Topic 2: Classification and description of English sounds
Introduction
English sounds are divided into consonants and vowels.
Consonants are classified by:
o Place of production
o Manner of production
o Type of sound (phonation)
Vowels are described based on the shape of the vocal tract.
This topic covers:
o Differences between vowel and consonant sounds
o Classification and description of English consonants and vowels.
2.1 English consonant
Consonants are identified and described by three features:
o Phonation: voiced or voiceless
o Place of articulation
o Manner of articulation
A table can be created with:
o Place of articulation on the horizontal axis
o Manner of articulation on the vertical axis
o A column for phonation
This helps organize the 24 English consonants.
2.1.1 Stop Consonants
Stop consonants (plosives) are made by completely blocking the airflow, then
releasing it.
Three types of stop consonants:
o Bilabial stops: [p] and [b]
o Alveolar stops: [t] and [d]
o Velar stops: [k] and [g]
Each type has a pair of voiceless and voiced sounds.
Pronounce words with these sounds to notice their characteristics
2.1.2 Nasal Consonants
English has three nasal consonants:
o Bilabial nasal: [m]
o Alveolar nasal: [n]
o Velar nasal: [ŋ]
Nasal sounds are produced with the velum lowered, allowing airflow through the
nose.
All nasal sounds in English are voiced.
Examples:
o [m] as in "my," "mother"
o [n] as in "nine," "nag"
o [ŋ] as in "sing," "bring"
[m] and [n] can appear in any word position, but [ŋ] never starts a word in English.
2.1.3 Fricative Consonants
There are nine fricative consonants in English.
Fricatives are produced with a partial obstruction, causing air to escape and create a
friction-like sound.
Most fricatives form voiceless and voiced pairs, except the glottal fricative [h], which
is only voiceless.
Fricative sounds:
o Voiceless: [f], [θ], [s], [ʃ]
o Voiced: [v], [ð], [z], [ʒ]
Examples:
o [f] as in "five," [v] as in "van"
o [θ] as in "Thursday," [ð] as in "this"
o [s] as in "sad," [z] as in "zoo"
o [ʃ] as in "sheep," [ʒ] as in "measure"
Fricatives by place of articulation:
o Labio-dental: [f], [v]
o Interdental: [θ], [ð]
o Alveolar: [s], [z]
o Palatal: [ʃ], [ʒ]
2.1.4 Affricate Consonants
English has two affricate sounds.
Affricates are a mix of a stop and a fricative sound, with less energy and less airflow
compared to fricatives.
English affricates come in pairs:
o Voiceless: [tʃ] (as in "child," "chill")
o Voiced: [dʒ] (as in "jab," "jeep")
Affricates are classified based on the final position of the articulator, making both [tʃ]
and [dʒ] palatal affricates.
2.1.5 Approximant Consonants
Approximants, also known as glide sounds, are produced with minimal obstruction to the
airflow, similar to vowel sounds.
All approximants are voiced.
Types of approximants:
o Bilabial approximant [w]: produced with slight lip rounding.
o Alveolar approximants [r] and [l]: the tongue is slightly raised to the alveolar
region.
[l] is a lateral alveolar approximant, where air escapes from the sides
of the tongue.
[r] does not involve airflow around the sides of the tongue.
[l] and [r] are sometimes called "liquid" sounds, and some non-native speakers may
struggle to distinguish between them.
Palatal approximant [j] is represented by the letter "y" in words.
Self check 2.1
Find the word in the group below that does not belong and explain your choice:
(a) Measure [ʒ]
(b) Station [ʃ]
(c) Fishing [ʃ]
(d) Clash [ʃ]
Answer: The word that does not belong is "Measure".
Explanation: "Measure" contains the voiced palatal fricative [ʒ], while the other words
contain voiceless fricatives or affricates, like [ʃ] in "Station" and "Fishing," and [tʃ] in
"Clash." The [ʒ] sound is distinct from the other voiceless sounds.
What are the differences and similarities between [m] and [w]?
Answer:
Similarities:
o Both [m] and [w] are bilabial sounds, produced using both lips.
o Both are voiced, meaning the vocal cords vibrate during their production.
Differences:
o [m] is a nasal consonant, where the air passes through the nasal cavity.
o [w] is an approximant, produced with lip rounding and minimal obstruction
to airflow.
2.2 English Vowels
Vowels are identified and described based on their quality.
Key features for describing vowel quality:
o Height of the tongue (high, mid, low or open, close)
o Advancement of the tongue (front, central, back)
o Other aspects: lip rounding, vowel strength, and length.
Vowel classification is often visualized using a vowel chart (quadrilateral).
o The vertical axis shows tongue height (low, mid, high).
o The horizontal axis shows tongue advancement (front, central, back).
The chart helps visualize the position of the tongue and the quality of various vowel
sounds.
Self check 2.2
Why do you think we need to categorize vowels separately from consonants?
Vowels are categorized separately from consonants because they are produced differently.
While consonants involve some kind of obstruction or narrowing in the vocal tract (such as
with the tongue or lips), vowels are produced with a relatively free airflow. Vowel sounds
depend on the position of the tongue, lip rounding, and other factors like the length and
strength of the sound, which differ from the ways consonants are formed. Categorizing them
separately helps clearly distinguish between the two types of sounds based on their
production and characteristics.
2.2.1 Short Vowels
There are seven short vowels in English, categorized into:
o Short front vowels
o Short central vowels
o Short back vowels
Short front vowels:
o Distinguished by tongue height (high to low).
o Examples:
[ɪ] in "bid"
[e] in "bed"
[æ] in "bad"
Short central vowels:
o Consist of the schwa [ə] and caret [ʌ].
o [ə] is used in words like "the," "paper," "parade."
o [ʌ] is used in words like "but," "cut," "luck."
Short back vowels:
o Distinguished by tongue height.
o Examples:
[ʊ] in "put"
[ɒ] in "pot"
2.2.2 Long Vowels
English has five long vowels, categorized into:
o Long front vowels
o Long central vowels
o Long back vowels
Key difference between long and short vowels:
o Length of the sound.
o Quality (in terms of tongue height and frontness) can also differ.
Long front vowel:
o The only long front vowel is [i:], a high/closed vowel.
o Example: [i:] in "sheep" (contrast with short [ɪ] in "ship").
Long central vowel:
o [ɜ:] in words like "bird" and "first."
o It is slightly lower than the central short vowel [ə].
Long back vowels:
o There are three long back vowels:
[u:] as in "soon"
[ɔ:] as in "sore"
[ɑ:] as in "spa"
A colon (:) is used to indicate the length of long vowels.
2.2.3 Diphthongs
Diphthongs are combinations of two vowel sounds, similar in length to long vowels.
o The first vowel is more prominent and takes up 75% of the sound's length,
while the second is shorter.
Types of diphthongs:
o Centering diphthongs: glide towards the central vowel [ə].
Examples:
[ɪə] as in "hear"
[eə] as in "hair"
[ʊə] as in "poor"
o Closing diphthongs: glide towards a high close vowel.
Closing front diphthongs: glide to the high close front vowel [i].
Examples:
[eɪ] as in "bay"
[aɪ] as in "buy"
[ɔɪ] as in "boy"
Closing back diphthongs: glide to the high close back vowel [u].
Examples:
[əʊ] as in "go"
[aʊ] as in "now"
2.2.4 Triphthongs (Simplified Version in Points):
Triphthongs consist of a diphthong followed by the mid-central vowel [ə].
o They are combinations of three vowels with [ə] at the end.
Triphthongs are related to closing diphthongs.
Three triphthongs from closing front diphthongs:
o [eɪə] as in "player"
o [aɪə] as in "fire"
o [ɔɪə] as in "loyal"
Two triphthongs from closing back diphthongs:
o [əʊə] as in "lower"
o [aʊə] as in "power"
SELF-CHECK 2.3 Answers:
1. Identify whether these words contain a long or a short vowel. Write the
symbol for the vowel in each word:
(a) Steam – Long vowel [i:]
(b) Collar – Short vowel [ə]
(c) Dirt – Long vowel [ɜ:]
(d) Ban – Short vowel [æ]
(e) Yarn – Long vowel [ɑ:]
2. Identify the diphthongs in these words:
(a) Day – Diphthong [eɪ]
(b) Sow – Diphthong [əʊ]
(c) Toy – Diphthong [ɔɪ]
(d) Tie – Diphthong [aɪ]
(e) Cold – Diphthong [əʊ]
IPA CHART: [Link]
sounds/#ipachartstart
MCQ questions
1. What are the three main features used to classify English consonants?
A) Phonation, manner of articulation, and place of articulation
B) Voicing, nasalization, and lip rounding
C) Length, stress, and pitch
D) Height, backness, and rounding
2. Which of the following is an example of a bilabial stop consonant?
A) [t]
B) [b]
C) [f]
D) [s]
3. The sound [ŋ] (as in "sing") is classified as a:
A) Velar stop
B) Alveolar nasal
C) Velar nasal
D) Bilabial nasal
4. How many fricatives are there in English?
A) 7
B) 5
C) 10
D) 9
5. Which of the following is a voiced fricative?
A) [f]
B) [θ]
C) [v]
D) [s]
6. Affricate sounds in English consist of:
A) A stop followed by a nasal
B) A fricative followed by a stop
C) A stop followed by a fricative -[tʃ]
D) Two fricatives combined
7. Which of the following is an example of a palatal affricate?
A) [tʃ]
B) [b]
C) [r]
D) [f]
8. What makes approximant sounds similar to vowels?
A) They involve complete obstruction of the airflow
B) They have very little obstruction of the airflow
C) They are always voiceless
D) They occur only at the ends of words
9. Which of the following is a palatal approximant?
A) [r]
B) [w]
C) [j]
D) [l]
10. How many short vowels are there in English?
A) 5
B) 7
C) 3
D) 6
11. The vowel sound in the word "bid" is:
A) [i:]
B) [ɪ]
C) [æ]
D) [u]
12. The diphthong [aɪ] can be heard in the word:
A) Bay
B) Buy
C) Tie
D) Boy
13. Which of the following is a centering diphthong?
A) [aʊ]
B) [ɔɪ]
C) [eɪ]
D) [ɪə]
14. How many triphthongs are there in English?
A) 3
B) 4
C) 5
D) 6
15. The word "fire" contains which triphthong?
A) [aɪə]
B) [aʊə]
C) [eɪə]
D) [ɔɪə]
Answers:
1. A) Phonation, manner of articulation, and place of articulation
2. B) [b]
3. C) Velar nasal
4. D) 9
5. C) [v]
6. C) A stop followed by a fricative
7. A) [tʃ]
8. B) They have very little obstruction of the airflow
9. C) [j]
10. B) 7
11. B) [ɪ]
12. B) Buy
13. D) [ɪə]
14. C) 5
15. A) [aɪə]