓ Acts as barrier to mother’s hormones and some other chemicals with may affect the
foetus
✓ Allows anti bodies to pass to pass into the foetus thereby providing immunity against
diseases

Umbilical cord
• It is a connection between the foetus and the placenta.
• It delivers nutrients and oxygen to the foetus and removes the foetus waste products.
Amniotic sac
• It is a sac filled with a liquid (amniotic fluid). It protects the foetus from injury.
Amniotic fluid
• It is a clear, yellow liquid surrounding the foetus.
• It majorly serves to cushion and protect the foetus from mechanical forces
ANTENATAL MEDICAL CARE
During antenatal care visits, the pregnant woman is checked and treated foe any conditions
which may harm her pregnancy, such as malaria, anaemia, HIV/AIDS, STDs. The pregnant
woman’s urine, blood pressure, position of the baby and weight are examined.
Importance of antenatal care to the mother
• It allows detection and prevention of early complications in pregnancy such as
hypertension and pregnancy diabetes.
• Allows identification and treatment or management of infections such as HIV/AIDS and
syphilis
• Promotes maternal health, thus reducing cases of miscarriages
• Provides mother and her family with appropriate information and advise for a healthy
pregnancy, safe child birth and recovery after child birth, including care of the newborn,
promotion of early exclusive breastfeeding and assistance with deciding on future
pregnancies in order to improve pregnancy outcomes
• Helps to estimate the due date for giving birth
Importance of antenatal medical care to the baby
• it allows early detection of complications within the baby
• it promotes healthy fetal development
• it reduces risk of premature birth
• It reduces chances of death of newly born baby
Note;
1. A pregnant mother should go for antenatal check up four times
2. However, for various reasons, a number of expecting mothers attend only once of the
four recommended antenatal visits. This has exposed them to health complications
associated with pregnancy and delivery such as
✓ Vaginal bleeding
✓ Abdominal pain
✓ Generalized swelling of feet
✓ Blurred vision,
✓ Fever,
✓ Excessive fatigue,
✓ Miscarriage
✓ Labour lasting more than 12 hours
✓ Retained placenta at birth
✓ Sometimes resulting into death of either the mother, baby or both.
CARE FOR THE BABY AFTER BIRTH
Aspects of caring a baby after birth include;
• Breast feeding
• Feeding a baby on balanced diet
• Immunization
• Maintaining good hygiene i.e., bathing the baby, washing her clothe etc.
Importance of breast feeding
✓ Ensure all necessary nutrients are all supplied in the proper proportion in breast milk
✓ Breast milk being easily digested it protects the baby against constipation, diarrhoea or
stomach upset
✓ It boosts the immunity of the baby thus protecting them against diseases and infections.
✓ Allows babies to attain healthier weights as they grow
✓ Allows proper brain development in babies
✓ Strengthens the bond between the mother and her baby
✓ Delays next pregnancy which allows time and resources required for care of baby
Associated problems for defaulting breast feeding
• There are increased incidences of baby suffering infections and diseases
• It can lead to a low baby weight since that baby is unable to obtain required nutrients
• It can lead to sudden of baby due to poor health
• Results in quick detachment between mother and child
Importance of feeding a baby on a balanced diet
➢ The baby is able to get all essential nutrients required for healthy growth and
development
Associated problems for defaulting to feed a baby on a balanced diet
• Malnutritional diseases such as kwashiorkor, rickets, night blindness, Beri Beri,
marasmus etc.
• Poor growth of baby
• Death of baby in some incidences
Importance of immunization
➢ Promotes good child health care by protecting them against immunisable diseases such
as polio, measles, tuberculosis etc.
Associated problems of defaulting immunization
• Poor health of baby and suffering from immunisable diseases
• Death of baby due to diseases
Importance of maintaining good hygiene
✓ Promotes good health of baby by keeping them free from disease causing germs
Associated problems of defaulting good hygiene
• Poor hygiene exposes child to diseases and infections such as diarrhoea, fever, flu and
chronic cough
• Diseases caused by poor hygiene can lead to stunted growth and death of baby
TEENAGE PREGNANCY AND ABORTION
Teenage pregnancy occurs when a female below 20 years conceives, upon having sexual
intercourse. Biologically, the bodies of most teenagers have not fully matured at that age to
sustain pregnancy. Therefore, this puts them at risk of health complications like having
miscarriages. Sometimes girls carry out deliberate termination of their pregnancy a process
called abortion
Dangers associated with early/teenage pregnancy and abortion
▪ Uterine infections leading to uterine tenderness, abdominal or pelvic pain, fever and
sometimes a smelly discharge from the vagina
▪ High blood pressure resulting into seizures during pregnancy. Seizures are periods of
disturbed brain activity that can cause episodes of decreased alertness and violent shaking
▪ It can result into a mother being unable to naturally go into labour and thus necessitate
surgery
▪ Abortion exposes the mother to conditions like Fistula usually resulting from damages
made during the process. Fistula is characterized by uncontrolled loss of urine or faecal
matter through the vagina
▪ Abortion can result in over bleeding of the mother, thus exposing her to anaemia
▪ In some incidences, abortion cam result into barrenness of the mother due to complete
removal of the uterus
▪ Abortion can also lead to damage of other internal body organs of the mother
▪ Both teenage pregnancy and abortion can result in stress and depression
▪ Teenage pregnancy and abortion can lead to death of the baby, mother or both
▪ The baby born to a teenage mother is likely to suffer conditions such as low birth weight,
premature birth, heart diseases, poor brain development etc.
COMMON BIRTH CONTROL METHODS IN UGANDA
Birth control is the prevention of pregnancy from occurring in a sexually active woman. Words
used while referring to birth control include; family planning, fertility control or contraception.
The different birth control methods are designed either to prevent fertilization of an egg or
implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus
Activity 3
Identifying common birth control methods inn Uganda and their effectiveness
1. Visit a family planning unit in the health Centre
2. Write down the common birth control methods used in Uganda
3. Find out the biological principle employed by each of the birth control methods identified
and its effectiveness
MENSTRUAL AND ERECTILE ABNORMALITIES
Common menstrual abnormalities and their medical remedies
a) Amenorrhoea
➢ This is the absence of getting menstrual periods in a woman when still young and
not pregnant. Women who have missed at least three menstrual periods in a row
have Amenorrhoea, as do girls who haven’t begun menstruation by age of 15.
➢ The causes of Amenorrhoea include; hormonal imbalance, use of contraceptives,
other medications or lifestyle factors such as low body weight, excessive
exercises and stress.
➢ Medical remedies and treatment options for Amenorrhoea vary based on the
cause. One may need to make lifestyle changes, in regard to diet, activities and
stress.
b) Excessive bleeding
➢ This is menstrual bleeding that lasts for more than 7 days. It can also be heavy
bleeding that makes one change their pads after less than 2 hours or pass out large
blood clots.
➢ It is caused by uterine-related problems such as uterine fibroids, uterine or
cervical cancer, use of IUDs, miscarriages, hormone-related problems, other
illness or disorders.
➢ Treatment and medication include; drug therapy consisting of iron supplements,
hormone therapy, surgical therapy in which the top layer of the uterus lining,
fibroids or entire uterus is removed to stop heavy bleeding.
c) Excessively painful menstruation
➢ This is a condition characterized by excessively painful menstruation.
➢ It can be caused by bacterial infections, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, having a
small cervix, family history of painful periods, smoking, heavy bleeding periods,
irregular periods or reaching puberty before age of 11

➢ Medical remedies include taking anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen

and taking vitamins and supplements such as vitamin B-6, B-1, E, omega -3_fatty
acid, calcium and magnesium
Common erectile abnormalities in males and their medical remedies
Erectile dysfunction
➢ This refers to experiencing difficulty in getting or maintaining an erection that is firm
enough or lasts long enough for intercourse.
➢ It is caused by mental health issues such as stress and anxiety, sleep disturbances, high
blood pressure, heart or blood vessel diseases, atherosclerosis, obesity, chronic kidney,
penile curvature and injury to the penis, spinal cord, prostate, bladder or pelvis.
➢ As a medical remedy, drugs that stimulate blood flow to the penis are prescribed, thus
helping to achieve an erection. Such drugs include Viagra, stendra and Cialis
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIS)
These are infections that are primarily spread through sexual contact, including vaginal, anal or
oral sex. These infections include
❖ Syphilis
❖ Gonorrhea
❖ Candida
❖ Human papilloma virus (HPV)
❖ Hepatitis B
❖ HIV/AIDs
Activity 4
Identifying causes, signs, symptoms, mode of transmission and preventive measures for the
named STIs
1. Research using internet or text books on the causes, signs, symptoms, mode of
transmission and preventive measures for common STIs that is; syphilis, Gonorrhea,
candida, Human Papilloma virus (HPV), hepatitis B and HIV/AIDs
Activity 5
Identifying the challenges faced by people living with HIV/AIDs and how to overcome them
1. Listen to the song “Alone and Frightened” by Philly Bongoley Lutaya
a) Discuss the stigma or discrimination portrayed in the song
b) Identify the significance of the song to Ugandans
c) Mention other challenges faced by people living with HIV/AIDs besides stigmatization
and how can these be overcome.

END