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MAT213

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LINEAR ALGEBRA

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August 27, 2021

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Contents

1 VECTOR SPACES 5
1.1 Vector addition Operation (rule) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Scalar Multiplication Operation (rule) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Examples of Vector Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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1.3.1 Rn over R n−tuple space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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1.3.2 The n−tuple space Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.3 The space of m × n matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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1.3.4 The space of a functions from a set to a eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 LEMMA 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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1.5 LEMMA 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 SUB-SPACES 11

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2.1 LINEAR SPANS AND COMBINATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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3 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE 15
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4 BASIS AND DIMENSION 19
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5 FINITE AND INFINITE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR SPACE 21

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6 CO-ORDINATES 23
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7 Mappings/Functions 25
7.1 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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7.1.1 Composition of Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

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7.2 One-to-one and Onto mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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8 Linear Transformation 29
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8.1 Examples of Linear mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

8.1.1 Derivative and integral mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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8.1.2 Zero and Identity Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

9 Matrix Representation of a Linear Transformation 31

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CONTENTS
Chapter 1

VECTOR SPACES

The following denes the notion of a vector space V where F is the eld of scalars.

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Denition Let V be a non-empty set with two operations:

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(i) Vector addition: This assigns to any x, y ∀ V , a sum x + y ∈ V .

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(ii) Scalar Multiplication: This assign to any x ∈ V, α ∈ F a product αx ∈ V .

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Then V is called a vector space (over the eld F) if the following axioms hold for any Vector x, y, z ∈ V .

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1.1 Vector addition Operation (rule)
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(a) x + y = y + x ∀ x, y, ∈ V (commutative)
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(b) (x + y) + z = x + (y + z) ∀ x, y, z ∈ V (Associative)
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(c) ∀ x ∈ V ∃ 0 ∈ V called zero Vector ∃ x + 0 = 0 + x = x

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(d) ∀ x ∈ V ∃ 0 uniques vector −x ∈ V ∃ x + (−x) = 0

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1.2 Scalar Multiplication Operation (rule)

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(a) α(x + y) = αx + αy ∀x, y ∈ V, α ∈ F (Distributive law)

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(b) (α + β)x = αx + βx ∀ α, β ∈ F, x ∈ V (Distributive law)

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(c) (αβ)x = α(βx) ∀ α, β ∈ F, x ∈ V (Associative law)

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(d) 1 · x = x (presentation of scalar ) x ∈ V, 1 ∈ F

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REMARK: It is important to observe that a vector space is a composite of object consist of a eld F , a set of
V and a two operation with a certain special properties.
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1.3 Examples of Vector Spaces

1.3.1 Rn over R n−tuple space
Let K be a eld and F be a subed of K (F ⊂ K). Then K is a vector space over the eld F using + as the
addition of element of K and by dening for every alpha (α) and x (i.e ∀ α ∈ F and x ∈ K) αx be the product
of α & x as element in the eld K . K is a vector space over F but F is not a vector space over K .

1.3.2 The n−tuple space Rn

Let F be any eld and V be the set of all n−tuples.

X = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) where αi ∈ F

Y = (β1 , β2 . . . βn ) where βi ∈ F

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6 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR SPACES

The sum of X and Y is dened by

X + Y = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (β1 , β2 . . . βn )
= (α1 + β1 , α2 + β2 , . . . αn + βn )
The product of scalar α and Vector x is dened by αx = α(α1 , α2 . . . αn ) = (αα1 , αα2 . . . ααn )
Then Rn is a vector space over the eld F
To Verify (1)
Proof:
Let V = Rn and F = R
take x ∈ Rn where x = (α1 , α2 . . . αn ), αi ∈ R
take y ∈ Rn where y = (β1 , β2 . . . βn ), βi ∈ R

(i) To show that addition is commutative

x + y = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (β1 , β2 . . . βn )

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= (α1 + β1 , α2 + β2 , . . . αn + βn )

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= (β1 + α1 , β2 + α2 , . . . αn + α)

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= (β1 , β2 . . . βn ) + (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn )

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= y + x Addition is commutative

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(ii) To show that addition is associative
Let z ∈ Rn ∃ : z = (a1 , a2 . . . an ), ∀ ai ∈ R

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(x + y) + z = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (β1 , β2 . . . βn ) + (a1 , a2 . . . an )

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= (α1 + β1 + a1 , α2 + β2 + a2 , . . . αn + βn + an )

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= (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (β1 + a1 , β2 + a2 , . . . βn + an )
= x + (y + z) Addition is associative
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(iii) Take 0 ∈ R ∃ : 0 = (0, 0, 0 . . . 0)
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Now,
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x + 0 = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + 0
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= (α1 + 0, α2 + 0, . . . , αn + 0)
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= (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn )
x

=x
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(iv) ∀ x ∈ Rn ∃ − x ∈ Rn ∃ : x + (−x) = 0
let − x ∈ Rn ∃ : −x = (−α1 , −α2 , . . . − αn )
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Then x + (−x) = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (−α, − α2 , . . . − αn )

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= (α1 − α1 , α2 − α2 , . . . αn − αn )
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= 0, 0, . . . 0 = 0

(v) α(x + y) = αx + αy
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Takeα ∈ R, x ∈ Rn , y ∈ Rn
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α(x + y) = α[(α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + (β1 , β2 . . . βn )]

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= α(α1 , α2 , . . . , αn ) + α(β1 , β2 . . . βn )
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= αx + αy
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(vi) (α + β)x = αx + βx
Take α, β ∈ R and x ∈ Rn
(α + β)x = (α + β)(α1 , α2 , . . . , αn )
= (αα1 + βα1 , αα2 + βα2 , . . . ααn + βαn )
= (αα1 , αα2 , . . . ααn ) + (βα1 , βα2 , . . . βαn )
= αx + βx

(αβ)x = (αβ)(α1 , α2 , . . . αn )
(vii) = α(βα1 , βα2 , . . . βαn )
= α(βx)

1 · x = 1 · (α1 , α2 , . . . αn )
(viii) = (α1 , α2 , . . . αn )
=x
1.4. LEMMA 1 7

1.3.3 The space of m × n matrices

Let F be any eld and let m and n be positive integers, let F m×n be the matrices over the eld F . The sum of
two vectors A and B in F m×n is dened by (A + B)ij = Aij + Bij
The product of the scalar α and vector A in F m×n is dened by α(Aij ) = αAij
Then F m×n is a vector space over the eld F . ( This is an example of a vector space).

1.3.4 The space of a functions from a set to a eld

Let I be the interval of the real line and let F (I) be the set of all real values function dimension I for f and g . In
f (I) and a scalar c, we dene the functions f + g and cf by:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ∀ x ∈ I
(cf )x = c · [f (x)] ∀ x ∈ I
Then (f (1), +) is a vector space.

1.4 LEMMA 1

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Let V be a vector space and x&y are vectors in V , then there is one and only one (unique) u ∈ V ∃ : x + u = y

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Proof we rst prove that there exist such u
let u = (−x) + y

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x + u = x + [(−x) + y]
= [x + (−x)] + y

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=x−x+y

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=y

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Having proved the existence of u, we go further to prove uniqueness of u.
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Assume ∃ u1 , u2 ∈ V
but x + u = y
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=⇒ x + u1 = y, x + u2 = y
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=⇒ u1 = u2
Hence the proof
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1.5 LEMMA 2
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Let u be a vector space over F then

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1. α0 = 0 ∀ α ∈ F, 0 ∈ V
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2. 0 · u = 0 ∀ 0 ∈ F, u ∈ V
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3. (−α)u = −(αu) ∀ u ∈ V, −α ∈ F
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4. αu = 0 ⇒ α = 0 or u = 0
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prove lemma (1) to (4)

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Examples
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1. Let V be the set of ordered pairs of real numbers. Show that V is not a vector space with respect to the
following addition and scalar multiplication
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(1)
α(a, b) = (αa, b)
(2) (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
α(a, b) = (αa, αb)
Solution
(i) Take a, b, c, d ∈ V
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) ∈ V
This implies that set V is close under vector addition
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
= (c + a, d + b)
= (c, d) + (a, b) (commulative)
8 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR SPACES

(ii) Take x, y, z, ∈ V where x = (a, b), y = (c, d), z = (h, k)

x + (y + z) = (a, b) + [(c, d) + (h, k)]
= (a, b) + (c + h, d + k)
= (a + c + h, b + d + k) ∈ V
= (a + c, b + d) + (h, k)
= [(a, b) + (c, d)] + (h, k)
= (x + y) + z (Addition is associative)
(iii) ∀ x ∈ V take −x ∈ V , where x = (a, b)
x + (−x) = (a, b) + (−a, −b)
(a − a, b − b) = (0, 0) = 0 ∈ V
(iv) 0 ∈ V ∀ x ∈ V ∃ :
x + 0 = (a, b) + (0, 0)
= (a + 0, b + 0) ∀ x ∈ V , take α ∈ R where x = (a, b) and y = (c, d), then αx = α(a, b) =

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= (a, b) ∈ V

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(αa, b) ∈ V
⇒ The set V is closed under scalar multiplication

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(v) Now, take x, y ∈ V and α R , where x = (a, b), y = (c, d)
α(x + y) = α[(a, b) + (c, d)]

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= α(a + c, b + d)
= (αa, b) + (αc, d)

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= αx + αy

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(vi) Take α, β, ∈ R and x ∈ V where x = (a, b)

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(α + β)x = [(α + β)](a, b)
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= (α + β)(a, b)
= (αa + βa, b)
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but αx + βx = α(a, b) + β(a, b)

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= (αa, b) + (βa, b)
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= (αa + βa, b + b)
= αa + βa, 2b
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⇒ (α + β)x ̸= αx + βx
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thus, V is not a vector space

(vii) Take α, β, ∈ R ∀ x ∈ V , where x = (a, b)
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(αβ)x = (αβ)(a, b)
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= (αβa, b)
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= α(βa, b)

(viii) Take 1 ∈ R, x ∈ V
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1 · x = 1 · (a, b)
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= (1 · a, b) = (a, b)
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The axioms that fails to be satised is that of αx + βx ∀ α, β ∈ R; x = (a, b)

i.e (α + β)x ̸= αx + βx
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2. Show that the set of all pairs of real number where x < 0 with the standard operations dened on R2 is not
a vector space.
Solution
Let V = {(x, y)/x < 0}
(x, y) + (h, k) =(x + h, y + k) : x + h ≤ 0
(x, y) ∈ V, (h, k) ∈ V
α(x, y) =(αx, αy) αx < 0
(a) Take a, b ∈ V / a = (x, y), b = (h, k), x < 0, h < 0
a + b = (x, y), +(h, k)
= (x + h, y + k) ∈ V, x + h < 0
= (h + x, k + y)
= (h, k) + (x, y)
= a + b commutative
1.5. LEMMA 2 9

(b) Take a, b, c, ∈ V ∃ : a = (x, y), b = (h, k), c = (f, g) : f < 0

a + (b + c) = (x, y) + [(h, k) + (f, g)]
= (x, y) + (h + f, k + g)
= (x + h + f, y + k + g)
= [(x + h, y + k)] + (f, g) = (a + b) + c (addition is associative

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10 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR SPACES

page10

(c) ∀a ∈ V : a = (x, y)/x < 0

let us assume that ∃ unique vector
(additive inverse) − a ∈ V : −a = (−x, −y)
− a = (−x, −y); −x > 0
=⇒ −a = (−x, −y) ̸∈ V
=⇒ for every element (x, y) ∈ V /x < 0 ∃ no additive inverse.
(d) Since it is a + (−a) that will give 0, and −a ̸∈ V . We can deduce that ∃ no zero vector in V. i.e 0 ̸∈ V

Assume ∃ zero vector d = (t, T )/t = 0, T = 0

But each element a ∈ V : a = (x, y), x < 0
It implies that d = (t, T )/t = 0, T = 0 is not in V
⇒ V is not a vector space.

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Scalar Multiplication: ∀ a ∈ V : a = (a, y)/x < 0

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Take α ∈ R/α < 0
Now αa = α(x, y) = (αx, αy) ̸∈ V because α x > 0. It implies that set V is not close under scalar

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multiplication and so it is not a vector space.

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Chapter 2

SUB-SPACES

Denition Let V be a vector space and let S be a non-empty subset of V , then S is subspace of V if it satises

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the following axioms;

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1. If u, w ∈ S implies u + w ∈ S

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2. If u ∈ S implies α u ∈ S for each α ∈ R

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Example
1. Let V be a vector space over a eld F , then V itself is a sub-space of V (V ⊂ V ) and the sub-space consisting

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zero vector alone is a subspacce of V called zero sub-space of V .

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2. In R3 , the set w of the form w = {a, b, 0/a, b, ∈ R} is a subspace of R3

3. Let V be the space of all m × n square matrices, then, the set w consisting of these matrices A = aij for
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aij = aji (symmetric matrices) is called a subspace of V .
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Example
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Given that w = (x, y)/x = 3y , show that w is a subspace of R2

Solution
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Take a, b ∈ w and α ∈ R
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1. a, b ∈ w ⇒ a + b ∈ w
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2. a ∈ w : α ∈ R ⇒ αa ∈ w
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3. ∀ a ∈ V : a = (x, y)/x = 3y, b = (h, k)/h = 3k

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a + b = (x, y) + (h, k), x = 3y, h = 3k

= (x + h, y + k) x + h = 3(y + k)
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= (x + h, y + k) ∈ w
Again, take α ∈ R and a ∈ w : a = (x, y)
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∃ : x = 3y
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then αa = α(x, y) : x = 3y
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= (αx, αy) : αx = 3αy

Hence the proof.
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Lemma: Let S be a sub-space of V , if w is any other sub-space of V containing S , then L(S) ⊂ W

Proof:
Let x, y ∈ L(S)
⇒x = α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . αn xn , αi ∈ R, xi ∈ S
y = β1 y1 + β2 y2 + . . . βn yn , βi ∈ R, yi ∈ S
then,
x + y = (α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . αn xn ) + (β1 y1 + β2 y2 + . . . βn yn )
= (α1 x1 + β1 y1 + α2 x2 + β2 y2 . . . αn xn + βn yn ) ∈ L(S)
∀α1 , β1 , ∈ R, x1 , y1 , ∈ S
Take β ∈ R, x ∈ L(S)
βx = β(α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . αn xn )
= β(α1 β1 x1 + α2 β2 x2 + . . . αn βn xn ) ∈ L(S)
Hence, L(S) is a subspace of V
Since S ⊂ W and W is a subspace of V , it follows that α1 x1 + α2 x2 + . . . αn xn ∈ W i.e x ∈ W =⇒ L(S) ⊂ W .

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12 CHAPTER 2. SUB-SPACES

In other words, L(S) is the smallest subspace of V containing S , hence it is called the subspace spanned by S or
generated by S .

Example
Show that {(x, x + 1)/x ∈ R} in the space R2 is not a subspace.
Solution
Let T = {(x, x + 1)/x ∈ R}
We need to show that

(i) x, y ∈ T =⇒ x + y ∈ T

(ii) x ∈ T, α ∈ R =⇒ αx ∈ T

Now take x, y ∈ T
where x = (a, a + 1) ∈ T
y = (b, b + 1) ∈ T

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x + y = (a, a + 1) + (b, b + 1)

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= (a + b, a + b + 2) ̸∈ T
∴ the set T is not closes under vector addition

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For x ∈ T : x is as dened above, α ∈ R

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αx = α(a, a + 1)

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= (αa, α(a + 1))
= (αa, αa + α) ̸∈ T

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thus the set is not closed under scalar multiplication. Hence it is not a subspace.

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2.1 LINEAR SPANS AND COMBINATIONS
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Denition:
Let V be a vector space of the eld F and let u1 , u2 , . . . un ∈ V , any vector in V in the form α1 u1 + α2 u2 +
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. . . + αn un , αi ∈ F is called the linear combination of a vector u1 , u2 . . . un .

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Examples
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1. In R2 , express (-3, 2) as a linear combination of (1, 0), (0, 1).

Solution
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(−3, 2) = α1 (1, 0), α2 (0, 1)

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(−3, 2) = (α1 , 0), (0, α2 )

(−3, 2) = (α1 + 0, 0 + α2 )
− 3 = α1 (i)
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2 = α1 + α2 (i)
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(−3, 2) = −3(1, 0), 2(0, 1)

2. In R2 , express (3, -5) as a linear combination of (1, 1), (1, 0)

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Solution
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let u1 = (1, 1) and u2 = (1, 0)

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Take some α1 , α2 ∈ R
(3, −5) = α1 u1 + α2 u2
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Then α1 (1, 1) + α2 (1, 0)

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= (α1 , α1 ) + (α2 , 0)
=⇒ (3, −5) = (α1 + α2 , α1 )
α1 + α2 = 3
α1 = −5
α2 = 3 + 5 = 8
Hence (3, -5) =-5(1, 1) + 8(1, 0)

Denition:
If S is a non-empty subset of a vector space V then L(S) the linear span of S is the set of all linear combination
or nite set of element of S . It Says that S spans or generate V if every vector in V can be expressed as a linear
combination of vectors in S .
Examples
1. Show that (1, 0, 0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) in R3 spans R3 .
Solution
2.1. LINEAR SPANS AND COMBINATIONS 13

Take (a, b, c) ∈ R3
Now (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1)
also for (−3, 5, 2)
(−3, 5, 2) = −3(1, 0, 0) + 5(0, 1, 0) + 2(0, 0 1)
We can therefore conclude that every element in R3 is a linear combinatio of (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1) i.e
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) generate R3 . Hence the proof.
     
1 1 −1 1 0 1
2. Show that the matrices , , do not span the space of 2 × 2 matrices.
0 1 0 −1 0 0
Solutions
Let Abe the space of 2 × 2 matrices.
t a
Take ∈ A, α1 , α2 , α3 ∈ R
T B
       
t a 1 1 −1 1 0 1
= α1 + α2 + α3
T B 0 1 0 −1 0 0
For some α , α , α ∈ R

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   1 2 3     
t a α1 α1 −α2 α2 0 α3

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= + +
T B   0 α1 0 −α2 0 0
t a α1 − α2 α1 + α2 + α3

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=

ee
T B 0 −α2
α1 − α2 = t(1)

T
α1 + α2 + α3 = a(2)
T = 0(3)
α1 − α2 = B (4)

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From the above equations, we observe that the solutions are inconsistent. Hence, the proof.

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3. Let V = (−3, 8, −4) in R3 be a linear combination of the vectors u1 = (1, 3, −4), u2 = (1, 1 − 3) and
u3 = (−2, 1, 2). Find the value of α1 , α2 , α3 ∈ R such that V = α1 u1 + α2 u2 + α3 u3 .
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Solution
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V = α1 u1 + α2 u2 + α3 u3
(−3, 8, −4) = α1 (1, 3, −4) + α2 (1, 1, −3) + α3 (−2, 1, 2)
l
ce

= (α1 , 3α1 , −4α1 ) + (α2 , α2 , −3α2 ) + (−2α3 , α3 , 2α3 )

= (α1 + α2 − 2α3 , 3α1 + α2 + α3 , −4α1 − 3α2 + 2α3 )
x

α1 + α2 − 2α3 = −3(i)
E

3α1 + α2 + α3 = 8(ii)
− 4α1 − 3α2 + 2α3 = −4(iii)
y

From (i) α1 = −α2 + 2α3 − 3(iv)

b

substitude (iv) into (ii) and (iii)

3(−3 − α2 + 2α3 ) + α2 + α3 = 8
ed

− 9 − 3α2 + 6α3 + α2 + α3 = 8
− 2α2 + 7α3 = 17(v)
il
p

− 4(−3 − α2 + 2α3 ) − 3α2 + 2α3 = −4

12 + 4α2 − 8α3 − 3α2 + 2α3 = −4
m

α2 − 6α3 = −16(vi)
o

from (vi) α2 = −16 + 6α3 (vii)

subs (vii) into (v)
C

−2(−16 + 6α3 ) + 7α3 = 17

32 − 12α3 + 7α3 = 17
− 5α3 = 17 − 32
− 5α3 = −15
α3 = −15
−5 = 3

α2 = −16 + 6α3
α2 = −16 + 6 × 3 = −16 + 18 = 2
α2 = 2

α1 = −3 − α2 + 2α2
α1 = −3 − 2 + 2 × 3
α1 = −5 + 6 = 1
α1 = 1
V = u1 + 2u2 + 3u3
14 CHAPTER 2. SUB-SPACES

(−3, 8, −4) = 1(1, 3, −4) + 2(1, 1, −3) + 3(−2, 1, 2)

4. Determine whether or not, the vector V = (3, 9, −4, −2) is a linear combination of the vectors u1 =
(1, −2, 0, 3), u2 = (2, 3, 0, −1), u3 = (2, −2, 2, 1) in R4 .
Solution
V = α1 u1 + α2 u2 + α3 u3 , α1 , α2 , α3 ∈ R
(3, 9, −4, −2) = α1 (1, −2, 0, 3) + α2 (2, 3, 0, −1) + α3 (2, −1, 2, 1)
= (α1 , −2α1 , 0, 3α1 ) + (2α2 , 3α2 , −α2 ) + (2α3 , −α3 , 2α3 , α3 )
= (α1 + 2α2 + 2α3 , −2α1 + 3α2 − α3 , 2α3 , 3α1 − α2 + α3 )
α1 + 2α2 + 2α3 = 3(i)
− 2α1 + 3α2 − α3 = 9(ii)
2α3 = −4(iii)
3α1 − α2 + α3 = −2(iv)
From (iii) α3 = −42 = −2
substituting α3 = −2 into (i) & (ii)

y
α1 + 2α2 − 4 = 3
∴ α1 + 2α2 = 7(v)

m
− 2α1 + 3α2 + 2 = 9

-
− 2α1 + 3α2 = 7(vi)

ee
from (v) α1 = 7 − 2α2 (vii)
substitude (vii) into (vi)

T
−2(7 − 2α2 ) + 3α2 = 7
− 14 + 4α2 + 3α2 = 7

d
7α2 = 21, α2 = 21 7 =3

n
substituting α2 = 3 into (vii)

a
α1 = 7 − 2 × 3
α1 = 7 − 6 = 1
ce
α1 = 1
∴ V = u1 + 3u2 − 2u3
n

Hence (3, 9, −4, −2) = 1(1, −2, 0, 3) + 3(2, 3, 0, −1) − 2(2, −1, −2, 1)
le

Exercise
l
ce

1. Find the values of α, β, γ ∈ R, such that V ∈ R can be expressed as a linear combination of u1 , u2 and
u3 .
x

(a) V = (3, 2, 4), u1 = (1, 2, 3), u2 = (2, 3, 7) and u3 = (3, 5, 6)

E

(b) V = (6, 9, 3), u1 = (−1, 2, 3), u2 = (5, 3, 1) and u3 = (−3, 1, −2)

y

2. Express V = t2 + 5t + 4 as a linear combinatin of P1 = t2 + 2t − 1, P2 = t2 − 3t − 1, P3 = t2 + t − 1

b

3. Express the polynomial V = 3t2 + 5t − 5 as a linear combination of the polynomials P1 = t2 + 2t − 1, P2 =

ed

2t2 + 5t + 4, P3 = t2 + 3t + 6
il
p
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o
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Chapter 3

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

Denition: Let S = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } be a set of vectors space V , the set S is said to be linearly independent if

y
and only if vector equation α1 u1 + α2 u2 + . . . + αn un = 0 has a unique solution α1 = 0, α2 = 0, . . . αn = 0.

m
Denition: Let S = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un } be a set of vectors space V , the set S is said to be linearly dependent if
and only if vector equation α1 u1 + α2 u2 + . . . + αn un = 0 has at least two dierent solutions for α1 , α2 , . . . αn .

-
(i.e ∃ α1 , α2 , . . . αn not all of them equal to zero)

ee
T
LEMMA If u1 , u2 , . . . un ∈ V are linearly independent, then evey element in their linear span has a unique

d
representation of the form α1 u1 + α2 u2 + . . . + αn un with αi ∈ R

n
a
Proof By denition, every element on the linear spans of u1 , u2 , . . . un is of the form.
ce
α1 u1 + α2 u2 + . . . + αn un , αi ∈ R, ui ∈ V .
Suppose
n

α1 u1 + α2 u2 + . . . + αn un = β1 u1 + β2 u2 + . . . βn un
le

(α1 − β1 )u1 + (α2 − β2 )u2 + . . . + (αn − βn )un = 0 ∀αi , βi ∈ R

V is linearly independent if
l

α1 − β1 = 0
ce

α2 − β2 = 0
..
x

.
E

αn − βn = 0
=⇒ α1 = β1 , α2 = β2 , . . . αn = βn
y

i.e αi = βi ∀ αi , βi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . n
Hence the proof.
b

Examples
ed

1. Showthat the
 followingsets in 
R2 are linearly independent.
il

1 3 3 1
a= , b=
p

−1 4 −1 3
m

Solution
Weneed toshow that
 α1 a+ α2b = 0,such that α1 = 0, α2 = 0 ∀ α1 , α2 ∈ R
o

1 3 3 1 0 0
C

α1 + α2 =
−1 4 −1 3 0 0
     
α1 3α1 3α2 α2 0 0
+ =
−α 4α1 −α2 3α2 0 0
 1   
α1 + 3α2 3α1 + α2 0 0
=
−α1 − α2 4α1 + 3α2 0 0
i.e
α1 + 3α2 = 0 (i)
3α1 + α2 = 0 (ii)
4α1 + 3α2 = 0 (iii)
−α1 − α2 = 0 (iv)
from (iv) α1 = −α2
thus, (i) becomes
− α2 + 3α2 = 0
2α2 = 0, α2 = 02 = 0

15
16 CHAPTER 3. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

α1 = −α2 = 0
α1 = 0
α1 = α2 = 0
Thus , a and b are linearly independent.
2. Show that the vectors u1 = (1, 2, 3), u2 = (2, 5, 7) and u3 = (1, 3, 5) are linearly independent.
Solution
Here we seek scalars α1 , α2 , α3 such that
α1 u1 + α2 u2 + α3 u3 = 0
α1 (1, 2, 3) + α2 (2, 5, 7) + α3 (1, 3, 5) = 0
(α1 , 2α1 , 3α1 ) + (2α2 , 5α2 , 7α2 ) + (α3 , 3α3 , 5α3 ) = 0
(α1 + 2α2 + α3 , 2α1 + 5α2 + 3α3 , 3α1 + 7α2 + 5α3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
α1 + 2α2 + α3 = 0 (i)
2α1 + 5α2 + 3α3 = 0 (ii)
3α1 + 7α2 + 5α3 = 0 (iii)
from (i)

y
α1 = −2α2 − α3 (iv)

m
substitude (iv) into (ii) & (iii)
2(−2α2 − α3 ) + 5α2 + 3α3 = 0

-
− 4α2 − 2α3 + 5α2 + 3α3 = 0

ee
α2 + α3 = 0 (v)

T
3(−2α2 − α3 ) + 7α2 + 5α3 = 0
− 6α2 − 3α3 + 7α2 + 5α3 = 0
α2 + 2α3 = 0 (vi)

d
from (v) α2 = −α3 (vii)

n
subst(vii) into (vi)

a
− α3 + 2α3 = 0
α3 = 0
ce
α2 = 0
n

α1 = 0
le

∴ α1 = α2 = α3 = 0 thus , u1 , u2 and u3 are linearly independent.

l
ce

3. Show that u1 = (1, 1, 1), u2 = (1, 3, 2) and u3 = (4, 9, 5) are linearly independent.
Solution
x

Here we seek scalars x, y, z such that xu1 + yu2 , +zu3 = 0

E

x(1, 1, 1) + y(1, 3, 2) + z(4, 9, 5) = 0

(x, x, x) + (y, 3y, 2y) + (4z, 9z, 5z) = (0, 0, 0)
y

(x + y + 4z, x + 3y + 9z, x + 2y + 5z) = (0, 0, 0)

b

x + y + 4z = 0 (i)
x + 3y + 9z = 0 (ii)
ed

x + 2y + 5z = 0 (iii)
from(i) x = −y − 4z (iv)
il

substitute (iv) into (ii) & (iii)

p

− y − 4z + 3y + 9z = 0
m

2y + 5z = 0(v)
− y − 4z + 2y + 5z = 0
o

y + z = 0(vi)
C

from (vi) y= -z (vii)

subtitude (vii) into (v)
2(−z) + 5(z) = 0
− 2z + 5z = 0
3z = 0
z=0
Hence, vectors u1 , u2 and u3 linearly independent.

Examples on linear dependence

1. Let u = (1, 1, 0), v = (1, 3, 2) and w = (4, 9, 5). Then u, v, w are linearly independent, because
3u + 5v − 2w = 3(1, 1, 0) + 5(1, 3, 2) − 2(4, 9, 5) = (0, 0, 0) = 0
2. Determine whether or not the vectors u = (1, 1, 2), v = (2, 3, 1) and w = (4, 5, 5) in R3 are linearly
dependent.
 17

Solution
set a linear combination of u, v, w equal to the zero vector using unknowns x, y, z to obtain the equivalent
homogenous system of linear equations and then reduce the system to echelon form. This yields
       
1 2 4 0
x 1 + y 3 + z 5 = 0
1 1 5 0
or
x + 2y + 4z = 0
x + 3y + 5z = 0
2x + y + 5z = 0
or
x + 2y + 4z = 0
y+z =0

The echelon system has only two non-zero equations in three unknowns, hence, it has a free variable and a non-zero

y
solution. Thus, u, v, w are linearly dependent.

m
Exercise

-
1. Determine whether or not u and v are linearly independent where

ee
(a) u = (1, 2), v = (3, −5)

T
(b) u = (1, −3), v = (−2, 6)
(c) u = (1, 2, −3), v = (4, 5, −6)

d
n
(d) u = (2, 4, −8), v = (3, 6, −12)

a
Hint: two vectors u and v are linearly dependent i one is a multiple of the other
answers (a) No (b) yes: for v = −2u (c) No (d) yes; for v = 32 u
ce
2. Determine whether or not u and v are linearly dependent where
n

(a) u = 2t2 + 4t − 3
le

(b) v = 4t2 + 8t − 6
l
ce

(c) u = 2t2 − 3t + 4
(d) v = 4t2 − 3t + 2
x
E
y
b
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18 CHAPTER 3. LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

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Chapter 4

BASIS AND DIMENSION

Denition Let V be a vector space, a subset B of V is a basis of V , if the following two conditions hold

y
1. B is linearly independent

m
2. B generate or spans the entire space V , i.e L(B) = v

-
ee
Examples

T
1. In R2 , {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis of R2 , is known as standard basis of R2
2. In R2 , {(1, 3), (2, 1)} is a basis of R2

d
Solution

n
a
1. If the set is linearly independent, then,
α(1, 3) + β(2, −1) = (0, 0) for some α, β ∈ R and α = β = 0
ce
(α, 3α) + (2β, −β) = (0, 0)
(α + 2β, 3α − β) = (0, 0)
n

α + 2β = 0 (i)
le

3α − β = 0 (ii) from(i)α = −2β (iii)

subtitude (iii) into (ii)
l
ce

3(−2β) − β = 0
− 6β − β = 0
x

− 7β = 0
0
E

β = −7 =0
but α = −2β
=⇒ α = −2 × 0 = 0
y

α=β=0
b

2. Take (a, b) ∈ R2 , ∀ α, β ∈ R
ed

(a, b) = α(1, 3) + β(2, −1)

= (α, 3α) + (2β, −β)
il

= (α + 2β, 3α − β)
p

α + 2β = a(i)
m

3α − β = b(ii)
from (ii) β = 3α − b(iii)
o

put (iii) into (i)

C

α + 2(3α − b) = a
α + 6α − 2b = a
7α = a + 2b
α = a+2b
7
β = 3( a+2b
7 )−b=
3a+6b
7 − b = 3a+6b−7b
7 = 3a−b
7
∴ (a, b) = a+2b
7 (1, 3) + 3a−b
7 (2, −1)
Therefore, vector {(1, 3), (2, -1)} are linearly independent and spans R2 , hence it is a basis.
(3) The set of unit co-ordinate vector {e1 , e2 , e3 } in R3 where e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)
is obviously in R3 for it is independent and generate R3 .
(4)In R3 , B = {(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1)} is also an independent set of vector and the equation (a, b, c) =
(b − c)(1, 1, 0) + (b − a)(0, 1, 1) + (a − b + c)(1, 1, 1), shows that the set B also generates R3 . Therefore B is a
basis for R3 .

Exercise
Determine which of the followiing sets are bases for R3

19
20 CHAPTER 4. BASIS AND DIMENSION

(a) {(1, 3), (2, 1)}

(b) {(3, 2), (-6, 4)}

(c) {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)}

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ee
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Chapter 5

FINITE AND INFINITE DIMENSIONAL

VECTOR SPACE

y
m
Denition Let V be a vector space, if V has a nite subset {u1 , u2 , . . . un } which spans V , then V is called a

-
nite dimensional vector space. If every nite subset of V fails to spans V , then V is called an innite dimensional

ee
vector space.

T
Examples

d
(i) A vector space R2 , R3 are all nite dimensional vector space.

n
(ii) A vecotr space F of all real value function dene on the real line R and the vector space P∞ of all polynomial

a
are innite dimensional vector space.
ce
Theorem Let S = {u1 , u2 , . . . un } be a basis for a vector space V . Then every linearly independent subset of
V contains at most n vector.
n
le

corollary Let S = {u1 , u2 , . . . un } and T = {a1 , a2 , . . . an } be two bases for a vector space V , then M = K
l
ce

Proof We know that the number of elemnets in any linearly independendt subset of V can not exceed the number
of elements in the basis for V (accordint to the above theorem). If we let S play the role of a basis and T the role
x

of a subset, we have
E

M ⊂ K (i)
y

conversely, if we let T play the role of a basis and S the role of a linear independent subset, we have
b

K ⊂ M (ii)
ed

Since (i) and (ii) can simultaneously hold, it implies that M = K . Hence the proof.
il

Note: The corollary allow us to dene dimension of a nite dimesional vector space as the number of element in
p

the basis V :
m

The dimension of a vector space V is denoted by dim V . e.g dim R3 , dim Rn = n

Examples
o

1. If f is a eld, then dimensional vector space f n is n (dim f n = n) because the standard basis of f n contains
C

n − vectors.

2. The matrix space f m×n has dimension m × n (dim f m×n = m × n)

21
22 CHAPTER 5. FINITE AND INFINITE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR SPACE

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Chapter 6

CO-ORDINATES

Let {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a basis of an n−dimensional vector space V over a eld K , and let u be any vector in V .

y
Since {ei } generate V , u is a linear combination of the ei s i.e

m
u = α1 e1 + α2 e2 + αn en : αi ∈ K

-
ee
Since {ei s} are independent, such a representation is unique i.e the scalares α1 , α2 , . . . αn are completely deter-
mined by the vector u and the basis {ei s}. We calls the n−tuple scalar {α1 , α2 , . . . αn } the co-ordinate of vector

T
u relative to the basis {ei } and is denoted by [u]e = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }

d
Example

n
consider the real space R3 , nd the co-ordinate vector of u = (3, 1, −4) relative to the basis

a
(a) e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)
ce
(b) f1 = (1, 1, 1), f2 = (0, 1, 1), f3 = (0, 0, 1)
n

Solution
le

1. u = α1 e1 + α2 e2 + α3 e3 , αi ∈ R, u ∈ R3
l

(3, 1, −4) = α1 (1, 0, 0) + α2 (0, 1, 0) + α3 (0, 0, 1)

ce

= (α1 , 0, 0) + (0, α2 , 0) + (0, 0, α3 )

x

= (α1 , α2 , α3 )
E

i.eα1 = 3, α2 = 1, α3 = −4
[u]e = (3, 1, −4)
y

Exercise
b

1. Let P2 be the vector space of all polynomial of degree ≤ 2 and the zero polynomial. Find the co-ordinate
ed

vector of the polynomial P = 3x2 − 3x + 1 with respect to each of the ordered basis. b = {x2 , x, 1} and
B ′ = {x2 − 2x, x + 1, x − 1} of P2
il

2. Consider the ordered bases B = {(1, 0), (1, 1)} and B ′ = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} for R2 . Find the co-ordinate
p

vector of u = (−2, 1) with respect to each of the bases B & B ′ of R2 .

m
o
C

23
 24

C
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p
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CHAPTER 6.

ee
- m
y
CO-ORDINATES
Chapter 7

Mappings/Functions

y
7.1 Mappings

- m
Let A and B be arbituary sets, suppose to each a ∈ A, there is assigned a uniqe element of B , the collection F of

ee
f
such assignment is called a function or mapping (or map) from A to B and is denoted by f : A → B or A − → B.
We write f (a) for the alue of f at a or the image of a under F .

T
If A′ ⊆ and B ′ ⊆ B
f (A′ ) = {f (a)/a ∈ A}

d
f −1 (B ′ ) = {a/f (a) ∈ B}

n
we call f (A′ ) the image of A′ under f and f −1 (B ′ ) the imverse image or pre-image of B ′ under f .

a
If f : A → B is a mapping, then A is called the domain, B is called the co-domain and f (A) is called the range of
f . To each map f : A → B , there corresponds the subset of A × B given by {a, f (a)/a ∈ A}. We call this set the
ce
graph of F . Two Mappings f : A → B and g : A → B are said to be equal written f = g if f (a) = g(a) ∀
a ∈ A. i.e if they have the same graph.
n

Example 1:
l le
ce

f
x

A B
E
y
b

1 a
ed

2 b
il
p

3 c
m

d
o

4
C

Domain={1, 2, 3, 4}=A
Co-domain={a, b, c, d} =B
Range of F={a, b, c}
Graph of f = {(1, b), (2, a), (3, b), (4, c)}

Example 2
Let f : R → R be the function that assigns to each real number x its square x2 . We can denote the function by
writing
f (x) = x2 or x → x2
f (x) = {x2 /x ≥ 0, x ∈ R}
graph of f = {(x, x2 )}

25
26 CHAPTER 7. MAPPINGS/FUNCTIONS

Example 3 
1 −3 5
Consider 2 × 3 matrix A = .
2 4 −1
If we write the vector in R3 and R2 as column vectors, then A determines the mappings T : R3 → R2 dened by
T (v) =Av 
3
v= 1 
−2
If    
3   3  
1 − 3 5 −10
T  1  =  1  =
2 4 −1 12
−2 −2
Remark:The above example shows that every m × n matrix A over a eld k determines the mapping T : K n×1 →
K m×1 dened by T (v) = Av ∀ v ∈ K n

7.1.1 Composition of Mapping

y
m
If f : A → B and g : B → C are two mappings, then (gof ) : A → C dened by (gof )a = go(f (a)) ∀ a ∈ A
is called the composition of the mappings f and g . The composition of mapping is associative. i.e if we let

-
f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D. Then ho(gof ) = (hog)of .

ee
T
Example
Let f, g, and h be mapping on the set of real numbers dened by f (x) = 2x + 1, g(x) = x2 − 3, and h = 3x + 2.

d
n
(i) Compute f og and gof

a
(ii) Show that (f og)oh = f o(goh)
ce

Solution
n
le

f og = f (g(x)) = f (x2 − 3)
l
ce

= 2(x2 − 3) + 1
= 2x2 − 6 + 1
x
E

= 2x2 − 5
1.
gof = g(f (x)) = g(2x + 1)
y

= (2x + 1)2 − 3
b

= 4x2 + 4x + 1 − 3
ed

= 4x3 + 4x − 2
il

(f og)oh = f g(3x + 2)
p

= f (9x2 + 12x + 4 − 3)
m

= f (9x2 + 12x + 1)
= 2(9x2 + 12x + 1) + 1
o

= 18x2 + 24x + 3
C

2. f o(goh) = 2(goh) + 1
= 2(g(h(x))) + 1
= 2(g(3x + 2)) + 1
= 2[(3x + 2)2 − 3] + 1
= 2[9x2 + 12x + 1] + 1
= 18x2 + 24x + 3
(f og)oh = f o(goh) = 18x2 + 24x + 3.

Exercise
Show that (hog)of = ho(gof ), if

1. h = x2 − 1, g = 3x − 12, f = x + 5

2. h = 2 − x, g = x − 1, f = 2x2 − 1
7.2. ONE-TO-ONE AND ONTO MAPPING 27

7.2 One-to-one and Onto mapping

Denition: A mapping f : A → B is said to be one -to-one or injective if dierent element of A have distinct
images in B . i.e if a ̸= b ⇒ f (a) ̸= f (b) ∀ a, b ∈ A or if f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b

f
A B
a 1
b 2 injective
c 3

y
Denition: A mapping f : A → B is said to be onto or surjective if every b ∈ B is the image of at least one a ∈ A

m
i.e f (A) = B

-
f

ee
A B

T
1 a

d
surjective
n
2 b
3 a
ce

Denition: A mapping f : A → B which is both one-to-one and onto is said to be bijective

n
le

f
l

A B
ce

a
x

1
E

2 b bijective
y
b

3 c
ed
il
p
m
o
C
28 CHAPTER 7. MAPPINGS/FUNCTIONS

y
- m
ee
T
d
n
a
ce
n
lle
ce
x
E
y
b
ed
il
p
m
o
C
Chapter 8

Linear Transformation

Denition: Let V and W be a vector space and let T : V → W be a transformation with domain V and W then,

y
T is called a linear transformation if the following conditions holds;

m
(i) T (a + b) = T (a) + T (b)∀ a, b ∈ V

-
ee
(ii) T (αa) = αT (a) ∀ a ∈ V, α ∈ R

T
In other words, T : V → W is a linear if it preserves the two basic operation of a vector space ( that of addition
and that of multiplication).If we put α = 0 in (ii), we have T (0) = 0, thus, every linear mapping takes zero vector
into the zero vector.

d
For every scalar α, β ∈ R and Vector a, b ∈ V , we obtain T (αa + βb) = T (αa) + T (βb) = αT (a) + βT (b)

n
In general, for any scalars αi ∈ R and any vectors ai ∈ V , we obtain the following basic property of linear map-

a
pings. T (α1 a1 + α2 a2 + . . . αn an ) = α1 T (a1 ) + α2 T (a2 ) + · · · + αn T (an )
ce
n

8.1 Examples of Linear mapping

le

8.1.1 Derivative and integral mapping

l
ce

Consider the vector spae V = p(t) of polynomials over the real eld R. Let u(t) and v(t) be any polynomials in V
and let K be any scalar.
x
E

(a) Let D : V → V be the derivative mapping. As proves in calculus, we have

y

d(u + v) du dv
= +
b

dt dt dt

and
ed

d(ku) du
il

=k
dt dt
p

i.e D(u + v) = D(u) + D(v) and D(ku) = kD(u). Thus, the derivate mapping is linear.
m

(b) Let J : V → R be an integral mapping, say

o

R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
J(f (t)) = 0 f (t)dt, we have from caculus that 0 [u(t) + v(t)]dt = 0 u(t)dt + 0 v(t)dt and 0 ku(t)dt =
C

R1
k 0 u(t)dt. i.e J(u + v) = J(u) + J(v) and Jk(u(t)) = kJu(t). Thus the integral mapping is linear.

8.1.2 Zero and Identity Mapping

1. Let f : V → U be mapping that assigns the zero vector 0 ∈ U to every vector v ∈ V . Then, for any vectors
v, w inV and any scalar k ∈ R, we have
f (v + w) = 0 = 0 + 0 = f (v) + f (w) and f (ku) = 0 = k(0) = kf (v). Thus, f is linear. We call f the zero
mapping, and it is usually denoted by 0.
2. Consider the identity mapping I : V → V , which maps each v ∈ V into itself. Then, for any vector v, w ∈ V
and any scalars a, b ∈ k , we have

I(av + bw) = av + wb = aI(v) + bI(w)

Thus, I is linear.

29
30 CHAPTER 8. LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Examples

(i) Let V be the vector space of polynomials over R, and let p(t) = 3t2 − 5t + 2.
(a) The derivative denes a mapping D : V → V where for any polynomials f (t), we have D(f ) = dfdt , thus,
D(p) = D(3t2 ) − 5t + 2) = 6t − 5
(b) The integral say from 0 to 1, dened a mapping J : V → R. That is , for any polynomial f (t), J(f ) =
R1 R1
0
f (t)dt and so J(p) = 0 (3t2 − 5t + 2) = 21
Observe that the mapping in (b) is from the vector space V into the scalar eld R. Where as the mapping in
(a) is from the vector space V into itself.
(ii) Let T : R2 → R3 be dened by T (x, y) = (x, −y). Show that T is linear.
solution T : R2 → R2 dened
T (x, y) = (x, −y)
To show that T is linear,

y
(i) T (a + b) = T (a) + T (b)

m
(ii) T (αa) = αT (a)

-
Take a, b, ∈ R2

ee
where a = (x1 , −y1 ), b = (x2 , −y2 ), andα ∈ R

T
T (a + b) = T [(x1 , −y1 ) + (x2 , −y2 )]
= T [(x1 + x2 , −(y1 + y2 )]

d
= [(x1 + x2 , −(y1 + y2 )]

n
(a) T (a) + T (b) = T (x1 − y1 ) + T (x2 , −y2 )

a
= T [x1 + x2 , −(y1 + y2 )]
ce
= T [x1 + x2 , −(y1 + y2 )]
=⇒ T (a + b) = T (a) + T (b) = [x1 + x2 , −(y1 + y2 )]
n

(b) T (αa) = T [α(x1 , −y1 )] = T (αx1 , −αy1 ) = (αx1 , −αy1 )

le

=⇒ T (αa) = αT (a) = (αx1 , −αy1 )

l

Hence it is a linear transformation

ce

(iii) Let a transformation T from R2 into R3 be dened by T (x, y) = (x, y, 1). Show that T is not
x

linear.
E

Solution
T : R2 → R3 dened
y

T (x, y) = (x, y, 1)
To show that T is not linear, Take a, b ∈ R2
b

where a = (x1 , y1 ), b = (x2 , y2 ), α ∈ R

ed

T (a + b) = T (a) + T (b)
T (a + b) = T [(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )]
il

= T (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
p

= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , 1)
m

(i)
T (a) + T (b) = T (x1 , y1 ) + T (x2 , y2 )
o

= (x1 , y1 , 1) + (x2 , y2 , 1)
C

= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , 2)
=⇒ T (a + b) ̸= T (a) + T (b)
T (αa) = αT (a)
T (αa) = T [α(x1 , y1 )] = T (αx1 , αy1 )
= (αx1 , αy1 , 1)
(ii)
αT (a) = α[T (x1 , y1 )]
= α[x1 , y1 , 1] = (αx1 , αy1 , α)
T (αa) ̸= αT (a)
Hence it is not a linear transformation.
Exercise
1. Let T : R2 → R2 be dened by T (x, y) = (1, 2). Determine whether T is linear or not.
2. T : R2 → R2 be dened by T (x, y) = (y, x). Show that T is linear
Chapter 9

Matrix Representation of a Linear

Transformation

y
m
To nd the matrix representation of any linear transformation S from Rn into Rm i.e S : Rn → Rm . We must

-
compute the images (under S ) of the standard basis for Rn and arrange the resulting vector S of Rm as n columns

ee
forming a matrix A of order m × n

T
i.e S(x) = A(x)

d
Example

n
 
x  
y
y

a
Let T : R4 → R3 be the transformation dened by T   = y , nd a matrix representation for T .
 
z 
y
ce
w
Solution
We need to
 nd3 ×
 4 matrix
n

x x
le

y  y 
 z  = A  z   ∗
A ∋: T 
l

  
ce

w w
Now the standard basis of R4 are
x
E

       
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
y

 , , , ,

0 0 1 0
b

0 0 0 1
The columns of A are given by
ed

 
1  
0
il

0
T  = 0
0
p

0
0
m

0  
1
o

1
T  = 1
0
C

1
0
 
0  
0 0
T  = 0
1
0
0
0  
0 0
T  = 0
0
0
1
It follow that the matrix A is of the form
 
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
A=
0

1 0 0
0 1 0 0

31
32 CHAPTER 9. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

Thus, ∗ can be written as

    
x 0 1 0 0 x
 y  0 1 0 0 y 
 z  = 0
T    
1 0 0  z 
w 0 1 0 0 w
Example    
1 2
Let T : R → R be a linear transformation such that T : T
2 1
= −1 and T : T = 1. Find a matrix
2 1
representation for T .
Solution    
x x
We seek a matrix A ∋: T =A ∀ x, y ∈ R2
y y
where  A is completely
  determined
   by making use of the standard  basis
  of R . The standard basis
2

1 0 1 0 1 1
are and , write and as a linear combination of and
0 1 0 1 2 2

y
     
1 1 2

m
= α1 + α2
0 2 1

-
   
α1 2α2

ee
= +
2α1 α2

T
 
α + 2α2
= 1
2α1 + α2
=⇒ α1 + 2α2 = 1 (i)

d
2α1 + α2 = 0 (ii)

n
i.e 2α1 = −α2 =⇒ α2 = −2α1 (iii)

a
α1 − 4α1 = 1 =⇒ −3α1 = 1
α1 = − 13
ce
1 2
α2=−2α1 =−2  × −3 =  3
1 1 2
n

T = α1 T + α2 T
0 2 1
le

     
1 2
l

= − −1 + 1
ce

3 3
 
1 2
= + =1
x

 3 3
E

   
0 1 2
Write as a linear combination of the given bases &
1 2 1
i.e
y

     
0 1 2
b

= β1 + β2
1 2 1
ed

   
β1 2β2
= + β1 + 2β2 = 0(iii)
2β1 β2
il

 
β + 2β2
= 1
p

2β1 + β2
2β1 + β2 = 1(iv)
m

β1 = −2β2 (v)
substitute (v) into (iv)
o
C

2(−2β2 ) + β2 = 1
− 4β2 + β2 = 1
− 2β2 = 1
β2 = − 13
β1 = −2β2
β1=−2 × − 13 =
 3
2
 
0 1 2
T = β1 T + β2 T
1 2 1
2 1
= [ ][−1] + [− ][1]
3 3
2 1
= − − = −1
3 3
The
 sought matrix  A is given by A = [1, −1]
x   x
T = 1, −1
y y
Exercise
 33
       
1 3 1 4
Let T : R2 → R2 be a linear transformation such that T = and T = , nd the matrix
1 2 2 5
representation T .

y
- m
ee
T
d
n
a
ce
n
l le
ce
x
E
y
b
ed
il
p
m
o
C