WELCOME

to The School of
Engineering and
Science

Presenter: Wellington Katsenga

[F&T Cert, ND, HND, BTECH MECH ENG & PDBA ]
Electrical Trade
Theory N2
Module 1:
AC Theory
 5. Alternating current theory
[Link] of ac
[Link] circuits
[Link] and power factor
[Link] and parallel circuits
[Link] and reactive components
[Link]
[Link]-phase ac circuits
 Alternating current theory
Alternating current or voltage varies in magnitude as well as direction
 If a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an alternating emf (voltage) is induced in the coil
 Suitable design of the magnetic circuit enables a sinusoidal alternating emf to be produced
Rate of change of the wave is also sinusoidal, simplifying calculations
Period time (T)
 Duration of one cycle
 Unit – seconds (s)
Frequency (f )
 Number of cycles per second
 Unit = hertz (Hz)
1
𝑇=𝑓 seconds
 Alternating current terms
Instantaneous value
 Instantaneous value of alternating current or
voltage is the specific value that that can be
determined at a certain moment in time
 Symbols : 𝑒 or 𝑖

Maximum value
 Maximum or peak value of an alternating quantity
 Symbols : e.g. 𝐸max or 𝑉𝑚 ; 𝐼max
Conventions in ac circuits
 Instantaneous values : Lower case
 Definite values (e.g. Max, ave, rms) : Upper case
 Upper case E, I and V without subscript represent rms values
 Generation of an alternating
current
The emf is represented by a sine wave which represents a 2-pole generator with a single-loop
coil rotating anti-clockwise between the poles
 The emf generated in a loop is due entirely to
the component of velocity perpendicular to
the magnetic field (𝐴𝐶)

 At 𝜃 = 00 ∶ No induced emf
At 𝜃 = 900 ∶ Maximum emf (positive direction)
At 𝜃 = 1800 ∶ No induced emf
At 𝜃 = 2700 ∶ Minimum emf (negative direction)
At 𝜃 = 3600 ∶ No induced emf
 Value of induced emf
The value of the induced emf is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor
cuts the magnetic field
Induced emf 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 volts where 𝐵 = flux density (Tesla)
𝑙 = length of conductor (metres)
𝑣 = perpendicular component of velocity (m/s)
 At position with angle = 𝜃 0 :
𝐴𝐶
sin 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑃 ∴ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑃 sin 𝜃
∴ Velocity of conductor at right angles to field = 𝑣 sin 𝜃
 Induced emf at angle 𝜃 = 𝑒𝜃 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 𝜃
but maximum emf (at 900) = 𝐸max = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 volts
∴ Instantaneous value 𝑒 = 𝐸max sin 𝜃 volts
Value of induced emf
 Maximum, RMS and average
values
RMS (Root mean squared) value
 Value of ac which produces same amount of
heat energy, at same rate, as dc would, if
passed through identical resistance
 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 0,707 × 𝐸max volts
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 0,707 × 𝐼max amperes

Average value
 Average value of a sinusoidally alternating quantity is the average of all the instantaneous
values along the time axis, with the period being one half cycle
 𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸 = 0,637 × 𝐸max volts
𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐸 = 0,637 × 𝐼max amperes
 Maximum, RMS and average
values
Form factor
 Form factor is the ratio of rms value to average value of a waveform
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
Form factor = =
𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸 𝐼𝐴𝑉𝐸
 For a sine wave, form factor = 1,11 [Note : Form factor is a ratio, and has no units]
Crest factor
 Crest factor is the ratio of maximum value to RMS value of a waveform
𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 𝐼𝑀𝐴𝑋
Crest factor = 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆
= 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
 For a sine wave, crest factor = 1,414 [Note : Crest factor is a ratio, and has no units]
Form factor and crest factor are determined by the shape of the waveform
e.g. rectangular, triangular, etc
 Mid-ordinate rule
This method is used to find approximate RMS
and average values of non-sinusoidal waveforms
 Use the largest possible scale and draw the graph
 Determine the mid-ordinates for each interval
 Use the mid-ordinates in the formulae to determine
𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸 and 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆

𝑒1 +𝑒2 +𝑒3 …𝑒𝑛

𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑛

𝑒12 +𝑒22 + …+𝑒𝑛2

𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
𝑛
 Mid-ordinate rule
a) Average value
𝑒1 +𝑒2 +𝑒3 …𝑒𝑛
 𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛
12+34+54+75+94+112+110+87+68+48+27+10
=
12
= 60,92 𝑉
b)RMS value
𝑒12 +𝑒22 + …+𝑒𝑛2
 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑛
= 69,91 𝑉
𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆 69,91
c)Form factor = 𝐸𝐴𝑉𝐸
= 60,92
= 1,15
𝐸𝑀𝐴𝑋 120
d)Crest factor = 𝐸𝑅𝑀𝑆
= 69,91
= 1,72
 Effect of Resistance in ac circuits
Voltage and current are in phase,
and Ohm’s Law
applies, as in dc circuits

 Ohm’s Law applies:

R = VS / I ; I = VS / R ; VS = R x I
 Inductive ac circuit
Pure inductance is a coil in which we consider the resistance to be zero ohms
 When connected to an ac supply, there is a continuous change in current, leading to
continuously changing magnetic flux, which :
a)Sets up an emf of self-induction
b)Opposes the change in current
Direction of induced emf is such that it always tends to oppose change in current
 The induced emf is the only opposition offered by the circuit to current flow, as there is
theoretically zero resistance
 Supply voltage and induced emf are equal in magnitude, but opposite polarities
 This causes current to lag the voltage by 900
 The opposition to current is called inductive reactance
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Ω
 Effect of Inductance in ac circuits
Phase displacement between alternating
supply and current (max 90ᵒ)
 Voltage leads current - CIVIL
 Inductive Reactance (Opposition to current flow)
XL = 2 π f L ohms

IL = VS / XL
VS = IL x XL
XL = VS / IL
 Effect of Inductance in ac circuits
Example : A 10 mH inductor is connected across a 60 V AC supply.
Calculate the inductive reactance at a frequency of:
1. 60 Hz
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 𝜋 × 60 × 10 × 10−3 = 3,77 Ω

2.300 Hz
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2 × 𝜋 × 300 × 10 × 10−3 = 18,85 Ω
 Capacitive ac circuit
A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator
 When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, a surplus of electrons is stored on one plate,
and a deficit occurs on the other
 Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store electric charge
Symbol - 𝐶 Unit – farad (𝐹)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
 𝐶 = 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉) farads or 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 coulombs
 Current leads the voltage by 900
1
 Capacitive reactance 𝑋𝐶 = Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
 Effect of capacitance in ac
circuits
Q = C V C The charge on the plates ∝ pd between them
 Phase displacement between
alt supply and current (max 90ᵒ)
 Current leads voltage - CIVIL
 Capacitive Reactance (Opposition to current flow)
XC = 1 / (2 π f C) ohms

IC = VS / XC
VS = IC x XC
XC = VS / IC
 Effect of capacitance in ac
circuits
Example : A 100 μF capacitor is connected across a 100 V AC supply.
Calculate the current flow at a frequency of:
1. 60 Hz
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2×𝜋×60×(100×10−6) = 26,53 Ω

2.300 Hz
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = 2×𝜋×300×(100×10−6 ) = 5,31 Ω
 Summary of R, L and C
Impedance (Z)
 The total opposition to current offered
in a circuit by the resistance and the
reactance of the inductor and the
capacitor ; Unit - ohm (Ω)
 Impedance
Impedance (Z)
 The total opposition to current offered in
a circuit by the resistance and the
reactance of the inductor and the
capacitor
 Unit - ohm (Ω)
 Phasor diagrams
Phasor diagrams are used to illustrate the relationships between voltages,
currents, reactances and impedances in an AC circuit
 In a series AC circuit, the voltages will
be out of phase with each other
 Series RL Network
Current (I) is common in network, so R and L phasors can be superimposed (I is reference phasor)

Impedance (Z) is opposition to the flow of ac and is the vector sum of R and XL
 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ω R = resistance and XL = ind. reactance
Voltage (VS) : 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2 𝑉
where VL = I x XL and VR = I x R
Current (I) : I = VS / Z
Phase angle (θ) θ = tan¯¹( XL / R) and θ = tan¯¹ (VL / VR)
 Series RC Network
Current (I) is common in network, so R and L phasors can be superimposed (I is reference phasor)

Impedance (Z) is opposition to the flow of ac and is the vector sum of R and XC
 𝑍= 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐2 Ω R = resistance and XL = cap. reactance
Voltage (VS) : 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑐2 Ω
where VL = I x XC and VR = I x R
Current (I) : I = VS / Z
Phase angle (θ) θ = tan¯¹( XC / R) and θ = tan¯¹ (VC / VR)
 Series RLC Network
Current (I) is common in the network,
so R,L and C phasors can be
superimposed
(I is the reference phasor)
Inductive behaviour (XL ˃ XC)
 Supply voltage V is phasor sum
of (VL – VC) and VR
 I lags V by angle θ; overall
power factor is lagging
Capacitive behaviour(XL ˂ XC)
 Supply voltage V is phasor
sum of (VC – VL) and VR
 I leads V by angle θ; overall power
factor is leading
 Series RLC Network
Voltage
 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝟐𝑹 + 𝑽𝑳 ~𝑽𝑪 𝟐

Current
 I = VS / Z
Phase angle
𝑿
 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝑹

𝑹
or 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏
𝒁
 Resonance in series circuits
Resonance in series networks occurs when 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
 Voltages 𝐼𝑋𝐿 and 𝐼𝑋𝐶 will be equal in magnitude, but
in phase opposition, effectively cancelling out
 Voltage is then in phase with current, and the circuit
behaves as a pure resistor
 The effect is known as resonance, and occurs at the
resonant frequency
1
⟹ 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
⟹ 𝑓2 =
2×𝜋 2 ×𝐿×𝐶
1
⟹ Resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 = 2×𝜋× 𝐿𝐶
Hertz and 𝑍 = 𝑅 Ω
 Parallel RL Network
Voltage (V) is common in the network; R and L phasors can be superimposed (V is the ref. phasor)

Impedance (Z) is opposition to the flow of ac and is the vector sum of R and XL
𝑍 = 𝑅 × 𝑋𝐿 Τ 𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ω R = resistance and XL = inductive reactance

Current (IT) : 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐿2 𝐴

and 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑉𝑆 Τ𝑍

Phase angle (θ) 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝐼𝐿 Τ𝐼𝑅 ) and 𝜃 = cos−1 (𝐼𝑅 Τ𝐼𝑇 )
 Parallel RC Network
Voltage (V) is common in the network; R and L phasors can be superimposed (V is the ref. phasor)

Impedance (Z) is opposition to the flow of ac and is the vector sum of R and XL
𝑍 = 𝑅 × 𝑋𝐶 ൗ 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 Ω R = resistance and XC = capacitive reactance

Current (IT) : 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐶2 𝐴 and 𝐼𝑇 = 𝑉𝑆 Τ𝑍

Phase angle (θ) 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝐼𝐶 Τ𝐼𝑅 ) and 𝜃 = cos−1 (𝐼𝑅 Τ𝐼𝑇 )
 Parallel RLC Network
Voltage (V) is common in the network,
so R,L and C phasors can be
superimposed
(V is the reference phasor)

Capacitive behaviour
 Phasor diagram is identical
to a parallel RC network
 XL ˃ XC ; IL ˂ IC

Inductive behaviour
 Phasor diagram is identical
to a parallel RL network
 XC ˃ XL ; IC ˂ IL
 Parallel RLC Network
Impedance
𝒁=𝟏
𝟐
൙ 𝟏 𝟐
+
𝟏
~
𝟏
𝑹 𝑿𝑪 𝑿𝑳

𝒁 = 𝑽𝑺ൗ𝑰𝑻
Current
 IT = √( IR² + (IC ~ IL )²)
 IT = √( IR² + IX²)
 IT = VS / Z
Phase angle
 θ = tan¯¹ IX / IR
 θ = cos¯¹ IR/ IT
 Resonance in parallel networks
Resonance in series or parallel networks
occurs when XL = XC
 XL is proportional to frequency; XC
is inversely proportional to frequency
 𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 ohms
 𝑿𝑪 = 𝟏Τ 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 ohms
 Resonance in parallel circuits
Resonance in parallel networks occurs when 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
 Currents 𝐼𝐿 and 𝐼𝐶 will be equal in magnitude,
but in phase opposition, effectively cancelling out
 Voltage is then in phase with current, and the circuit
behaves as a pure resistor
 The effect is known as resonance, and occurs at the
1
resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 = 2×𝜋× 𝐿𝐶 Hertz and 𝑍 = 𝑅 Ω
 Power and power factor
In a dc circuit 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉2 Τ𝑅 watts
 In an ac circuit, these expression are only true for instantaneous values of current and
voltage
 Power in an ac circuit depends on the phase relationship between current and voltage
 The term volt-ampere is used to distinguish this quantity from power in watts
 Watts in a circuit is always smaller than or equal to the volt-ampere value
Power (watts) = volt-amperes x power factor
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos ∅ watts
Power factor
 Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between the voltage and current
𝑃 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑊)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 cos ∅ ∴ cos ∅ = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑉𝐴)
 Power and power factor
Effect of low power factor
 Greater current is required for the same true power output, therefore :
a)Larger cables are required
b)Switchgear, transformers, switches and instruments must be rated higher
c)Losses in transmission lines increase (I2R loss)
d)Power factor decreases when kVA increases
Two common ways of correcting power factor :
a)Install capacitors
b)Run special synchronous motors
 Power and power factor
When there is phase displacement between pd and I,
actual power (watts) ˂ the product of V and I (VA)
Two components of current (VI)
 In-phase component = I cos ф
• Active, in-phase or energy component
 Quadrature component = I sin ф
• Reactive, quadrature or wattless component
Product VI sin ф
 Termed wattless power or reactive volt-amperes (VA)
 Represents energy alternately stored in magnetic or electric field and
returned to the circuit; cannot be utilised by conversion to other forms
Power terms
 True or active power : P = VI cos ф watts ; P = I² R watts
 Apparent power : S = VI VA
 Reactive power : Q = VI sin ф reactive VA
 Three-phase ac circuits
Single-phase circuits are effective for lighting and domestic purposes, but less efficient for
industrial use
 Single-phase equipment e.g. single-phase motor, is more expensive than 3-phase
equipment, due to complexity of starting mechanisms and capacitors
 Advantages of 3-phase systems
a)3-phase machines deliver higher power for the same frame size
b)For alternators, the same size prime mover is required for both single and 3-phase
c)3-phase motors deliver higher torque than single-phase motor of same size
d)3-phase supply is more versatile ; when connected in star, delivers line and phase voltages
 Three-phase ac circuits
A 3-phase alternator has three windings
which rotate in a magnetic field
 This produces three emf’s with a
mutual phase difference of 1200
 The instantaneous values for the
phase emf’s are :

𝑒1 = 𝐸max sin(𝜔𝑡) volts

𝑒2 = 𝐸max sin(𝜔𝑡 − 1200 ) volts
𝑒3 = 𝐸max sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2400 ) volts
 Delta-connected system
In Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, the finished terminal of one winding is connected to
start terminal of the next phase, resulting in a closed circuit
 The three line conductors (R, Y and B)
are run from the three junctions of the mesh
 Delta-connected system
There is no neutral in this system
 Three-wire connection
 Line voltage is equal to phase voltage
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑃
 Line current divides between two phases
∴ In a balanced system :
𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼𝐿3
𝐼𝐿
⟹ 2
= 𝐼𝑃 cos 300
𝐼𝐿 3
⟹ 2
= 𝐼𝑃 2
⟹ 𝐼𝐿 = 3. 𝐼𝐿
 Delta-connected system
Power in a delta system
 Power = (𝑉𝑃1 𝐼𝑃1 cos ∅1 ) + (𝑉𝑃1 𝐼𝑃1 cos ∅1 ) + (𝑉𝑃1 𝐼𝑃1 cos ∅1 )
𝐼𝐿 𝐼𝐿
= 3𝑉𝐿 cos ∅ [𝐼𝑃 = ]
3 3

∴ 𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos ∅ watts

 Power is the same for both star and delta if

values for 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 are the same
 In both cases, ∅ is phase difference
between 𝑉𝑃 and 𝐼𝑃 , and not 𝑉𝐿 and 𝐼𝐿
 Star connected system
In Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are
connected to a common point called star or neutral point
• The 3 conductors running from the remaining three terminals are called line conductors
• The wires are carried to the external circuit,
giving three phase, three wire,
star connected systems
• Sometimes a fourth wire is carried from
the star point to the external circuit, called the
neutral wire, forming three phase,
four wire star connected systems
• In a balanced system, current in the
neutral wire is zero
 Star-connected system
Line current is equal to phase current
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑃
𝑉𝑃1 = 𝑉𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑃3
 The voltage between any pair of lines is the phasor
difference of the voltages in the two phases supplying
that pair
⟹ 𝑉𝐿 = 2 cos 300 × 𝑉𝑃1
𝑉𝐿 3
⟹ 2
= 𝑉𝑃 2
3
⟹ 𝑉𝐿 = 2𝑉𝑃 2
∴ Line voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 3𝑉𝑃
Power 𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos ∅ watts
Conclusion
Conclusion
Question & Answers
Question & Answers
Question & Answers