LECTURES NOTE ON

SWITCH GEAR & PROTECTIVE DEVICE

SUBMITTED BY:-PRADEEP KUMAR MOHANTY

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 SYLLABUS
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

1. INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHGEAR 06
Essential Features of switchgear.
Switchgear Equipment.
Bus-Bar Arrangement.
Switchgear Accommodation.
Short Circuit.
Short circuit.
Faults in a power system.

2. FAULT CALCULATION 10
Symmetrical faults on 3-phase system.
Limitation of fault current.
Percentage Reactance.
Percentage Reactance and Base KVA.
Short – circuit KVA.
Reactor control of short circuit currents.
Location of reactors.
Steps for symmetrical Fault calculations.
Solve numerical problems on symmetrical fault.

3. FUSES 05
Desirable characteristics of fuse element.
Fuse Element materials.
Types of Fuses and important terms used for fuses.
Low and High voltage fuses.
Current carrying capacity of fuse element.
Difference Between a Fuse and Circuit Breaker.

4. CIRCUIT BREAKERS 10
Definition and principle of Circuit Breaker.
Arc phenomenon and principle of Arc Extinction.
Methods of Arc Extinction.
Definitions of Arc voltage, Re-striking voltage and Recovery voltage.
Classification of circuit Breakers.
Oil circuit Breaker and its classification.
Plain brake oil circuit breaker.
Arc control oil circuit breaker.
Low oil circuit breaker.
Maintenance of oil circuit breaker.
Air-Blast circuit breaker and its classification.
Sulphur Hexa-fluoride (SF6) circuit breaker.
Vacuum circuit breakers.
Switchgear component.
Problems of circuit interruption.
Resistance switching.
Circuit Breaker Rating.

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5. PROTECTIVE RELAYS 10
Definition of Protective Relay.
Fundamental requirement of protective relay.
Basic Relay operation
a) Electromagnetic Attraction type
b) Induction type
Definition of following important terms
Definition of following important terms.
a) Pick-up current.
b) Current setting.
c) Plug setting Multiplier.
d) Time setting Multiplier.
Classification of functional relays
Induction type over current relay (Non-directional)
Induction type directional power relay.
Induction type directional over current relay.
Differential relay
a) Current differential relay
b) Voltage balance differential relay.
Types of protection

6. PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL POWER EQUIPMENT AND LINES 06

Protection of alternator.
Differential protection of alternators.
Balanced earth fault protection.
Protection systems for transformer.
Buchholz relay.
Protection of Bus bar.
Protection of Transmission line.
Different pilot wire protection (Merz-price voltage Balance system)
Explain protection of feeder by over current and earth fault relay.

7. PROTECTION AGAINST OVER VOLTAGE AND LIGHTING 07

Voltage surge and causes of over voltage.
Internal cause of over voltage.
External cause of over voltage (lighting)
Mechanism of lightning discharge.
Types of lightning strokes.
Harmful effect of lightning.
Lightning arresters.
Type of lightning Arresters.
a) Rod-gap lightning arrester.
b) Horn-gap arrester.
c) Valve type arrester.
Surge Absorber

8. STATIC RELAY 06
Advantage of static relay.
Instantaneous over current relay.
Principle of IDMT relay.

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO SWITCHGEAR
Switchgear
 A switchgear essentially consists of switching and protecting devices such as switches, fuses, circuit
breakers, relays etc.
 During normal operation, switchgear permits to switch on or off generators, transmission lines, distributors
and other electrical equipment.
 when a failure (e.g. short circuit) occurs on any part of power system, a heavy current flows through the
equipment, threatening damage to the equipment and interruption of service to the customers.
 So the apparatus used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is
known as switchgear.

Essential Features Of Switchgear

(i) Complete reliability.
 switchgear is added to the power system to improve the reliability. When fault occurs on any part of the
power system, the switchgear must operate to isolate the faulty section from the remainder circuit.

(ii) Absolutely certain discrimination.

 When fault occurs on any section of the power system, the switchgear must be able to discriminate between
the faulty section and the healthy section.
(iii) Quick operation.
 When fault occurs on any part of the power system, the switchgear must operate quickly so that no damage
is done to generators, transformers and other equipment .
(iv) Provision for manual control.
 In case the electrical (or electronics) control fails, the necessary operation can be carried out through
manual control.

Switchgear Equipments
It includes switches, fuses, circuit breakers, relays and other equipment.
1. Switches.
 A switch is a device which is used to open or close an electrical circuit in a convenient way. It can be used
under full-load or no-load conditions but it cannot interrupt the fault currents. The switches may be
classified into (i) air switches (ii) oil switches.
(i) Air-break switch.
 It is an air switch and is designed to open a circuit under load.
(ii) Isolator or disconnecting switch.
 It is essentially a knife switch and is designed to open a circuit under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate
one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to be opened while current is flowing in the
line.
(iii) Oil switches.
 The contacts of such switches are opened under oil, usually transformer oil.
2. Fuses.
 A fuse is a short piece of wire or thin strip which melts when excessive current flows through it for
sufficient time. It is inserted in series with the circuit to be protected.
3. Circuit breakers.
 A circuit breaker is an equipment which can open or close a circuit under all conditions viz. no load, full
load and fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control) under
normal conditions and automatically under fault conditions.

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4. Relays.
 A relay is a device which detects the fault and supplies information to the breaker for circuit interruption. It
can be divided into three parts

 (i) The primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series with the circuit to be
protected. The primary winding often consists of the main conductor itself.
(ii) The second circuit is the secondary winding of C.T. connected to the relay operating coil.
(iii) The third circuit is the tripping circuit which consists of a source of supply, trip coil of circuit breaker
and the relay stationary contacts.

Bus-bar Arrangement
 When a number of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have to be directly connected
electrically, bus-bars are used as the common electrical component.
 Bus-bars are copper rods or thin walled tubes and operate at constant voltage.

(1) Single Bus-bar System.

 The single busbar system has the simplest design and is used for power stations. It is also used in small
outdoor stations having relatively few outgoing or incoming feeders and lines.
 The generators, outgoing lines and transformers are connected to the bus-bar. Each generator and feeder is
controlled by a circuit breaker.
 The isolators permit to isolate generators, feeders and circuit breakers from the bus-bar for maintenance.

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Advantages-
(i) low initial cost,
(ii) less maintenance and simple operation.
Disadvantages.
(i) The bus-bar cannot be cleaned, repaired or tested without de-energising the whole system.
(ii) If a fault occurs on the bus-bar itself, there is complete interruption of supply.

(2) Single bus-bar system with Sectionalisation.

 The bus-bar divided into two sections connected by a circuit breaker and isolators. Three principal
advantages are claimed for this arrangement.
 Firstly, if a fault occurs on any section of the bus-bar, that section can be isolated without affecting the
supply to other sections.
 Secondly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the fault current is much lower than with unsectionalised bus-bar.
This permits the use of circuit breakers of lower capacity in the feeders.
 Thirdly, repairs and maintenance of any section of the bus-bar can be carried out by de-energising that
section only, eliminating the possibility of complete shut-down.

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(3) Duplicate bus-bar system.
 Such a system consists of two bus-bars a “main bus-bar’’ and a “spare” bus-bar. Each generator and feeder
may be connected to either bus-bar with the help of bus coupler which consists of a circuit breaker and
isolators.

Advantages

(i) If repair and maintenance it to be carried on the main bus, the supply need not be interrupted as the entire load
can be transferred to the spare bus.
(ii) The testing of feeder circuit breakers can be done by putting them on spare bus-bar, thus keeping the main bus-
bar undisturbed.

switchgear Accommodation
Depending upon the voltage to be handled, switchgear may be broadly classified into (i) outdoor type (ii) indoor
type
(i) Outdoor type.
 For voltages beyond 66 kV, switchgear equipment is installed outdoor. It is because for such voltages, the
clearances between conductors and the space required for switches, circuit breakers, transformers and
others equipment become so great.
(ii) Indoor type.
 For voltages below 66 kV, switchgear is generally installed indoor because of economic considerations.
The indoor switchgear is generally of metal-clad type. In this type of construction, all live parts are
completely enclosed in an earthed metal casing.

Short Circuit
Whenever a fault occurs on a network such that a large current flows through the circuit. This is called short-circuit
current.
Causes of short-circuit. It may be caused due to internal and external effects.

 Internal effects are caused by breakdown of equipment or transmission lines, from deterioration of
insulation in a generator, transformer and ageing of insulation, inadequate design or improper installation.

 External effects causing short circuit include insulation failure due to lightning surges, overloading of
equipment causing excessive heating; mechanical damage by public

Fault On Power System

 A fault occurs when two or more conductors that normally operate with a potential difference come in
contact with each other. the faults in a 3-phase system can be classified into two main categories.
 Symmetrical faults. That fault which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (equal faults currents with
120o displacement) is called a symmetrical fault. ex-LLL falut
 Unsymmetrical faults. Those faults which give rise to unsymmetrical currents (unequal line currents with
unequal displacement) are called unsymmetrical faults. ex-LG,LLG,LL fault

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 CHAPTER 2
SYMMETRICAL FAULT CALCULATIONS
Symmetrical Fault
 That fault on the power system which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal fault currents in
the lines with 120o displacement) is called a symmetrical fault.
 The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a 3-phase line are brought together
simultaneously into a shortcircuit condition

Limitation Of Fault Current

 When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system, the short-circuit current is limited by the impedance of
the system upto the point of fault.

 if a fault occurs on the feeder at point F, then the short circuit current from the generating station will have
a value limited by the impedance of generator and transformer and the impedance of the line between the
generator and the point of fault.

Percentage Reactance
 The reactance of generators, transformers, reactors etc. is usually expressed in percentage reactance to
permit rapid short circuit calculations.
 It is the percentage of the total phase-voltage dropped in the circuit when full-load current is flowing i.e.

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Percentage Reactance And Base KVA

Short Circuit KVA

The product of normal system voltage and short-circuit current at the point of fault expressed in kVA is known as
short-circuit kVA.

Reactor Control Of Short Circuit Current

 In order to limit the short-circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers can handle, additional
reactances known as reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable points.
 A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as compared to its ohmic
resistance.

Location Of Reactors
(1) Generator reactors.
 When the reactors are connected in series with each generator, they are known as generator reactors .
 In this case, the reactor may be considered as a part of leakage reactance of the generator , hence its effect
is to protect the generator in the case of any short-circuit beyond the reactors.

Disadvantages
(i) There is a constant voltage drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation.
(ii) If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar, the voltage at the bus-bar will be reduced to a low value,
thereby causing the generators to fall out of step.

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(2) Feeder reactors.
 When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as feeder [Link]
principal advantages are claimed for feeder reactors.
 Firstly, if a fault occurs on any feeder, the voltage drop in its reactor will not affect the bus-bars voltage so
that there is a little tendency for the generator to lose synchronism.
 Secondly, the fault on a feeder will not affect other feeders and consequently the effects of fault are
localised.

Disadvantages
(i) There is a constant power loss and voltage drop in the reactors even during normal operation.
(iii) If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder reactors will have to be increased
to keep the short-circuit currents within the ratings of the feeder circuit breakers

(3) Bus-bar reactors.

 The above two methods of locating reactors suffer from the disadvantage that there is considerable voltage
drop and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation.
 This disadvantage can be overcome by locating the reactors in the bus-bars by Ring system and Tie-Bar
system.

(i) Ring system.

 In this system, bus-bar is divided into sections and these sections are connected through reactors. one
feeder is fed from one generator only.
 Under normal operating conditions, each generator will supply its own section of the load and very little
power will be fed by other generators.
 The principal advantage of the system is that if a fault occurs on any feeder, only one generator (to which
the particular feeder is connected) mainly feeds the fault current while the current fed from other
generators is small due to the presence of reactors.

(ii) Tie-Bar system.

 Advantage of tiebar system is that additional generators may be connected to the system without requiring
changes in the existing reactors.
 Disadvantage that it requires an additional bus-bar i.e. the tie-bar.

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SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 12
 CHAPTER-3
FUSE
Fuse
 A fuse is a short piece of metal, inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive current flows
through it and thus breaks the circuit
 The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity and
least deterioration due to oxidation e.g- silver, copper etc.

Characteristics Of Fuse Element

(i) low melting point e.g., tin, lead.
(ii) high conductivity e.g., silver, copper.
(iii) free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.
(iv) low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.

Fuse Element Material

 The most commonly used materials for fuse element are lead, tin, copper, zinc and silver.
 For small currents upto 10 A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin 63%) is used for making
the fuse element.
 For larger currents, copper or silver is employed.

The present trend is to use silver despite its high cost due to the following reasons :
(i) It is comparatively free from oxidation.
(ii) It does not deteriorate when used in dry air.
(iii) The coefficient of expansion of silver is so small that no critical fatigue occurs. Therefore,
the fuse element can carry the rated current continuously for a long time.
(iv) The conductivity of silver is very high.

Important Term Of Fuse

(i) Current rating of fuse element.
 It is the current which the fuse element can normally carry without overheating or melting. It
depends upon the temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder, fuse material and the
surroundings of the fuse.

(ii) Fusing current.

 It is the minimum current at which the fuse element melts and thus disconnects the circuit
protected by it.

(iii) Fusing factor.

 It is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current rating of the fuse element. Its value is
always more than one. The smaller the fusing factor, the greater is the difficulty in avoiding
deterioration due to overheating and oxidation at rated carrying current.

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 (iv) Prospective Current.
 The r.m.s. value of the first loop of fault current is known as prospective current. It is the r.m.s.
value of the first loop of the fault current obtained if the fuse is replaced by an ordinary conductor
of negligible resistance.

(v) Cut-off current.

 It is the maximum value of fault current actually reached before the fuse melts.

(vi) Pre-arcing time.

 It is the time between the commencement of fault and the instant when cut off occurs.

(vii) Arcing time.

 This is the time between the end of pre-arcing time and the instant when the arc is extinguished.

(viii) Total operating time.

 It is the sum of pre-arcing and arcing times.

(ix) Breaking capacity.

It is the r.m.s. value of a.c. component of maximum prospective current that a fuse can deal with at rated
service voltage.

Types of Fuse
The fuses may be classified into two types:
(i) Low voltages fuses
(ii) High voltage fuses

(I) Low Voltage Fuses

Low voltage fuses can be subdivided into two classes again
(1) semi-enclosed rewireable fuse
(2) high rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse.

1. Semi-enclosed rewireable fuse / Kit Kat fuse.

 Rewireable fuse is used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted.

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  It consists of a base and a fuse carrier.
 The base is of porcelain and carries the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing phase
wires are connected.
 The fuse carrier is also of porcelain and holds the fuse element (tinned copper wire) between its
terminals. The fuse carrier can be inserted in or taken out of the base when desired.
 When a fault occurs, the fuse element is blown out and the circuit is interrupted. The fuse carrier is
taken out and the blown out fuse element is replaced by the new one.

Disadvantages
(i) This type of fuse has a low-breaking capacity and hence cannot be used in circuits of high fault level.
(iii) The fuse element is subjected to deterioration due to oxidation through the continuous heating up of the
element.

2. High-Rupturing capacity (H.R.C.) cartridge fuse.

 It consists of a heat resisting ceramic body having metal end-caps to which is welded silver current
carrying element.
 The space within the body surrounding the element is completely packed with a filling powder.
 The filling material may be chalk, plaster of paris, quartz or marble dust and acts as an arc
quenching and cooling medium.

 Under normal load conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting
[Link], it carries the normal current without overheating.
 When a fault occurs, the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current
reaches its first peak. The heat produced in the process vapourises the melted silver element.
 The chemical reaction between the silver vapour and the filling powder results in the formation of
a high resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.
Advantages
(i) They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault currents.
(ii) They do not deteriorate with age.
(iii) They have high speed of operation.
(iv) They provide reliable discrimination.
(v) They require no maintenance.

Disadvantages
(i) They have to be replaced after each operation.

3. H.R.C. fuse with tripping device.

 Sometime H.R.C. cartridge fuse is provided with a tripping device. When the fuse blows out under
fault conditions, the tripping device causes the circuit breaker to operate.
 The body of the fuse is of ceramic material with a metallic cap rigidly fixed at each end.

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  These are connected by a number of silver fuse elements. At one end is a plunger which under
fault conditions hits the tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker and causes it to operate.
 The plunger is electrically connected through a fusible link, chemical charge and a tungsten wire
to the other end of the cap as shown.

 When a fault occurs, the silver fuse elements are the first to be blown out and then current is
transferred to the tungsten wire. The weak link in series with the tungsten wire gets fused and
causes the chemical charge to be detonated. This forces the plunger outward to operate the circuit
breaker. The travel of the plunger is so set that it is not ejected from the fuse body under fault
conditions.

Advantages.
(i) In case of a single phase fault on a three-phase system, the plunger operates the tripping mechanism of
circuit breaker to open all the three phases and thus prevents “single phasing”.
(ii) The effects of full short circuit current need not be considered in the choice of circuit breaker. This
permits the use of a relatively inexpensive circuit breaker.

(ii) High Voltage Fuses

(1) Liquid type.

 It consists of a glass tube filled with carbon tetrachloride solution and sealed at both ends with
brass caps.
 The fuse wire is sealed at one end of the tube and the other end of the wire is held by a strong
phosphor bronze spiral spring fixed at the other end of the glass tube.
 When the current exceeds the prescribed limit, the fuse wire is blown out. As the fuse melts, the
spring retracts part of it through a baffle (or liquid director) and draws it well into the liquid.
 The small quantity of gas generated at the point of fusion forces some part of liquid into the
passage through baffle and there it effectively extinguishes the arc.

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 Current Carrying Capacity Of A Fuse Element
 The current carrying capacity of a fuse element mainly depends on the metal used and the cross
sectional area but is affected also by the length, the state of surface and the surroundings of the
fuse.
 When the fuse element attains steady temperature,
Heat produced per sec = Heat lost per second by convection, radiation and conduction

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 Difference Between Fuse And Circuit Breaker

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 CHAPTER 4
CIRCUIT BREAKER
Circuit Breaker & Operating Principle
 A circuit breaker can make or break a circuit either manually or automatically under all conditions
( no-load, full-load and short-circuit conditions)
 A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes.
 Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically
until and unless the system becomes faulty.
 When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energised
and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.

Arc Phenomenon
The current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance,
the smaller the current that flows between the contacts.
The arc resistance depends upon the following factors
(i) Degree of ionisation
 The arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number of ionised particles between the
contacts.

(ii) Length of the arc

 The arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e., separation of contacts.

(iii) Cross-section of arc

 The arc resistance increases with the decrease in area of X-section of the arc.

Methods of Arc Extinction

There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers
1. High Resistance Method
In this method, arc resistance is made to increase with time so that current is reduced to a value insufficient
to maintain the arc. The principal disadvantage of this method is that enormous energy is dissipated in the
arc. Therefore, it is employed only in d.c. circuit breakers and low-capacity a.c. circuit breakers.

The resistance of the arc may be increased by :

(i) Lengthening the arc.
The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to its length. The length of the arc can be increased by
increasing the gap between contacts.
(ii) Cooling the arc.
Cooling helps in the deionisation of the medium between the contacts.
(iii) Reducing X-section of the arc.
If the area of X-section of the arc is reduced, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. In other
words, the resistance of the arc path is increased.
(iv) Splitting the arc.
The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in series.

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 2. Low Resistance Method
This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits only. In this method, arc resistance is kept low
until current is zero where the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from restriking inspite of the
rising voltage across the contacts.
The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero can be achieved by :
(i) lengthening of the gap
 The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to the length of the gap between contacts.
Therefore, by opening the contacts rapidly, higher dielectric strength of the medium can be
achieved.

(ii) cooling
 Dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts can be increased by cooling the arc.

(iii) blast effect

 If the ionised particles between the contacts are swept away and replaced by unionised particles,
the dielectric strength of the medium can be increased considerably. This may be achieved by a
gas blast directed along the discharge or by forcing oil into the contact space.

Important Terms

(i) Arc Voltage.

 It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker during the arcing period is
called the arc voltage.
(ii) Restriking voltage.
 It is the transient voltage that appears across the contacts at or near current zero during arcing
period.

 At current zero, a high-frequency transient voltage appears across the contacts and is caused by the
rapid distribution of energy between the magnetic and electric fields associated with the plant and
transmission lines of the system. This transient voltage is known as restriking voltage.

(iii) Recovery voltage

 It is the normal frequency r.m.s. voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker
after final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the system voltage.

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 Classification Of Circuit Breaker
The classification is based on the medium used for arc extinction. The medium used for arc extinction is
usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and vacuum.

(i) Oil circuit breakers

 Oil is used for extinguishing the arc. ( transformer oil)

(ii) Air-blast circuit breakers

 High pressure air-blast is used for extinguishing the arc.

(iii) Sulphur hexafluroide circuit breakers

 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used for arc extinction.

(iv) Vacuum circuit breakers

 Vacuum is used for arc extinction.

Oil Circuit Breaker

 Insulating oil is used as an arc quenching medium.
 The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them.
 The heat of the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a substantial volume of
gaseous *hydrogen at high pressure.
 The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. The oil
is pushed away from the arc and an expanding hydrogen gas bubble surrounds the arc region and
adjacent portions of the contacts

The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes.

 The hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc, thus aiding the de-ionisation of the
medium between the contacts.
 The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between contacts, thus eliminating
the arcing products from the arc path. The result is that arc is extinguished and circuit current
interrupted.

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 Advantages
(i) It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases which have excellent cooling properties.
(ii) It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between live conductors and earthed components.
Disadvantages
(i) It is inflammable and there is a risk of a fire.
(iii) The arcing products like carbon remain in the oil and its quality deteriorates with successive
operations. This necessitates periodic checking and replacement of oil.

Types Of Oil Circuit Breaker

(i) Bulk oil circuit breakers

A large quantity of oil is used for arc quenching.
The oil has to serve two purposes.

 It extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts

 It insulates the current conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tank.
 it again classified in to two types
(a) Plain break oil circuit breakers
(b) Arc control oil circuit breakers.

(ii) Low oil circuit breakers

A small quantity of oil is used for arc quenching.
 The oil is only use for arc extinction and the current conducting parts are insulated by air or
porcelain or organic insulating material.

Plain-Break Oil Circuit Breaker

 It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a strong weather-tight earthed tank containing
oil up to a certain level and an air cushion above the oil level.
 The air cushion provides sufficient room to allow for the reception of the arc gases without the
generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the circuit breaker. It also absorbs the mechanical
shock of the upward oil movement.

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  Under normal operating conditions, the fixed and moving contacts remain closed and the breaker
carries the normal circuit current.
 When a fault occurs, the moving contacts are pulled down by the protective system and an arc is
struck which vapourises the oil mainly into hydrogen gas.

The arc extinction is facilitated by the following processes :

(i) The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the arc column and aids the deionisation of the
medium between the contacts.
(ii) The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and helps in eliminating the arcing products from the arc path.
(iii) As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts, the dielectric strength of the medium is increased.
the arc is extinguished and the circuit current is interrupted.

Disadvantages
(i) These breakers have long and inconsistent arcing times.
(ii) These breakers do not permit high speed interruption.

Low oil circuit breakers

Construction
 There are two compartments separated from each other but both filled with oil.
 The upper chamber is the circuit breaking chamber while the lower one is the supporting chamber.
 The two chambers are separated by a partition and oil from one chamber is prevented from mixing
with the other chamber.
 This arrangement permits two advantages.
 The circuit breaking chamber requires a small volume of oil which is just enough for arc
extinction.
 The amount of oil to be replaced is reduced as the oil in the supporting chamber does not
get contaminated by the arc.

(i) Supporting chamber.

It is a porcelain chamber mounted on a metal chamber. It is filled with oil which is physically separated
from the oil in the circuit breaking compartment. The oil inside the supporting chamber and the annular
space formed between the porcelain insulation and bakelised paper is employed for insulation purposes
only.

(ii) Circuit-breaking chamber.

It is a porcelain enclosure mounted on the top of the supporting compartment. It is filled with oil and has
the following parts :
(a) upper and lower fixed contacts
(b) moving contact
(c) turbulator

(iii) Top chamber.

It is a metal chamber and is mouted on the circuit-breaking chamber. It provides expansion space for the oil
in the circuit breaking compartment.
Operation
 Under normal operating conditions, the moving contact remains engaged with the upper fixed
contact.

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  When a fault occurs, the moving contact is pulled down by the tripping springs and an arc is
struck.
 The arc energy vaporises the oil and produces gases under high pressure. This action constrains
the oil to pass through a central hole in the moving contact and results in forcing series of oil
through the respective passages of the turbulator. The process of turbulation is orderly one in
which the sections of the arc are successively quenched by the effect of separate streams of oil
moving across each section in turn and bearing away its gases.

Advantages
(i) It requires lesser quantity of oil.
(ii) It requires smaller space.
Disadvantages.
(i) Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonisation is increased.
(ii) There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time.

Maintenance Of Oil Circuit Breaker

(i) Check the current carrying parts and arcing contacts. If the burning is severe, the contacts should be
replaced.
(ii) Check the dielectric strength of the oil. If the oil is badly discoloured, it should be changed

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 24

 (iii) Check the oil level.
(iv) Check closing and tripping mechanism.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker

A high pressure air-blast is used for an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened in a flow of air-
blast established by the opening of blast valve. The air-blast cools the arc and sweeps away the arcing
products to the atmosphere and Consequently the arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.

Types Of Air Blast Circuit Breaker

(i) Axial-blast type
 The air-blast is directed along the arc path

(ii) Cross-blast type

 The air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc path

(iii) Radial-blast type

The air-blast is directed radially along the arc path

(i) Axial-blast air circuit breaker

 The fixed and moving contacts are held in the closed position by spring pressure under normal
conditions.

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  The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve. This valve remains
closed under normal conditions but opens automatically by the tripping impulse when a fault
occurs on the system.

 When a fault occurs, the tripping impulse causes opening of the air valve which connects the
circuit breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber.
 The high pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact against spring
pressure.
 The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck. Consequently the arc is extinguished and
current flow is interrupted.

(ii) Cross-blast air breaker.

 In this type of circuit breaker an air-blast is directed at right angles to the arc.
 The cross-blast lengthens and forces the arc into a suitable chute for arc extinction.
 When the moving contact is withdrawn, an arc is struck between the fixed and moving contacts.
 The high pressure cross-blast forces the arc into a chute consisting of arc splitters and baffles. The
splitters serve to increase the length of the arc and baffles give improved cooling. The result is that
arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Air Blast Circuit Breaker

Advantages
(i) The risk of fire is eliminated.
(ii) The arcing products are completely removed by the blast
(iii) The growth of dielectric strength is so rapid that final contact gap needed for arc extinction
is very small. This reduces the size of the device.

Disadvantages
(i) Maintenance is required for the compressor plant.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 26

 Sulphur Hexaflouride (Sf6) Circuit Breaker
 In such circuit breakers, sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) gas is used as the arc quenching medium.
 It consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a chamber (called arc interruption chamber)
containing SF6 gas. This chamber is connected to SF 6 gas reservior.
 When the contacts of breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a high pressure SF 6 gas
from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber.
 The fixed contact is a hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with an arc horn. The
moving contact is also a hollow cylinder with rectangular holes in the sides to permit the SF6 gas
to let out through these holes after flowing along and across the arc.
 The tips of fixed contact, moving contact and arcing horn are coated with copper-tungsten arc
resistant material.

Operation
 When a fault occurs the contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow of SF6 gas and
an arc is struck between them.
 The high pressure flow of SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form immobile
negative ions which are ineffective as charge carriers.
 The result is that the medium between the contacts quickly builds up high dielectric strength and
causes the extinction of the arc.

Advantages
(i) Due to the superior arc quenching property of SF6, such circuit breakers have very short arcing time.
(ii) Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such breakers can interrupt much
larger currents.
(iii) The SF6 circuit breaker gives noiselss operation due to its closed gas circuit and no exhaust
to atmosphere unlike the air blast circuit breaker.

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 Disadvantages
(i) SF6 breakers are costly due to the high cost of SF6.

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

 In such breakers vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium.
 It consists of fixed contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum chamber.
 The movable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows. This
enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of leak.
 A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body. The arc shield prevents the
deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic vapours falling on the inside
surface of the outer insulating cover.

Operation
 When the breaker operates the moving contact separates from the fixed contact and an arc is
struck between the contacts.
 The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapours, electrons and ions produced during
arc are diffused in a short time and seized by the surfaces of moving and fixed members and
shields.
 Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in a vacuum
breaker occurs with a short contact separation (0·625 cm).

Advantages
(i) They are compact, reliable and have longer life.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 28

 (ii) There are no fire hazards.
(iii) There is no generation of gas during and after operation.

Switchgear Components
(i) Bushings.
(ii) Circuit breaker contacts.
(iii) Instrument transformers.
(iv) Bus-bars and conductors.

Resistance Switching
 The excessive voltage surges during circuit interruption can be prevented by the use of shunt
resistance R connected across the circuit breaker contacts .This is known as resistance switching.

 when a fault occurs, the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened and an arc is struck between the
contacts.
 The contacts are shunted by resistance R, a part of arc current flows through this resistance. This
results in the decrease of arc current and an increase in the rate of de-ionisation of the arc path.
Consequently, the arc resistance is increased and the arc is extinguished and circuit
current is interrupted.
 The shunt resistor also helps in limiting the oscillatory growth of re-striking voltage. It can be
proved mathematically that natural frequency of oscillations of the circuit

 The resistors across breaker contacts may be used to perform the following functions

(i) To reduce the rate of rise of re-striking voltage and the peak value of re-striking voltage.
(ii) To reduce the voltage surges due to current chopping and capacitive current breaking

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 29

 CHAPTER -5
PROTECTIVE RELAY
Protective Relay-
 A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit
breaker to ioslate the defective element from the rest of the system.
 The relays detect the abnormal conditions in the electrical circuits by constantly measuring the
electrical quantities which are different under normal and fault conditions.

The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts

(i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.) which is connected in series with the
line to be protected.
(ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
(iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the
trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

 When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing in the line
increases to an enormous value.
 This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing
its contacts.
 This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the
faulty section from the rest of the system.
 In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and normal working
of the healthy portion of the system.

Fundamental Requirement Of Protective Relay

(i) selectivity
(ii) speed

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 30

 (iii) sensitivity
(iv) reliability
(v) simplicity
(vi) economy

Basic Relay
Relay work on the following two main operating principles
(i) Electromagnetic attraction
(ii) Electromagnetic induction

(i) Electromagnetic attraction

 Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of
an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid.
 Electromagnetic attraction relays may be actuated by d.c. or a.c. quantities.

(i) Attracted armature type relay

 It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted laminated armature.
 The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair of spring contact fingers at its free
end.
 Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such that counterweight
holds the armature in the normal position.

 when a short-circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay
armature is attracted upwards.
 The contacts on the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame.
This completes the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and the
disconnection of the faulty circuit.

(ii) Solenoid type relay

 It consists of a solenoid and movable iron plunger arrangement.
 Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such that it holds the
plunger by gravity or spring in the normal position.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 31

  When a fault occurs the current through the relay coil becomes more than the pickup value,
causing the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes
the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit.

(iii) Balanced beam type relay

 It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam.
 Under normal operating conditions the current through the relay coil is such that the beam is held
in the horizontal position by the spring.
 when a fault occurs the current through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value and
the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to
isolate the faulty circuit.

Induction Relays
 Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are widely used
for protective relaying purposes involving a.c. quantities.
 An induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two alternating
magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
 The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
induced in the disc by the other.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 32

  The production of torque in an induction relay shown in figure (i). The two a.c. fluxes 2 and 1
differing in phase by an angle induce e.m.f.s’ in the disc and cause the circulation of eddy currents
i2 and i1 respectively.
 These currents lag behind their respective fluxes by 90o. shown in figure (ii).
 let

 where 1 and 2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and 2 leads 1 by an angle α . Assuming
that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-inductance, the rotor currents
will be in phase with their voltages.

The two forces are in opposition are shown in figure (ii).

Net force F at the instant considered is

where 1 and 2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 33

 The following three types of structures are commonly used for obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes
and hence the operating torque in induction relays :
(i) shaded-pole structure
(ii) watthour-meter or double winding structure
(iii) induction cup structure

(i) Shaded-pole structure

 It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an electromagnet. Onehalf of
each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading ring.

 The alternating flux s in the shaded protion of the poles will, owing to the reaction of the current
induced in the ring, lag behind the flux u in the unshaded portion by an angle α .
 These two a.c. fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the disc.
 The driving torque T  su sin 
 Assuming the fluxes s and u to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil,
T  I 2 sin 

(ii) Watthour-meter structure
 It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc arranged to rotate freely between the poles of two
electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet carries two windings that is the pirmary and the secondary winding.
 The primary winding carries the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
winding of the lower magnet.
 The primary current induces e.m.f. in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it.
 The flux 2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the upper
magnet will lag behind 1 by an angle α .
 The two fluxes 1 and 2 differing in phase by will produce a driving torque on the disc
proportional to 12 sin  .

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 34

(iii) Induction cup structure
 It is like an induction motor except that the rotor iron is stationary, only the rotor conductor portion being
free to rotate.
 The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis. The rotating field is produced by
two pairs of coils wound on four poles as shown.
 The rotating field induces currents in the cup to provide the necessary driving torque. If 1 and 2
represent the fluxes produced by the respective pairs of poles, then torque produced is proportional to
12 sin  where  is the phase difference between the two fluxes.

 A control spring and the back stop for closing of the contacts carried on an arm are attached to the spindle
of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.

 Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-pole or the watthour
meter structures.

Important Terms
(i) Pick-up current
 It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate. So long as the current in the
relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not operate.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 35

(ii) Current setting
 To adjust the pick-up current to any required value. The current setting is required
 Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. Current setting

(iii) Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.)

 It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current.

(iv) Time-setting multiplier

A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This adjustment is known as time-setting
multiplier. The time-setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec.

Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (Non-directional)

 These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault current flow in either direction.
 It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets.
The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary winding.
 The primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals.
The tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the number of active turns on the relay
operating coil can be varied and giving the desired current setting.
 The secondary winding is energised by induction from primary and is connected in series with the winding
on the lower magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral spring. The spindle of the disc carries a
moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates through a
pre-set angle.
 This angle can be adjusted to any value between 0o and 360o. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the
moving contact can be adjusted and hence the relay can be given any desired time setting..

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 36

 Operation
 The driving torque on the aluminum disc is set up due to the induction principle. This torque is
opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring.
 Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque produced
by the relay coil current. Therefore, the aluminum disc remains stationary.
 Under fault operating conditions, the current exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque. then the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges
the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the
circuit breaker isolates the faulty section.

Induction Type Directional Power Relay

 This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a specific direction.
 It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets.
 The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb which is
connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source.
 The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the secondary
of C.T. in the line to be protected.
 The current coil is provided with a number of tappings connected to the plugsetting bridge (not
shown for clarity). This permits to have any desired current setting.
 The restraining torque is provided by a spiral [Link] spindle of the disc carries a moving
contact which bridges two fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. By
adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc can be adjusted.

Operation.
 The flux 1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90º lagging behind the applied
voltage V.
 The flux 2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating current I.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 37

 The interaction of fluxes 1 and 2 with the eddy currents induced in the disc produces a driving torque
given by :
T  12 sin 
1  V
2  I
  (90   )
T  VI sin(90   )
T  VI cos( )

Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay

It consists of two relay elements. That is directional element and non-directional element.

(i) Directional element.

 A directional power relay operates when power flows in a specific direction. The potential coil of
this element is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current
coil of the element is energised through a C.T. by the circuit current.
 This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element. The trip contacts (1
and 2) of the directional element are connected in series with the secondary circuit of the
overcurrent element.
 It cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words the directional
element must operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 2 should close) in order to operate the overcurrent
element.

(ii) Non-directional element.

 It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay.
 The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes the fixed contacts
(trip circuit contacts) after the operation of directional element.
 The plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting. The tappings are provided
on the upper magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 38

 Operation.
 Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit protected by
the relay. So directional power relay (upper element) does not operate by keeping the overcurrent
element (lower element) unenergised.
 Under fault operating conditions, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the reverse
direction. Then the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This
completes the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this element rotates and the moving
contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the
faulty section.

Differential Relay
 A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
 Under normal operating conditions, the two currents are equal but as soon as a fault occurs. The
difference between the incoming and outgoing currents is arranged to flow through the operating
coil of the relay. If this differential current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay
will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.

(i) Current balance protection

 It consist of a pair of identical current transformers are fitted on either end of the section to be
protected.
 The secondaries of CT’s are connected in series in such a way that they carry the induced currents
in the same direction.
 The operating coil of the overcurrent relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit. This
differential relay compares the current at the two ends of the alternator winding.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 39

  Under normal operating conditions, then the currents in the two secondaries of CT’s are equal .
These currents will circulate between the two CT’s and no current will flow through the
differential relay.
 If a ground fault occurs on the alternator winding in the below figure (i) then the two secondary
currents will not be equal and the current flows through the operating coil of the relay, causing the
relay to operate.
 The amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the fault.

(ii) Voltage balance protection

 In this protection the two similar current transformers are connected at either end of the element
to be protected by means of pilot wires.
 The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series with a relay in such a way that
under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f.s’ are in opposition.

 Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both primary windings. So the secondary
voltages of the two transformers are balanced against each other and no current will flow through
the relay operating coil.
 When a fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ from one
another (i.e. I1 I2) and their secondary voltages will no longer be in balance. This voltage
difference will cause a current to flow through the operating coil of the relay which closes the trip
circuit.

Types Of Protection
 When a fault occurs on any part of electric power system it must be cleared quickly in order to
avoid damage with the rest of the system.
 The protection scheme classified into two types ( primary protection and back-up protection).

(i) Primary Protection.

 In each line is an overcurrent relay is connected to protects the line.
 If a fault occurs on any line, it will be cleared by its relay and circuit breaker. This forms the
primary or main protection and serves as the first line of defence.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 40

  If the faults are not cleared by primary relay system because of trouble within the relay, wiring
system or breaker. Under such conditions, back-up protection does the required job.

(ii) Back-up protection.

 It is the second line of defence in case of failure of the primary protection.
 It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given enough
time to function .
 In the above figure relay A provides back-up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is
not cleared by its relay and breaker, the relay A on the group breaker will operate after a definite
time delay and clear the entire group of lines.

SGPD LECTURE NOTE Page 41