LESSON 1:

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

IS THE
ATP DONATES ENERGY THROUH A
ENERGY CURRENCY OF THE CELL TRANSFER OF A PHOSPHATE
GROUP
- The energy derived from the
breakdown of food molecules is • The remaining molecule is
captured and released by Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
adenosine triphosphate to fuel when the terminal phosphate (also
alternative cellular processes. known as phosphate tail, which is the
- not a chemical energy storage actual source of power) is removed
molecule; that's the function of from ATP.
carbohydrates (such as
• To produce energy, only the outer
glycogen) and fats
phosphate is normally removed from
- Energy is converted from
ATP.
storage
- molecules into ATP when it is • It is released as inorganic
needed by the cell. phosphate (Pi) when the phosphate
- delivering energy to places group is not
where energy-consuming
activities take place within the transferred to another molecule
cell (Encyclopedia Britannica (Solomon, Berg, and Martin 2011,
2020). 193).

Cells need energy for three • The transfer of phosphate groups to

general kinds of tasks: some other compounds is called

1. to drive metabolic reactions that phosphorylation.

don't occur automatically; • Available energy is contained in the
2. to move the mandatory substances bonds between the phosphates and
across membranes; and released when they are broken, which
3. to perform mechanical work, like happens through the hydrolysis
moving muscles. process.
THE CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF • Hydrolysis is the addition of a
ATP water molecule to break a chemical
ATP is a nucleotide consisting of three bond.
main parts: THE ATP – ADP CYCLE
1. Adenine = a nitrogen-containing • This is done by breaking off one of
organic base; the 3 phosphate molecules, thus
2. Ribose = a five-carbon sugar; and reducing ATP from 3 phosphates to 2,
3. Three phosphate groups. forming ADP (after one of the
phosphates are removed). It is usually Anatomy of the Leaf (Mesophyll
written as ADP + Pi. includes the palisade and spongy
parenchyma)
• Energy is released when the bond
connecting the phosphate is broken.
This is an exergonic reaction.
• ADP is incorporated back into ATP so
that it can be used in its more
energetic state again. Although energy
is required for this conversion, the
process generates a net energy gain;
it means that more energy is available
Internal Structure of the
by reusing ADP + Pi back into ATP. This Chloroplast
is an endergonic reaction (Biology
CHLOROPHYLL IS FOUND IN THE
online 2020). THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
Remember: Exergonic reaction is • Thylakoid membranes contain
energy-releasing process several kinds of pigments, which are
Endergonic reaction is energy- substances that absorb visible light.
requiring process • The main pigment for
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE photosynthesis, chlorophyll, absorbs
CHLOROPLAST light primarily in the visible spectrum's
blue and red regions.
•You can see that the green pigment
(chlorophyll) is not evenly • The chlorophyll does not appreciably
distributed absorb green light. Plants usually
appear green because they are
in the cell but is confined to organelles scattered or reflected by some of the
called chloroplasts if you examine a green light that strikes them
(Solomon, Berg, and Martin 2011,
section of leaf tissue under a
241).
microscope.
THE STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPHYLL
•In plants, the mesophyll (a layer
MOLECULE
with many chloroplasts, air spaces
and - Chlorophyll molecule has two main
parts:
very high concentrations of water
vapor), chloroplasts lie mainly inside 1. PORPHYRIN RING
the
• Absorbs light energy
leaf.
• It consists of smaller rings of carbon
• There are 20 to 100 chloroplasts in and nitrogen atoms joined
every mesophyll cell.
together
• The central atom is a magnesium • They differ in their functional group
ion that, during the process, on the porphyrin ring: in chlorophyll a,
the methyl group (-CH3) is replaced by
helps capture and store electrons. The
a terminal carbonyl group (-CHO) in
magnesium ion also helps red and
chlorophyll b.
blue light to be absorbed by porphyrin
• The wavelengths of light absorbed
2. LONG SIDE CHAIN
and reflected by chlorophyll b are
• The hydrocarbon side chain makes shifted by this distinction, making it
the molecule highly nonpolar and the appear yellow-green, while chlorophyll
membrane anchors the chlorophyll a appears bright green
Chloroplasts have other accessory
pigments:
• Carotenoids, pigments which are
yellow and orange
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS • Chlorophyll can be excited by light
• Photosynthesis is the process that is by energy passed on to it directly
used by plants to harness energy from from the light source, or indirectly by
sunlight and turn it into chemical energy passed on to it from accessory
energy. pigments that have become excited by
light
• The primary pigment, chlorophyll,
used in photosynthesis, reflects green • If a carotenoid molecule is excited, it
can transfer its energy to chlorophyll
light and absorbs red and blue light a.
most strongly. Photosynthesis in plants
LIGHT AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS
occurs in chloroplasts that contain
chlorophyll. - A very small portion of a vast,
continuous range of radiation
TYPES OF CHLOROPHYLL called the electromagnetic
spectrum represents visible
1. Chlorophyll a
light. All radiation travels as
- It is the most important pigment waves in this spectrum. The
because it initiates the light distance from one peak to the
next is a wavelength.
dependent reactions of - Light consists of tiny particles,
photosynthesis. or packets, or energy called
2. Chlorophyll b photons. A photon's energy is
inversely proportional to its
- It is an accessory pigment and wavelength: light at a shorter
participates in photosynthesis. wavelength has more energy
What is the difference between per photon than light at a longer
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b? wavelength.
- One of its electrons becomes 2. In a redox reaction during
energized when a molecule photosynthesis, electrons are
absorbs a photon of transferred from a reducing
light energy, which means that agent to an oxidizing agent,
the electron shifts from a low- following the principle of OIL
energy atomic orbital to a high- RIG - Oxidation Is Loss of
energy orbital that is more electron and Reduction Is
distant from the atomic nucleus. Gain of electron.

3. The photosynthesis summary

Why does photosynthesis equation simplifies the process
depend not on some other as there is no direct transfer of
wavelength of hydrogen atoms, but the actual
radiation, but on light mechanism involves multiple
detectable by the human dynamic steps, many of which
eye (visible light)? are redox reactions.

1. Photosynthesis depends on 4. The reactions of

visible light as some biological photosynthesis are divided into
molecules are excited by two phases:
radiation in the visible-light • Phase 1: Light-
spectrum, moving electrons to dependent Reactions, known
higher energy levels. as the photo part of
2. Other wavelengths of photosynthesis.
radiation do not have enough • Phase 2: Light-
energy to excite these biological independent Reactions, also
molecules as radiation longer called the Calvin cycle.
than visible light and shorter
than visible light can disrupt the 1. The light-dependent reactions
bonds of many biological in photosynthesis begin when
molecules. light is absorbed by chlorophyll,
3. Visible light has just the right causing an electron to move to
amount of energy to cause a higher energy state. This
reversible changes in molecules energized electron is transferred
essential for photosynthesis. to an acceptor molecule, with
water replacing the electron,
PHOTOSYNTHESIS resulting in the release of
1. Photosynthesis involves the molecular oxygen.
synthesis of carbohydrates 2. Energy from the energized
using light energy captured by electrons is utilized for the
chlorophyll, where hydrogen phosphorylation of adenosine
atoms are transferred from diphosphate (ADP) into
water (H2O) to carbon dioxide adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
(CO2) to form carbohydrates in
a redox reaction. 3. During these reactions,
Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate
(NADP+) is reduced to form 4. PQ / PQH₂ -
NADPH, which acts as a carrier Plastoquinone /
of hydrogen to power specific Plastoquinol: An electron
high-energy electron reactions, carrier that transfers electrons
including the Calvin cycle. from Photosystem II to the
cytochrome b₆f complex.
1. Photosystem I (PSI)
• The Photosystem I reaction
center includes a pair of 5. b₆f - Cytochrome b₆f
chlorophyll a molecule that Complex: A protein complex
absorb light at 700 nm that helps pump H⁺ ions into the
wavelength. lumen, creating a gradient.
• It is commonly known as
P700.
2. Photosystem II (PSII) 6. PC - Plastocyanin: A protein
• The Photosystem II reaction that transfers electrons from the
center contains a pair of cytochrome b₆f complex to
chlorophyll a molecule that Photosystem I.
absorb light at 680 nm
wavelength.
• It is commonly referred to 7. P680 - Reaction Center of
as P680. Photosystem II: A specific
chlorophyll molecule that
absorbs light energy to excite
MGA TERMS?/??? electrons in Photosystem II.
HDBHFWEFVWVF

1. H₂O - Water: Split in 8. P700 - Reaction Center of

Photosystem II to release Photosystem I: A specific
electrons, protons (H⁺), and chlorophyll molecule that
oxygen (O₂). absorbs light energy to excite
electrons in Photosystem I.

2. O₂ - Oxygen: Produced as a
byproduct when water is split in 9. NADP⁺ - Nicotinamide
Photosystem II. Adenine Dinucleotide
Phosphate: An electron acceptor
that becomes reduced to form
3. H⁺ - Proton (Hydrogen NADPH.
Ion): Accumulates in the
thylakoid lumen to create a
proton gradient, used to 10. NADPH - Reduced
generate ATP. Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate: An
energy carrier molecule formed
by accepting electrons from
Photosystem I.

11. ADP - Adenosine

Diphosphate: Combines with
inorganic phosphate (Pᵢ) to form
ATP.

12. ATP - Adenosine

Triphosphate: A molecule that
stores and transfers energy,
produced by ATP synthase.

13. FD - Ferredoxin: An
electron carrier that transfers
electrons from Photosystem I to
NADP⁺.

14. FNR - Ferredoxin-NADP⁺

Reductase: An enzyme that
catalyzes the transfer of
electrons from ferredoxin to
NADP⁺, producing NADPH.
 are split, releasing electrons, protons
(H⁺), and oxygen (O₂) as a byproduct.
LESSON 3:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants, algae, and some bacteria
converts light energy to chemical 2. Electron Transport Chain: The
reactions in the form of sugar excited electrons move through a
series of proteins, including the
PHOTOAUTOTROPH
cytochrome b₆f complex (b₆f). As they
Produces its own food using light move along this chain, their energy is
energy (i.e. plants) used to pump H⁺ ions from the stroma
(outside) into the thylakoid lumen
ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE) (inside), creating a high concentration
Primary energy carrier in living things of H⁺ ions within the lumen.

CHLOROPLAST
Plant cell structure where
photosynthesis occurs
3. Photosystem I (PSI): The
THYLAKOIDS electrons eventually reach PSI (P700),
where they are re-energized by
Disc-like structure that helps absorb another photon of light. These
light electrons are then transferred to a
GRANA protein called ferredoxin (FD).

Stack of thylakoids in a chloroplast

CHLOROPHYLL
Pigment found in thylakoid; uses it to 4. NADP⁺ Reduction: The electrons
produce carbohydrates are used to reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH
with the help of an enzyme called
STROMA ferredoxin-NADP⁺ reductase (FNR).
Fluid-filled space around the grana NADPH is an energy carrier molecule
that will be used in the Calvin cycle to
LESSON 4: help produce sugars.
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (THYLAKOID
MEMBRANE OF CHLOROPLASTS)
1. Photosystem II (PSII): light 5. ATP Synthesis: Due to the high
energy is absorbed by PSII, which concentration of H⁺ ions in the lumen,
excites electrons (e-) in the chlorophyll they flow back into the stroma through
(P680). These high-energy electrons an enzyme called ATP synthase. This
are passed to a molecule called flow of H⁺ ions provide the energy
plastoquinone (PQ). To replace the needed to convert ADP to ATP, which
lost electrons, water (H₂O) molecules
is another energy carrier for the Calvin
cycle.
LESSON 6: CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration has two main
types: aerobic (with oxygen) and
anaerobic (without oxygen).
In summary, the light-dependent
1. Aerobic Respiration (with
reactions convert light energy into
oxygen)
chemical energy in the form of ATP
and NADPH, while also producing This type occurs in the mitochondria of
oxygen as a byproduct. These energy cells and includes several stages:
molecules are then used in the Calvin
Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm):
cycle to synthesize glucose.
Glucose is broken down into two
LESSON 5:
molecules of pyruvate. This process
CALVIN CYCLE generates 2 ATP and 2 NADH
molecules.
1. Carbon Fixation: Three molecules
of CO₂ are combined with three Pyruvate Oxidation (in the
molecules of a five-carbon compound mitochondria):
called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP),
Each pyruvate is converted into
catalyzed by the enzyme Rubisco. This
acetyl-CoA, releasing CO₂ and
reaction forms six molecules of a
producing NADH.
three-carbon compound called 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
2. Reduction: Each of the six 3-PGA Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle):
molecules is converted into a higher-
energy molecule using energy from Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle,
ATP and electrons from NADPH. This where it’s further broken down.
step produces six molecules of This cycle generates 2 ATP, 6 NADH,
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). and 2 FADH₂, and releases CO₂ as a
3. Regeneration of RuBP: Out of the waste product.
six G3P molecules, only one exits the
cycle to eventually form glucose and
other sugars. The remaining five G3P Electron Transport Chain (ETC):
molecules are used to regenerate
NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to
three molecules of RuBP, which
the ETC, which powers ATP synthesis.
enables the cycle to continue. This
regeneration process uses additional Oxygen is the final electron acceptor,
ATP. So, the Calvin Cycle turns CO₂, forming water.
ATP, and NADPH into sugars like
glucose, storing energy from sunlight The ETC produces about 32-34 ATP.
in a form that the plant can use for
growth and maintenance.
Total ATP from Aerobic Like lactic acid fermentation, it
Respiration: Approximately 36-38 produces 2 ATP per glucose, with no
ATP per glucose molecule. additional ATP generated beyond
glycolysis.

Summary: Aerobic respiration is

efficient and produces a high amount Summary: Anaerobic respiration is less
of ATP by fully breaking down glucose efficient, producing only 2 ATP per
in the presence of oxygen. glucose. It’s a backup method used in
low-oxygen situations but leads to
byproducts like lactic acid or alcohol.

2. Anaerobic Respiration (without

Comparison:
oxygen)
When oxygen is unavailable, cells
switch to anaerobic processes to Aerobic: High energy yield (36-38
produce energy. ATP), requires oxygen, produces CO₂
and water.
This happens in the cytoplasm and
includes two main types: Lactic Acid
Fermentation and Alcohol
Anaerobic: Low energy yield (2 ATP)
Fermentation.
does not require oxygen, produces
lactic acid or alcohol as byproducts.

Lactic Acid Fermentation:

Common in animal cells (like muscles)
and some bacteria.
Glucose undergoes glycolysis to
produce pyruvate, which is then
converted into lactic acid.
This process generates 2 ATP per
glucose molecule, but no additional
ATP beyond glycolysis.

Alcohol Fermentation:
Occurs in yeast and some plants.
Pyruvate is converted into ethanol and
CO₂.