1.

Draw labelled diagrams for the following separating techniques:

i) Filtration

 Diagram Description:
o Draw a beaker containing a mixture.
o Above the beaker, draw a funnel with filter paper inside.
o Label the liquid passing through as "Filtrate" and the solid remaining on the filter paper as "Residue."

ii) Simple Distillation

 Diagram Description:
o Draw a flask containing a liquid mixture, with a heat source below.
o Connect the flask to a condenser (a tube surrounded by a cooling jacket) leading to another beaker.
o Label the liquid in the first flask as the "Solution," the condensed liquid in the beaker as "Distillate," and indicate the cooling water
inlet and outlet in the condenser.

iii) Fractional Distillation

 Diagram Description:
o Similar to simple distillation but with a fractionating column placed between the distillation flask and the condenser.
o Show the different components condensing at different heights in the fractionating column and label them based on their boiling
points.

iv) Chromatography

 Diagram Description:
o Draw a beaker with a solvent at the bottom and a strip of chromatography paper hanging inside.
o Indicate spots of different substances near the bottom of the paper and show them separated at different heights along the strip.
o Label the solvent front and the separated substances.

2. Fill in the blanks using the periodic table.

Atom / Ion Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of Electronic
Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons Structure
Fluoride ion 9 19 9 10 10 2,8
Sulfur atom 16 32 16 16 16 2,8,6
Sodium ion 11 23 11 12 10 2,8
Chlorine atom 17 35 17 18 17 2,8,7
Phosphorus atom 15 31 15 16 15 2,8,5
Boron ion (B³⁺) 5 11 5 6 2 2
Oxygen ion (O²⁻) 8 16 8 8 10 2,8
Sodium atom 11 23 11 12 11 2,8,1
Argon atom 18 40 18 22 18 2,8,8
Magnesium ion 12 24 12 12 10 2,8
(Mg²⁺)

3. Draw dot and cross diagrams of the following compounds:

i) Calcium Bromide (CaBr₂)

 Diagram:
o Show a calcium atom losing two electrons, forming a Ca²⁺ ion.
o Each bromine atom gains one electron to form Br⁻ ions.
o Represent shared electrons using dots and crosses.

ii) Lithium Oxide (Li₂O)

 Diagram:
o Each lithium atom loses one electron to form Li⁺ ions.
 o The oxygen atom gains two electrons to form an O²⁻ ion.
o Use dots and crosses to represent the transfer of electrons.

iii) Potassium Sulfide (K₂S)

 Diagram:
o Potassium atoms each lose one electron to form K⁺ ions.
o The sulfur atom gains two electrons to form an S²⁻ ion.
o Represent using dots and crosses.

iv) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

 Diagram:
o Carbon shares two pairs of electrons with each oxygen atom.
o Represent covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen.

v) Magnesium Nitride (Mg₃N₂)

 Diagram:
o Magnesium atoms lose electrons to form Mg²⁺ ions.
o Nitrogen atoms gain electrons to form N³⁻ ions.
o Use dots and crosses for representation.

vi) Hydrogen Sulfide (H₂S)

 Diagram:
o Sulfur shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms.
o Represent the shared electrons using dots and crosses.

vii) Nitrogen (N₂)

 Diagram:
o Show a triple bond between two nitrogen atoms.
o Use dots and crosses for shared electrons.

viii) Ammonia (NH₃)

 Diagram:
o Nitrogen shares electrons with three hydrogen atoms.
o Represent using dots and crosses.

ix) Methanol (CH₃OH)

 Diagram:
o Carbon shares electrons with three hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
o Oxygen also shares electrons with one hydrogen atom.
o Represent covalent bonds using dots and crosses.

x) Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl₄)

 Diagram:
o Carbon shares electrons with four chlorine atoms.
o Use dots and crosses to represent shared electrons.

4. Write Formulas of the following compounds:

1. Calcium Bromide: CaBr₂

2. Hydrogen Bromide: HBr
3. Silver Nitrate: AgNO₃
4. Copper Carbonate: CuCO₃
 5. Iron (III) Sulfate: Fe₂(SO₄)₃
6. Aluminium Fluoride: AlF₃
7. Zinc Sulfate: ZnSO₄
8. Ammonium Chloride: NH₄Cl
9. Sodium Sulfate: Na₂SO₄
10. Lead (II) Bromide: PbBr₂
11. Potassium Sulfide: K₂S
12. Barium Iodide: BaI₂
13. Iron (III) Hydroxide: Fe(OH)₃
14. Iron (II) Sulfate: FeSO₄
15. Copper (II) Oxide: CuO
16. Magnesium Nitrate: Mg(NO₃)₂
17. Ammonium Carbonate: (NH₄)₂CO₃
18. Lithium Oxide: Li₂O
19. Calcium Hydroxide: Ca(OH)₂
20. Aluminium Oxide: Al₂O₃

5. Write down short answers to the following in the space below:

i. Why does the rate of diffusion increase with temperature?

 Answer: The rate of diffusion increases with temperature because the particles gain kinetic energy, causing them to move faster and spread out
more rapidly.

ii. Define relative atomic mass.

 Answer: Relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of the atoms of an element, compared to 1/12th of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

iii. Why do isotopes have the same chemical properties?

 Answer: Isotopes have the same chemical properties because they have the same number of electrons and the same electronic configuration.

iv. How are cations and anions formed from atoms?

 Answer: Cations are formed when atoms lose electrons, resulting in a positive charge. Anions are formed when atoms gain electrons, resulting
in a negative charge.

v. Describe metallic bonding.

 Answer: Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive metal ions and a sea of delocalized electrons that move
freely throughout the structure.

vi. Discuss the conduction of ionic compounds (in solid, molten, and aqueous states) with reasons.

 Answer: Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid form because the ions are fixed in a lattice and cannot move. They conduct
electricity when molten or dissolved in water because the ions are free to move and carry the electric charge.

vii. Why do covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points?

 Answer: Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because they are composed of molecules held together by weak
intermolecular forces, which require less energy to overcome.

viii. Why does diamond have a high melting point?

 Answer: Diamond has a high melting point because it has a giant covalent structure where each carbon atom is bonded to four others, forming
a very strong and rigid lattice.

ix. Why is graphite used as a lubricant and an electrode?

 Answer: Graphite is used as a lubricant because its layers can slide over each other easily due to weak forces between the layers. It is used as
an electrode because it conducts electricity due to the presence of free electrons.
x. Why is diamond used to make cutting tools?

 Answer: Diamond is used to make cutting tools because it is extremely hard due to the strong covalent bonds in its giant covalent lattice,
making it capable of cutting through other materials.

6. Answer the following questions:

i. Plan an experiment to obtain separate pure samples of each substance from the mixture in the liquid cleaner.

Given Information:

 Water: Liquid, boiling point 100°C

 Sodium Carbonate: Solid, soluble in water
 Silica: Solid, insoluble in water

Experimental Procedure:

1. Filtration to Remove Silica:

o Step 1: Pour the mixture through filter paper in a funnel. The water and dissolved sodium carbonate will pass through as filtrate,
leaving the silica (which is insoluble) as the residue on the filter paper.
o Outcome: The silica is now separated.

2. Evaporation/Crystallization to Obtain Sodium Carbonate:

o Step 2: Take the filtrate (which contains water and dissolved sodium carbonate) and heat it gently to evaporate some of the water.
Continue heating until sodium carbonate begins to crystallize.
o Step 3: Once the sodium carbonate has fully crystallized, remove the remaining water by further gentle heating or by filtering out the
crystals and allowing them to dry.
o Outcome: Sodium carbonate is now separated.

3. Distillation to Collect Pure Water:

o Step 4: Perform simple distillation on the remaining liquid (if any is left) or collect the evaporated water vapor from the evaporation
step by distillation.
o Step 5: Condense the water vapor in a condenser to collect pure water in a separate container.
o Outcome: Pure water is now separated.

ii. Plan an experiment to extract and separate the colored pigments present in the purple leaves.

Given Materials: Purple leaves, sand, ethanol, and common laboratory apparatus.

Experimental Procedure:

1. Crushing the Leaves:

o Step 1: Place the purple leaves in a mortar and add a small amount of sand. Grind the leaves with the sand to break open the cells and
release the pigments.
o Outcome: A paste containing the pigments is obtained.

2. Solvent Extraction with Ethanol:

o Step 2: Add ethanol to the crushed leaves and sand mixture. Stir the mixture thoroughly to dissolve the pigments in the ethanol.
o Step 3: Filter the mixture to remove the sand and any undissolved leaf material. The filtrate will contain the pigments dissolved in
ethanol.
o Outcome: The pigment solution is obtained.

3. Chromatography to Separate Pigments:

o Step 4: Perform paper chromatography by placing a drop of the ethanol pigment solution on chromatography paper. Place the paper
in a beaker with a small amount of ethanol solvent at the bottom, making sure the solvent level is below the spot.
o Step 5: Allow the solvent to rise up the paper, carrying the different pigments at different rates based on their solubility and affinity
for the paper.
o Outcome: The pigments will separate on the chromatography paper, revealing the different colors.
iii. Plan an experiment to obtain a pure, dry sample of polystyrene beads from a mixture containing polystyrene beads, calcium carbonate, and sodium
fluoride.

Given Information:

 Polystyrene Beads: No reaction with dilute nitric acid

 Calcium Carbonate: Reacts and dissolves in dilute nitric acid
 Sodium Fluoride: Dissolves in dilute nitric acid

Experimental Procedure:

1. Dissolving Calcium Carbonate and Sodium Fluoride:

o Step 1: Add dilute nitric acid to the mixture. Calcium carbonate will react with the acid to form soluble calcium nitrate, and sodium
fluoride will dissolve to form a soluble solution of sodium nitrate and hydrofluoric acid.
o Outcome: Polystyrene beads remain insoluble.

2. Filtration to Separate Polystyrene Beads:

o Step 2: Filter the mixture. The polystyrene beads will remain on the filter paper as they are insoluble in the acid, while the dissolved
calcium carbonate and sodium fluoride will pass through as filtrate.
o Outcome: Polystyrene beads are separated.

3. Drying the Polystyrene Beads:

o Step 3: Wash the polystyrene beads with distilled water to remove any acid residues. Then, allow the beads to dry completely.
o Outcome: Pure, dry polystyrene beads are obtained.

iv. Plan a method to obtain a pure sample of each of the three solids, copper(II) sulfate, cetyl alcohol, and silicon dioxide, from the mixture.

Given Information:

 Copper(II) Sulfate: Soluble in water, insoluble in propanone

 Cetyl Alcohol: Insoluble in water, soluble in propanone
 Silicon Dioxide: Insoluble in both water and propanone

Experimental Procedure:

1. Dissolve Copper(II) Sulfate in Water:

o Step 1: Add water to the mixture. Copper(II) sulfate will dissolve in water, leaving cetyl alcohol and silicon dioxide undissolved.
o Step 2: Filter the mixture to separate the dissolved copper(II) sulfate (filtrate) from the insoluble cetyl alcohol and silicon dioxide
(residue).
o Outcome: Copper(II) sulfate is separated in the filtrate.

2. Evaporate Water to Crystallize Copper(II) Sulfate:

o Step 3: Heat the filtrate to evaporate the water. Once all water is evaporated, copper(II) sulfate crystals will remain.
o Outcome: Pure copper(II) sulfate is obtained.

3. Dissolve Cetyl Alcohol in Propanone:

o Step 4: Take the residue (cetyl alcohol and silicon dioxide) from step 2 and add propanone. Cetyl alcohol will dissolve in propanone,
while silicon dioxide will remain undissolved.
o Step 5: Filter the mixture again to separate the dissolved cetyl alcohol from the silicon dioxide.
o Outcome: Cetyl alcohol is separated in the filtrate.

4. Evaporate Propanone to Obtain Cetyl Alcohol:

o Step 6: Evaporate the propanone from the filtrate, leaving pure cetyl alcohol behind.
o Outcome: Pure cetyl alcohol is obtained.

5. Dry Silicon Dioxide:

o Step 7: The residue left from step 5 is pure silicon dioxide. Dry it completely.
o Outcome: Pure silicon dioxide is obtained.
v. Plan an investigation to find the percentage by mass of silica in the toothpaste.

Given Information:

 Sodium Fluoride: Soluble in water

 Mint Flavouring: Soluble in water
 Calcium Carbonate: Insoluble in water, reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride
 Silica: Insoluble in water and hydrochloric acid

Experimental Procedure:

1. Dissolve Soluble Components:

o Step 1: Dissolve a known mass of toothpaste in water. Sodium fluoride and mint flavoring will dissolve, while silica and calcium
carbonate remain undissolved.

2. Filter to Obtain Insoluble Residue:

o Step 2: Filter the mixture to separate the undissolved silica and calcium carbonate from the soluble components.
o Outcome: Collect the residue, which contains silica and calcium carbonate.

3. React Calcium Carbonate with Hydrochloric Acid:

o Step 3: Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the residue. Calcium carbonate will react with the acid, dissolving to form calcium chloride,
while silica will remain undissolved.
o Step 4: Filter the mixture again to separate the silica.
o Outcome: Pure silica is obtained as residue.

4. Dry and Weigh the Silica:

o Step 5: Dry the silica completely and weigh it to find its mass.
o Step 6: Calculate the percentage by mass of silica in the original toothpaste sample using the formula:

Outcome: The percentage by mass of silica in the toothpaste is determined.

7. Answer the following short structured questions:

1. The apparatus shown below was set up. Give explanations for the following observations:

a. The formation of a white cloud.

 Answer: The white cloud forms due to the reaction between ammonia (NH₃) gas and hydrochloric acid (HCl) gas, producing ammonium
chloride (NH₄Cl), a white solid.

b. It took a few minutes before the white cloud formed.

 Answer: It took a few minutes because both gases had to diffuse through the air to meet each other and react.

c. The white cloud formed further from the cotton wool soaked in ammonia.

 Answer: The white cloud formed further from the ammonia because ammonia is lighter and diffuses faster than hydrochloric acid.

d. Cooling the concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid before carrying out the experiment increased the time taken for the white cloud to
form.

 Answer: Cooling the reactants reduced the kinetic energy of the gas molecules, slowing down their rate of diffusion and reaction.

2. The following diagram shows the three states of matter and how they can be interchanged.

a. Name the changes A to E.

  Answer:
o A: Melting
o B: Freezing
o C: Boiling/Vaporization
o D: Condensation
o E: Sublimation

b. Name a substance that will undergo change E.

 Answer: Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) undergoes sublimation.

c. Name a substance that will undergo changes from solid to liquid to gas between 0°C and 100°C.

 Answer: Water (H₂O) undergoes melting from solid to liquid and boiling from liquid to gas between 0°C and 100°C.

d. Describe what happens to the particles of the solid during change E.

 Answer: During sublimation, particles in the solid gain enough energy to break free from their fixed positions and move directly into the gas
phase without passing through the liquid phase.

e. Which of the changes A to E will involve:

 i) Input of heat energy?

o Answer: Changes A (Melting), C (Boiling/Vaporization), and E (Sublimation).
 ii) Output of heat energy?
o Answer: Changes B (Freezing) and D (Condensation).

3. The table below shows the melting points, boiling points, and densities of substances A to D.

a. Which substance is a gas at room temperature?

 Answer: The substance with a boiling point below room temperature (20°C) is a gas at room temperature.

b. Which substance is a liquid at room temperature?

 Answer: The substance with a melting point below room temperature and a boiling point above room temperature is a liquid.

c. Which substances are solids at room temperature?

 Answer: Substances with melting points above room temperature are solids.

d. Which substance is most likely to be a metal?

 Answer: The substance with the highest density and highest melting point is likely a metal.

e. Which substance will be a liquid at −260°C?

 Answer: The substance with a melting point below −260°C.

f. What is the melting point of the least dense non-metal?

 Answer: The lowest melting point of the substances listed.

g. Which substances are gases at 72°C?

 Answer: Substances with boiling points below 72°C.

4. How many atoms of the different elements are there in the formulae of the compounds given below?

 i) Nitric Acid (HNO₃):

o Answer: H = 1, N = 1, O = 3
 ii) Methane (CH₄):
o Answer: C = 1, H = 4
 iii) Copper Nitrate (Cu(NO₃)₂):
o Answer: Cu = 1, N = 2, O = 6
 iv) Ethanoic Acid (CH₃COOH):
o Answer: C = 2, H = 4, O = 2
 v) Sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁):
o Answer: C = 12, H = 22, O = 11
 vi) Phenol (C₆H₅OH):
o Answer: C = 6, H = 6, O = 1
 vii) Ammonium Sulfate ((NH₄)₂SO₄):
o Answer: N = 2, H = 8, S = 1, O = 4

5. a) Define the following terms:

i. Proton:

 Answer: A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.

ii. Neutron:

 Answer: A neutron is a neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.

iii. Electron:

 Answer: An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.

b. An atom X has a proton number of 19 and relative atomic mass of 39.

i. How many electrons, protons, and neutrons are there in an atom of X?

 Answer: Electrons = 19, Protons = 19, Neutrons = 20 (Mass Number - Proton Number = 39 - 19 = 20)

ii. How many electrons will there be in the outer energy level (shell) of an atom of X?

 Answer: The outer energy level will have 1 electron.

iii. What is the electronic configuration of X?

 Answer: 2,8,8,1 (For potassium, K)

6. a) 69 31Ga and 71 31Ga are isotopes of gallium. With reference to this example, explain what you understand by the term isotope.

 Answer: Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different mass
numbers.

b) A sample of gallium contains 60% of atoms of 69 31Ga and 40% of atoms of 71 31Ga. Calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of
gallium.

 Answer:
o Relative Atomic Mass = (0.60 × 69) + (0.40 × 71) = 69.8
7. Draw diagrams to show the bonding in each of the following compounds:

a) Calcium Fluoride (CaF₂):

 Answer: Draw a calcium ion (Ca²⁺) and two fluoride ions (F⁻) with transferred electrons shown using dots and crosses.

b) Oxygen (O₂):

 Answer: Draw a double bond between two oxygen atoms (O=O) using dots and crosses.

c) Magnesium Chloride (MgCl₂):

 Answer: Draw a magnesium ion (Mg²⁺) and two chloride ions (Cl⁻) with transferred electrons shown using dots and crosses.

d) Tetrachloromethane (CCl₄):

 Answer: Draw carbon sharing four pairs of electrons with four chlorine atoms, represented using dots and crosses.

8. Work out the formula for:

a) Silver Oxide:

 Answer: Ag₂O

b) Zinc Chloride:

 Answer: ZnCl₂

c) Potassium Sulfate:

 Answer: K₂SO₄

d) Calcium Nitrate:

 Answer: Ca(NO₃)₂

e) Iron(II) Nitrate:

 Answer: Fe(NO₃)₂

f) Copper(II) Carbonate:

 Answer: CuCO₃

g) Iron(III) Hydroxide:

 Answer: Fe(OH)₃

h) Aluminium Fluoride:

 Answer: AlF₃

9. Atoms of elements X, Y, and Z have 16, 17, and 19 electrons, respectively. Atoms of argon have 18 electrons.

a) Determine the formulae of the compounds formed by the combination of the atoms of the elements:
i. X and Z:

 Answer: XZ₂ (Compound formed between X and Z, likely forming an ionic bond where Z is K⁺ and X is S²⁻).

ii. Y and Z:

 Answer: YZ (Compound formed between Y and Z, likely forming an ionic bond where Z is K⁺ and Y is Cl⁻).

iii. X with itself:

 Answer: X₂ (Diatomic molecule of element X, likely S₂).

b) In each of the cases shown in a(i)–(iii) above, name the type of chemical bond formed.

 Answer:
o i. Ionic Bond
o ii. Ionic Bond
o iii. Covalent Bond

c) Give two properties you would expect to be shown by the compounds formed in a(ii) and a(iii).

 Answer:
o Compound from a(ii) (Ionic Compound): High melting point, conducts electricity when molten or in solution.
o Compound from a(iii) (Covalent Compound): Low melting point, does not conduct electricity.

10. The diagram shows the arrangement of the outer electrons only in a molecule of ethanoic acid.

a) Name the different elements found in this compound.

 Answer: Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O).

b) What is the total number of atoms present in this molecule?

 Answer: 8 atoms (2 Carbon, 4 Hydrogen, 2 Oxygen).

c) Between which two atoms is there a double covalent bond?

 Answer: Between the carbon and oxygen in the carboxyl group (C=O).

d) How many single covalent bonds does each carbon atom have?

 Answer:
o The first carbon atom has three single covalent bonds (C-H, C-H, C-C).
o The second carbon atom has one single covalent bond (C-O).

11. The elements sodium and chlorine react together to form the compound sodium chloride, which has a giant ionic lattice structure.

a) What type of structure do these elements have?

i. Sodium:

 Answer: Metallic structure with a lattice of positive ions and a sea of delocalized electrons.

ii. Chlorine:

 Answer: Molecular structure with diatomic molecules (Cl₂).

b) Draw a diagram to represent how the ions are arranged in the crystal lattice of sodium chloride.

 Answer: Draw alternating Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions in a regular, repeating pattern forming a cubic lattice.

c) Explain how the ions are held together in this crystal lattice.

 Answer: The ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged Na ⁺ and Cl ⁻ ions.

d) Draw diagrams to show how the electrons are arranged in a sodium ion and a chloride ion.

 Answer:
o Sodium ion (Na⁺): 2,8 (after losing one electron).
o Chloride ion (Cl⁻): 2,8,8 (after gaining one electron).

e) Make a table showing the properties of the three substances sodium, chlorine, and sodium chloride. Include in your table:

Substance Physical State at Room Solubility in/Reaction with Color Electrical Conductivity
Temperature Water
Sodium Solid Reacts vigorously Silver-white Conducts electricity (as a solid)
Chlorine Gas Reacts to form hydrochloric Yellow- Does not conduct electricity
acid green
Sodium Solid Soluble in water White Conducts electricity (when molten or in
Chloride solution)

12. Explain the following:

a) Ammonia is a gas at room temperature.

 Answer: Ammonia has weak intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonding) that are not strong enough to keep it in the liquid or solid state at room
temperature.

b) The melting points of sodium chloride and iodine are very different.

 Answer: Sodium chloride has a high melting point due to strong ionic bonds, while iodine has a low melting point because it is held together
by weak Van der Waals forces between molecules.

c) Metals generally are good conductors of electricity.

 Answer: Metals have free-moving delocalized electrons in a metallic lattice that can carry an electric charge.

d) Buckminsterfullerene is an allotrope of carbon.

 Answer: Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) is a spherical molecule made up of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a structure of pentagons and hexagons,
representing one of carbon's allotropes.

e) Graphite conducts electricity but diamond does not.

 Answer: Graphite conducts electricity because it has free-moving electrons between its layers, while diamond does not have free electrons
since all its electrons are involved in covalent bonds.