Research methods

1. Experiments
2. Self-reports
3. Case studies
4. Observations
5. Correlations
6. Longitudinal study

Experimental design

1. Independent measures – different group of participants for each level of IV

o Strengths: Avoids order effects, reduces demand characteristics, and random allocation
minimizes individual differences.

o Weaknesses: Participant variables may affect results; requires more participants, which can
be less ethical or harder to manage in small samples.

2. Repeated measures – each participant performs each level of IV

o Strengths: Eliminates individual differences since participants do all levels; counterbalancing

reduces order effects; fewer participants needed.

o Weaknesses: Order effects and exposure to demand characteristics may distort results.

3. Matched pairs – participants are arranged into pairs

o Strengths: Minimizes individual differences through matching; no order effects; demand

characteristics reduced.

o Weaknesses: Matching is complex and may not fully control differences; limited availability
of matching pairs can restrict sample size.

Types of experiments

1. Laboratory experiment – use controls, standardisation, reliable, valid, replicable (operationalisation)

Strengths:

 High control of variables, increasing validity.

 Causal relationships can be determined since only the independent variable (IV) affects the
dependent variable (DV).

 Standardized procedures improve reliability and allow replication.

Weaknesses:

 Artificial settings may lead to unrepresentative behavior, reducing ecological validity.

  Participants might change their behavior due to demand characteristics.

2. Field experiment – generalise, ecological validity

Strengths:

 Natural settings encourage participants to behave normally, improving representativeness.

 Reduced impact of demand characteristics if participants are unaware of being studied.

Weaknesses:

 Harder to control variables, reducing reliability and making replication difficult.

 Less certainty about the causal link between the IV and DV.

 Ethical concerns if participants are unaware of being part of a study.

Hypothesis – non-directional, directional, null

Self-reports

 Questionnaire (open/closed questions – open questions are less reliable as it is open to

interpretation)

 Interview (face-to-face/phone calls, use more open-ended questions) – structured, unstructured,

semi-structured

To ensure objectivity of data, interviewer may ask other researchers, not aware of the study’s aim, to
evaluate open ended questions.

(there is no such thing as a semi-structured observation, only interview)

Case studies (evaluating rare cases, following development changes, linked to therapy) – details participants
past and present situations, social interactions, cognitive processes, emotions and behaviours

 highly valid (can be increased using triangulation)

 researcher could become subjective (affect reliability)

 ethical threats (privacy, confidentiality)

 low generalisability
observations

 naturalistic/controlled

 unstructured/structured (behavioural checklist)

 covert/overt (role of observer is obvious)

 participant observer/non-participant observer

correlations – used only when it is possible to measure variables and not change them. A causal relationship
cannot be assumed

longitudinal studies (alternative is cross-sectional) – a single cohort. Considered a long-term repeated

measures design and is sometimes referred to as a quasi-experiment.

 Certain that differences are not due to individual differences

 Sample attrition reduces generalisability and validity of the study

 Reliability is also reduced as the method used to collect may change (change in interviewer) and
researcher subjectivity may increase

Types of samples

 Opportunity
 Volunteer
 Random

Measures of central tendency

1. Mode
2. Median
3. Mean

Measures of spread

1. Range (add 1)
2. Standard deviation

Graphs

 Bar chart
 Histogram
 Scatter graph
Ethics in experiments

1. Informed consent

2. Right to withdraw

3. Protection from harm

4. Debriefing

5. Lack of deception

6. Privacy

7. Confidentiality

Ethical guidelines relating to the use of animals

1. Replacement (using alternatives to animals)

2. Species (use species least likely to suffer pain/distress, those bred in captivity, their sentience)

3. Number of animals (use the minimum amount animals required)

4. Procedures (read pg 52)

o Pain, suffering and distress

o Housing

o Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli

Methodological issues (read pg 54 onwards)

1. Reliability

2. Replicability

3. Validity

4. generalisability
Causal relationship - a change in one of the variables directly causes a change in the other variable.

Uncontrolled variable – a variable that acts randomly, affecting DV in all levels or systematically, i.e. on one
level of IV, obscuring the effect of IV on DV

Participant variables - individual differences between participants that you affect their behaviour, obscuring
the effects of IV on DV

Confounding variable – an uncontrolled variable that acts systematically on one level of IV which could hide
or exarate the effect of IV on DV

Order effects - practice effect and fatigue effect are the consequences of participating in a study more than
once (can be reduced with randomisation and counterbalancing but individual differences will still exist)

Pilot study – small-scale test of the procedure to identify uncontrolled variables and to ensure that the
procedure and materials are valid and reliable

Hypothesis – a testable statement (should be falsifiable) based on the aims of the investigation. They should
also have operationalised variables

Social desirability bias – in an effort of trying to present oneself in the best way, participants responses may
be biases

Case study – a research method in which a single person, family or institution is studied in detail

Triangulation – different techniques are used to study the same phenomenon. If same results are produced,
the findings are valid

Naturalistic observation – a study conducted by watching participants behaviour in the normal environment
without interference.

Controlled observation – watching behaviour in a situation where the social or physical environment has
been manipulated. (can be in a lab or field)

Cross-sectional studies – compares people at different ages or stages by comparing different groups of
participants in different points of time

Cohort – a group of participants selected at the same age or stage

Situational variable – a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the environment, for eg- light or noise

Sample attrition – loss of participants in a study over time

Population – a group sharing one or more characteristics from which a sample is drawn

Presumptive consent – small group of people similar to those in the actual expected sample are asked for
consent in case of a field experiment/naturalistic observation

Test-retest – a way to measure consistency of a test or task. The test is used twice and if the participants 2
sets of scores are similar, i.e. correlate well, it has good reliability.

Socialisation – the process of learning to behave in socially accpeptable ways. This may differ somewhat for
the two genders and different cultures

Localisation of function – refers to the way that that particular brain areas are responsible for activities
Mindfulness – a state achieved through meditation that aims to increase awareness and look at themselves
in a compassionate and non-judgemental way

Concurrent task – an additional task that with a cognitive demand that we can perform at the same time as
the main (primary) task
Biological Approach
Main assumptions:

 Behaviour, cognitions, and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain
and the effect of hormones, genetics, and evolution.

 Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors
and their interaction with other factors.

Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreams)

Psychology investigated

The ultradian rhythm of sleep-stage cycles and whether dreaming occurs during rapid eye movement
(REM) or nonrapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep, using an EEG.

Aim

1. To investigate whether dreaming occurs during REM sleep

Laboratory experiment
IV - Sleep stage (REM vs. non-REM)
DV - Dream recall (yes or no).

2. To assess the relationship between REM duration and subjective recall of dream length.
correlation study
IV - Duration of REM period (5 minutes vs. 15 minutes).
DV - Estimated dream length.

3. To examine whether eye movement patterns relate to dream content.

Self-reports
IV - Eye movement pattern (vertical, horizontal, mixed, none).
DV - Dream content descriptions.

Design: Repeated measures.

Sample

9 adults (7 males, 2 females), recruited via volunteer sampling from the University of Chicago. 5 were
studied in depth and rest were used to confirm the results.
Procedure

Participants slept in a sleep laboratory with an EEG attached to record brain waves. They were woken
several times during either REM or non-REM sleep and relayed any dream content into a recording
device.

Results

1. Dream recall was 80% during REM awakenings versus 7% during non-REM awakenings

2. Positive correlation between duration of REM and number of words in dream narrative. Participants
could estimate dream length accurately (83% for 5- vs. 15-minute REM periods).

3. Dream content matched eye gaze direction during REM sleep.

Links to assumptions

Dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so similarities between people can be understood in terms of
biological factors.

Conclusion

Dreaming length can be objectively measured by recording REM cycles during sleep.

Strengths

1. Experimenter effects were avoided as participants were woken by a doorbell and a voice recorder
was used for dream narration. It was a lab experiment, reducing uncontrolled variables and
increasing standardisation

2. Quantitative data was collected (i.e. number of words in dream narration, EEG data), increasing
objectivity of data analysis, increasing reliabilty

Weaknesses

1. Not generalizable as there were only 9 participants and only 5 was studied in detail and were not
allowed to have coffee or alcohol which may not be true for the mass population

2. Study lacks ecological validity as participants slept in a laboratory with wires attached to their head.

Links to issues and debates

Participants reported a significantly greater number of dreams during REM sleep than non-REM sleep,
thus dreaming during REM sleep is due to nature.

A real-life application is that an EEG can be used to determine when a person is in REM or non-REM
sleep and thus used to support the diagnosis of sleep issues.

Ethics

Deception of participant WD (told he would be woken only during REM)

Similarities

1. Both Dement and Kleitman and Hölzel et al. gained fully informed (valid) consent from their
participants.

2. Both Dement and Kleitman and Hassett et al. used quantitative data in their study.

Differences

1. Dement and Kleitman collected qualitative data as well, while Hölzel et al. only collected quantitative
data.

2. Dement and Kleitman studied participants in a laboratory-type setting, while Hassett et al. used the
monkeys’ normal enclosure.

Hassett et al. (Monkey Toy Preferences)

Psychology investigated

Whether stereotypical sex differences in toy preferences for play result from the role of hormones in
prenatal exposure or due to socialisation.

Aim

To investigate if male and female rhesus monkeys have similar toy preferences to human infants,
despite no socialisation experience with human toys.

Design: Independent measures.

Research Method: field experiment, observation (interaction with toys), correlation (hierarchy and
interaction with toys)

IV: Monkey gender

DV: Time spent interacting with each toy.
Sample

135 rhesus monkeys 61 females, 21 males were analysed from Yerkes National Primate Research
Centre Field Station.; opportunity sampling

Procedure:

 Setup: Seven 25-minute observations were conducted in the outdoor monkey enclosure at a
research centre using 2 video cameras.

 Toy Placement:
 o A pair of toys (one wheeled, one plush) was positioned 10 meters apart in the outdoor area

o Positions were counterbalanced to eliminate location bias.

 Toy Selection:

o Toys varied in size, shape, and colour, chosen based on interactive properties rather than
traditional gendered associations.

o Wheeled Toys (6): Wagon, truck, car, construction vehicle, shopping cart, dump truck (16-46
cm).

o Plush Toys (7): Winnie-the-Pooh™, Raggedy-Ann™, Scooby-Doo™, koala, armadillo, teddy

bear, turtle (14-73 cm).

 This careful design ensured unbiased assessment of the monkeys' genuine toy preferences.

The behavioural checklist included: extended touching, holding, sitting on, dragging, carrying and
manipulating the toys, as well as briefly touching, sniffing, mouthing, destroying, jumping away from
and throwing them

Results

1. Significant sex differences in toy preference were observed, matching those seen in humans.

2. Male monkeys preferred wheeled toys, while female monkeys showed no consistent preference.

3. Social hierarchy was positively correlated with interaction of toys for females but not males.

Links to assumptions

Sex differences in toy preferences were seen in monkeys without socialisation to these toys, so this
behaviour can be explained in terms of the effect of genetic and evolutionary differences between the
sexes.

Conclusion

Sex differences in toy preference stem from prenatal hormone exposure.

Strengths

1. Observation used a behavioural checklist to record monkey behaviour, making it reliable. Use of
quantitative data in recording time spent with toys was objective

2. Use of monkeys eliminates the effect of socialisation (reduces the confounding variables). The
procedure was standardised and therefore replicable.
Weaknesses

1. Possible subjective bias as observers knew the monkeys. The order of the toys placed was different
each time

2. Human play may differ from monkey play, so conclusions cannot be generalised to humans. There
were differences in how humans and children were compared (different toys were used and were
using both frequency and duration rather than only duration)

Links to issues and debates

Toy preference in humans may be due to nature and caused by biological not learned differences, as
male monkeys showed a preference for wheeled toys over plush toys.

A real-life application may be for parents to choose vehicles with expressive faces if they wish to
develop empathy skill in boys through imaginative play, as boys are more likely to be drawn to moving
parts.

Ethical issues

Ethical guidelines were followed and approved by Emory University Ethical committee on animal care
and use

Were housed in family groups, fed appropriately, had constant access to water, lived in large
enclosures with a temperature controlled indoor area and an outdoor area. Cameras and toys did not
cause distress or harm.

Similarities

1. Both Hassett et al. and Hölzel et al. used an independent measures design.

2. Both Hassett et al. and Dement and Kleitman investigated biological factors assumed to be due to
nature.

Differences

1. Hassett et al. used animal participants, while Hölzel et al. used humans.

2. Hassett et al. studied behaviour while participants were awake, while Dement and Kleitman studied
biological processes while participants were asleep.

Hölzel et al. (Mindfulness and Brain Scans)

Psychology investigated

Using MRI scans to track changes in brain structure before and after mindfulness training (MBSR), as
well as looking at localisation of function.
Aim

To see if regular participation in Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) leads to changes in brain
structure (increase in grey matter)

Design

longitudinal design, independent measures (control and experimental group)

Research method:

FFMQ, MRI

IV

 Whether the participants received MBSR or not

 Whether the data was collected at the beginning or the end of the eight-week study period.

DV

 Grey matter concentration in specific brain structures

 The five facets of mindfulness measured using the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ)

Sample
An opportunity sample of 33 right-handed, healthy adults not on any medications, aged 25–55 years
old were recruited from four MBSR courses at the Centre for Mindfulness, University of
Massachusetts, USA.

6 males and 10 females (mean age = 38) in experimental group

7 males and 10 females (mean age = 39) in control group

Procedure

This experiment had a longitudinal design and used MRI scans to track changes in grey matter
throughout the brain 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after eight weeks of MBSR training. Time spent on
mindfulness exercises (body scan, yoga and meditation) was measured, as well as changes in the five
facets of mindfulness, to see if there was a correlation.

the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)

1. observe 3. non-judgemental 5. awareness of actions

2. describe thoughts feelings 4. non-reactive
Results

1. Participants in the MBSR program showed increased grey matter concentration in the hippocampus
and areas related to emotion regulation but not in other areas of interest.

2. There was no correlation between the FFMQ scores and the amount of homework done with grey
matter concentration increases

3. No changes were observed in the control group.

Links to assumptions

Changes in brain structure following mindfulness training show how similarities and differences
between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other
factors.

Conclusion

Structural changes (i.e. increased grey matter concentration) in key brain regions can occur as a result
of participation in regular mindfulness practice, even after just eight weeks.

Strengths

1. Use of a control group increased the validity of the conclusion that MBSR caused an increase in grey
matter concentration in certain brain structures. Validity was further increased as participant
variables were reduced as it was a longitudinal study (long-term repeated measures)

2. Use of quantitative data from MRI was objective and it isn’t possible for one to change grey matter
concentration as will so demand characterises are eliminated

Weaknesses

1. Lack of standardisation between the weekly mindfulness sessions – participants chose exercises and
their duration daily.

2. Use of self-report data from the Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) was subjective.

Links to issues and debates

Findings support the role of nurture as engagement in mindfulness training can lead to increases in
grey matter concentration in certain areas of the brain.

A real-life application may be education providers allocating time to support regular mindfulness
training for long-term improvements in wellbeing.

Ethical issues

The study addressed ethical issues by screening participants for metal implants and claustrophobia,
respecting the right to withdraw. Support to the control group was delayed as they wanted to do MBSR
but were not allowed. Two participants withdrew due to discomfort, and all participants experienced
stress.
Similarities

1. Both Hölzel et al. and Dement and Kleitman used brain scanning techniques.

2. Both Hölzel et al. and Hassett et al. used participants in their real-life setting.

Differences

1. Hölzel et al. used an independent measures design, while Dement and Kleitman used a repeated
measures design for their experiments.

2. Hölzel et al. investigated brain changes after mindfulness training (nurture) while Hassett et al.
investigated whether sex differences in behaviour result from biological factors (nature).
Cognitive Approach
Main assumptions

 Similarities between the way people and computers process information

 Individual differences in cognitive processing, such as attention, language, thinking and

memory, which help to explain behaviours and emotions.

Andrade (doodling)

Psychology investigated

Andrade proposes that doodling can enhance attention and lead to better memory.

Aim

To investigate whether doodling aids concentration on a boring task and later recall of auditory
information.

Design: Independent measures. (control or experimental group)

Research Method: Laboratory experiment.

IV: Were they allowed to doodle

DV:

Monitoring accuracy (number of correct names)

Memory for monitored information (number to correct names – false alarms)

Memory for incidental information (recall of places)

Sample

40 participants (aged 18-55), primarily females, recruited via opportunity sampling form the
participant panel of UK’s medical research council

Procedure

Participants were divided into two groups: doodling or control. They listened to a very boring
telephone recording about a party in a quiet room alone. The doodling group shaded shapes as they
listened and all participants wrote down the names of party-goers. There was a surprise memory test
afterwards for names and places.
Results

1. Monitoring performance (correct names – false alarms) was significantly higher in the doodling
group.

2. The total recall score (out of 16) was 29 per cent higher in the doodling group.

Links to assumptions

As recall of auditory information was significantly higher in the doodling group, this shows that
memory recall can be explained in terms of the role of thinking processes like attention.

People may have the same information processing pathways, which are affected by situational factors.

Conclusion

Doodling can improve concentration and memory when the task involves listening, when it is boring
and when recall is unexpected.

Strengths

1. The order in which the participants recalled the monitored information (names) and incidental
information (places) was counterbalanced (less order effects). This data was Quantitative so the
results of the doodling and control groups could be compared and was objective

2. It was a lab experiment, so uncontrolled variables were limited, the procedure was standardised and
variables (like doodling) were standardised increasing validity and replicability

Weaknesses

1. A high number of females in the study means results about doodling cannot be generalised to males
and all participants were members of the same recruitment panel and thus were kind of similar.

2. The quiet laboratory setting does not reflect real-life memory tasks.

Links to issues and debates

Doodling was shown to aid memory recall, showing that situational factors can affect attention and
memory.

A real-life application is to encourage students to doodle in the classroom to improve attention and,
therefore, memory.

Ethical issues

Informant consent wasn’t given and could face distress when asked to recall names and places, not
protecting them from harm.

Similarities

1. Both Andrade and Baron-Cohen et al. collected quantitative data.

 2. Both Andrade and Pozzulo et al. investigated memory recall.

Differences

1. Andrade used both children and adults as participants, while Baron-Cohen et al. only used adults.

2. Andrade deceived participants about a surprise test, while Pozzulo et al. did not use deception.

Baron-Cohen et al. (Eyes Test)

Psychology investigated

Baron-Cohen et al. created a test for theory of mind, which refers to the ability to determine the
mental state of another person or ourselves, otherwise known as social sensitivity.

Aims

1. To test adults with high-functioning autism (HFA)/Asperger syndrome (AS) on the revised eyes test to
see if the deficits on the original test were still seen.

2. To see if there is a negative correlation between autism spectrum quotient (AQ) and eyes test scores.

3. To see if females score higher on the eyes test than males.

Hypotheses

1. Participants with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) would score significantly lower on the
revised Eyes Test compared to the control group.
2. Participants with ASD would score significantly higher on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)
compared to the control group.
3. Females in the "normal" groups (Groups 2 and 3) would score higher on the Eyes Test than
males in those groups.
4. Males in the "normal" group (Group 3) would score higher on the AQ than females.
5. There would be a negative correlation between scores on the AQ and the Eyes Test.

Design: Independent measures.

Research Method: Laboratory experiment and correlation study (quasi-experiment)

IV: Participant group.

DV: Eyes Test scores and AQ score (group 2 did not take AQ test)

Sample
Procedure

A group of adults with HFA/AS were compared with three control groups on the Revised Eyes Test:
general population, students, and IQ-matched controls. Participants took the test in a quiet room and
were required to select which of four words matched the expression of a set of eyes. There was one
correct answer and three foils for each set of eyes.

Results

1. Adults with HFA/AS performed significantly worse on the Eyes Test than the other groups.

2. There was a negative correlation between AQ score and Eyes Test score (–0.53).

3. Females scored higher than males on the Eyes Test, although the result was not significant.

4. Males scored higher on the AQ than females.

5. There was no correlation between eyes test score and IQ.

Links to assumptions

There were differences in Eyes Test score between individuals with HFA/AS and neurotypical controls,
showing that there are individual differences in people’s cognitive processing of emotions shown by
facial expressions.

Conclusion

The Eyes Test is a valid way to detect subtle impairments in social intelligence for those with normal
IQs.
Strengths

1. The Eyes Test was highly standardised: it always had the same sets of eyes and responses. It was also
a lab experiment, allowing confounding variables to be controlled.

2. The study used control conditions to compare to adults with HFA/AS, increasing the validity of
findings.

Weaknesses

1. There was a lack of random allocation to groups (quasi-experiment), which may lead to participant
variables affecting Eyes Test scores.

2. The Eyes Test uses static eyes, which does not reflect real-life judgements of expression (ecological
validity)

Links to issues and debates

Adults with HFA/AS scored lower on the Eyes Test than neurotypical adults, supporting individual
explanations for cognitive processing.

A real-life application is the use of the Eyes Test with other clinical groups to determine deficits in
social intelligence.

Ethical issues

The study classified the HFA group as “impaired”, representing neurodiverse people in a negative way

Similarities

1. Both Baron-Cohen et al. and Andrade had participants complete their tests in a quiet room.

2. Both Baron-Cohen et al. and Pozzulo et al. used independent measures designs.

Differences

1. Baron-Cohen et al. did not deceive participants, while Andrade used deception with a surprise
memory test.

2. Baron-Cohen et al. compared the performance of males and females, while Pozzulo et al. compared
the performance of children and adults.
Pozzulo et al. (Eyewitness Line-ups)

Psychology investigated

Pozzulo et al. investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimonies for children, specifically factors that
affect false positive responses when asked to select someone they had previously seen from a line-up.

Aim

To investigate the effect of social and cognitive factors on children’s performance as eyewitnesses.
Cognitive effects were reduced by including cartoon faces.
 Children will match adults in identifying cartoon faces in a target-present lineup.
 Children will perform worse than adults at identifying human faces in a target-present lineup.
 Children will perform worse than adults at rejecting cartoon faces in a target-absent lineup.
 Children will perform worse than adults at rejecting human faces in a target-absent lineup.

Design: Independent measures, repeated measures

Research Method: Laboratory experiment.

IV: Age, nature of target faces (level of cognitive demand), type of line-up

DV: Was the correct target identified

Sample

59 Children aged 4-7 (21 female and 38 male, mean age = 4.98 years) selected from three private
schools in Eastern Ontario, Canada.

53 Adults aged 17–30 (36 females and 17 males, mean age = 20.54 years) selected from the
Introductory Psychology Participant Pool of an Eastern Ontario university.

Procedure

Four-to-seven-year-old children and adults were shown films of easily recognisable cartoon characters
and unknown human actors, before being presented with either a target-present or target-absent line-
up. They were asked to identify each of the characters or actors they had seen in four separate line-
ups.

Results

Children were easily able to identify the cartoons in target present line-ups but still made mistakes on
target-absent line-ups. They made more mistakes than the adults and this was more pronounced with
unknown human faces compared with the cartoons.
 children had a significantly higher success rate with target-absent line-ups including cartoon characters
(0.74) compared with human faces (0.45). The adults also performed significantly better with the
cartoon characters (0.94) compared with the human faces (0.70)

Links to assumptions

Children were able to identify the cartoon characters in line-ups with almost 100 per cent accuracy, the
same as adults, suggesting that information is processed through the same route in all humans: input –
process – output.

Conclusion

The influence of social factors appears to be at least partly responsible for children’s errors in target-
absent line-ups.

Strengths

1. The standardised procedure of the instructions and line-ups means the study can be easily
replicated.

2. Quantitative data was collected in the form of correct or incorrect responses, reducing subjectivity in
data analysis.

Weaknesses

1. A lack of consistency in the number of questions asked to participants during the filler task reduced
reliability. 2D cartoons were compared to 3D human faces, reducing the validity of the comparison.

2. Lacks ecological validity as the stakes were not as high as it would be in a real-life situation and the
environment wasn’t realistic

Ethical issues

Consent was asked for from parents and they were made comfortable as they engaged in play before
taking part in the study. However, they were deceived from the true aim of the study.

Links to issues and debates

This study used young children, so to help them feel comfortable, the researchers participated in
crafting activities with them beforehand and carefully monitored the children for signs of fatigue,
anxiety and stress.

A real-life application is that the findings can be used to help police to develop guidelines for
interviewing child witnesses, to reduce their tendency to make an incorrect identification instead of
rejecting a target absent line-up.

Similarities

1. Both Pozzulo et al. and Andrade collected quantitative data.

2. Both Pozzulo et al. and Baron-Cohen et al. used foils in their studies.
Differences

1. Pozzulo et al. used a visual memory test, while Andrade used an auditory memory test.

2. Pozzulo et al. used two groups of participants, while Baron-Cohen et al. used four.

Learning Approach
Main assumptions

 We all begin life as a blank slate. Experiences and interactions with the environment shape
our behaviour and these changes are directly observable.

 We learn through the processes of operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social
learning. This can be understood using the stimulus–response model i.e. experiences (stimuli

(The main stages in social learning theory are: attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation)

Bandura et al. (aggression)

Psychology investigated

An investigation of social learning theory and whether children would imitate aggression shown by a
model.

Aim

Whether children imitate aggression of a model in the absence of the model and whether they are
more likely to imitate a same-sex model.

Hypotheses

1. Observed aggressive behavior will be imitated, meaning children exposed to an aggressive

model will display more aggression compared to those exposed to a non-aggressive model or
no model.
2. Observed non-aggressive behavior will also be imitated, so children exposed to non-aggressive
models will show less aggression than those without a model.
3. Children are more likely to imitate a same-sex model.
4. Boys are more likely to imitate aggressive behavior than girls.

Design:; matched-pairs design.

Research Method: Laboratory experiment, Controlled observation.

IVs:

1. Model behaviour (aggressive, non-aggressive, no model).

2. Model gender.

3. Participant gender.

DV: Frequency and type of imitated aggression.

Sample

72 children (36 boys, 36 girls), aged 37-69 months, from Stanford University nursery. Matched based
on pre-existing aggression levels.

Procedure

The children were matched based on – physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggression to inanimate
objects and aggression inhibition (anxiety) on a 5 point scale.

Children observed either an aggressive or a non-aggressive model playing in a room with toys or no
model. The aggressive model displayed physical and verbal aggression towards an inflatable Bobo doll.
The children were then made mildly frustrated and their behaviour in a new room with toys was
observed through a one-way mirror.

Results

1. Children in the aggressive model group displayed significantly more aggression than those in
the non-aggressive or control groups.

2. Boys imitated more physical aggression, particularly when exposed to male models.

3. Girls imitated more verbal aggression, especially when exposed to female models.

4. Non-aggressive models slightly reduced aggression compared to the control group.

Links to assumptions

Bandura et al. found that children were likely to imitate the behaviour of an aggressive model, showing
that we learn through the process of social learning.

Conclusion

Observing an aggressive model can lead to imitative aggression, particularly if the model is the same
sex.
Strengths

1. There were many controls, such as a script for the model and toy placement. It was a covert
controlled observation, meaning behavioural checklist was made increasing objectivity, and
demand characteristics were reduced, increasing validity. Since it was also a laboratory
experiment, extraneous variables were reduced

2. Children were matched on prior aggression levels across conditions reducing the effect of
participant variables, and inter-rater reliability was very high

Weaknesses

1. The sample was very small (6 in each condition), and they had similar backgrounds, reducing
generalisability.

2. There was risk of psychological harm for the children who viewed the aggressive model and
follow-up should’ve been undertaken to see how long those behaviours lasted. The act of
watching an adult act aggressively towards an inflatable doll lacks mundane realism.

Links to issues and debates

The study used young children who were at a sensitive age in their development. This increases the
risk of psychological harm for those being exposed to an aggressive model.

A real-life application is to reduce the quantity of violence shown on television, or to only show it late
at night when children are not watching, due to the risk of imitation.

Ethical issues

Children were deliberately annoyed, they also could’ve physically injured themselves with the toys,
and exposure to aggressive model could have a lasting effect on the child.

Similarities

1. Both Bandura et al. and Fagen et al. investigated how new behaviours can be learnt.

2. Both Bandura et al. and Saavedra and Silverman used children in their studies.

Differences

3. Bandura et al. used children as participants, while Fagen et al. used animals.

4. Bandura et al. used multiple children in their study, while Saavedra and Silverman only used one.

Saavedra and Silverman (Button Phobia)

Psychology investigated

A boy who had developed a phobia through evaluative learning was treated using principles from
operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

Aim

To test the effectiveness of imagery exposure as part of an exposure-based cognitive-behavioural

treatment or a phobia of buttons.

Design: Longitudinal case study.

Research Method: Structured interviews, observations, and psychometric scales.

IV: Type of intervention (pre-treatment vs. post-treatment).

DV: Distress ratings (via thermometer and self-reports).

Sample

9-year-old Hispanic-American boy from Miami, diagnosed with a button phobia using DSM-IV criteria.

Procedure

A boy was assessed for a phobia of buttons. He underwent four exposure-based treatment sessions,
followed by seven sessions of disgust-related imagery exposure. The efficacy of the treatment was
measured immediately afterwards and again 6 and 12 months later.

Results

1. Following positive reinforcement therapy, the boy could tolerate more buttons, but distress
ratings increased.

2. Following disgust-related imagery exposure for buttons, subjective ratings of distress on the
fear thermometer decreased and the boy no longer met the diagnostic criteria for a phobia.

Links to assumptions

The boy successfully learnt not to fear buttons through a treatment based on operant and classical
conditioning. This shows that we learn through these processes.

Conclusion

Image-exposure therapy may be a more effective treatment for disgust-based phobias than exposure-
based treatments.

Strengths
 1. Follow-up data at 6 and 12 months showed long-lasting effects for imagery-exposure therapy and
this data way collected in a standardised manner which was quantitative, increasing objectivity

2. In-depth data was collected through triangulation of observations and self-report data which was
both quantitative and qualitative, increasing validity

Weaknesses

1. Constant interaction with the participant could have made the researchers less objective, increasing
the risk of bias, compromising the validity. Reliability is also reduced as demand characteristics my be
more apparent.

2. There was a single participant so generalisation and replication is difficult.

Links to issues and debates

The child was nine years old so the researchers used a specially adapted version of the Anxiety
Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV suitable for children and the 9-point feelings thermometer
was used to measure distress in a more child-friendly way.

A real-life application is to consider incorporating image exposure therapy when the aversive stimulus
is harmless and unthreatening.

Ethical issues

Informed consent was given, anonymity was preserved and the boys quality of life was ultimately
increased, however he was forced to be exposed to distressing stimuli.

Similarities

1. Both Saavedra and Silverman and Bandura et al. collected quantitative data.

2. Both Saavedra and Silverman and Fagen et al. were attempting to deliberately change/shape
behaviour.

Differences

1. Saavedra and Silverman collected self-report data, while Bandura et al. did not.

2. Saavedra and Silverman used a case study as their main research method, while Fagen et al. used an
Observation

Fagen et al. (Elephant Learning)

Psychology investigated
 An investigation of how the principles of operant conditioning, including positive, negative, primary
and secondary reinforcement, can be used to improve elephant welfare. Elephants are taught a
procedure called the trunk wash using shaping and chaining.

Aim

To investigate whether secondary positive reinforcement could be used to train the elephants to
voluntarily complete a trunk wash.

Design: Observational study.

Research Method: Controlled observation using behavioural checklists.

Sample

5 female elephants (4 juveniles, 1 adult) from Nepal, chosen based on temperament and health.
(They were all docile, not currently pregnant or looking after a calf, and their mahouts were willing to
take part in the study. They were all traditional trained and had no experience with SPR)

Procedure

Elephants underwent training using secondary positive reinforcement to complete each of the five
steps involved in the trunk wash. Elephants were trained using capturing, luring, shaping and
secondary reinforcers. Each training session was observed, with details of the session and success rate
recorded.

Results

1. The four juvenile elephants all learned the full trunk wash in 25–35 sessions. from 39% success
(session 10) to 89.3% (session 35).

2. The older elephant failed to learn the full sequence of the trunk wash in the time available.
Links to assumptions

Elephants were able to learn a new behaviour by using a stimulus–response model, showing that
experiences shape behaviour and these changes are directly observable.

Conclusion

Secondary positive reinforcement is effective for training juvenile, traditionally trained elephants to
voluntarily participate in a trunk wash.

Strengths

1. It was a controlled and structured observation so a behavioural checklist was used, which increased
the reliability of observations as quantitative data was used

2. The captive elephants were observed in their normal setting and training sessions were based on the
mood of the elephants. The verbal cues gives had no meaning in any English or Nepalese, reducing
the influence of demand characteristics

Weaknesses

1. A very small sample of five female elephants were used from only 1 stable who were docile, reducing
generalisability

2. Factors such as trainer experience, elephant conditions, and distractions (e.g., tourists and other
elephants) could influence results, reducing reliability.

Links to issues and debates

One elephant was not able to successfully learn the trunk wash, which may have been due to an
individual explanation for behaviour as she was older.

A real-life application of the research is improvement in captive animal welfare as it was shown that
positive methods of behavioural shaping could be used to support the elephants in important health
checks.

Ethical issues

They were well treated and were in their normal environment. This method of SPR reduced the need
of punishment for training and enabled tuberculosis to be diagnosed quickly.

Similarities

1. Both Fagen et al. and Bandura et al. used structured observations.

2. Both Fagen et al. and Saavedra and Silverman had small sample sizes.

Differences

1. Fagen et al. studied elephants in their normal environment, while Bandura et al. used a laboratory
setting.
2. Fagen et al. used female elephants as participants, while Saavedra and Silverman used a male
participant.
Social Approach
Main assumptions

 Behaviour, cognitions, and emotions are influenced by social contexts, social environments
and groups.

 Behaviour, cognitions, and emotions are influenced by the actual, implied or imagined
presence of others.

Milgram (Obedience)

Psychology investigated

Obedience to authority due to social pressure. The situational and dispositional factors involved in
responding to the social pressure to obey an authority figure.

Aim

To investigate the level of obedience to orders from an authority figure even if it leads to physical harm

Design: Controlled observational study (no IV).

Research Method: Covert observation

Sample

40 males (aged 20-50) from New Haven, recruited via newspaper advertisements (volunteer sampling)
offering $4.50 for participation.

Procedure

A study was conducted in a laboratory setting in Yale university, whereby an experimenter orders a
participant to deliver increasingly higher levels of electric shocks to another person when they answer
questions incorrectly in another room. Data was collected via observations and an interview (how
painful the thought the maximum shock was) and it included a dependent variable of voltage.

Results

The highest level of electric shock (450 V) was delivered by 26 out of 40 participants and they knew
they were causing extreme pain (interview was done). All participants delivered 300 V. Participants
showed physical signs of extreme tension, such as sweating and trembling. Three had full blown
seizures.
Links to assumptions

Behaviour can be influenced by other individuals. In Milgram’s study, an experimenter in a lab coat
gave participants prods to continue delivering shocks to a learner. The majority obeyed and delivered
450 V.

Conclusion

People are willing to go against their own moral tendences to obey a perceived authority figure and
harm another person, while showing extraordinary tension and emotional strain.

Factors that influenced the decision to continue were:

 Perceived legitimacy of the study
o it was at a professional academic environment
o the experimenter was in a uniform
 The participant was paid so he felt obliged to continue
 He believed the learner (stooge) had volunteered

Strengths

1. As it was a controlled observation, it allowed control over extraneous variables (e.g., stooge
characteristics) and ensured every participant had the same experience. This standardization
increased reliability and validity, as participants were convinced the scenario was real (realistic shock
generator) and their actions had consequences.

2. The use of shock voltage as a primary measure of obedience provided a clear, objective record,
allowing for consistent comparisons between participants and qualitative data about participant
behaviour provided more in-depth data and allowed for more robust conclusions about destructive
obedience.

Weaknesses

1. The study lacks mundane realism as shocking another person as punishment is not a real-life
occurrence, and subject data was also collected

2. Lacks generalisability as the study used only 40 males from New Haven, USA.

Links to issues and debates

All participants were willing to deliver 300 V, suggesting that situational factors, such as the prods
given by an authority figure, were responsible for obedience. On the other hand, 14 out of 40
participants refused to obey the experimenter at some point, supporting an individual explanation for
behaviour.

A real-life application is educating others to resist obedience as Milgram’s research showed this to be
challenging – for example, army training programmes to resist the orders of authority figures on moral
and ethical grounds.
Ethical issues

Informed consent was not asked as they were deceived about the aim of the study (they thought it
was memory and punishment). They were also repeatedly deceived (though they were teacher by
chance), but they were allowed the right to withdraw (but felt they had to keep going due to the
prongs). They were not protected from psychological harm and underwent extreme distress (3
seizures). Even though they were debriefed, the physiological harm could have significant negative
lasting effects (distress by their own behaviour)

Similarities

1. Both Milgram and Perry et al. used laboratory settings.

2. Both Milgram and Piliavin et al. used stooges.

Differences

1. Milgram used a laboratory setting, while Piliavin et al. used a real-life subway.

2. Milgram’s study had no independent variable, while Perry et al.’s study did.

Perry et al. (personal space)

Psychology investigated

How the social hormone oxytocin and the empathy levels of a person affect preferred interpersonal
distance (personal space).

Aim

To investigate how oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance for those scoring high or low in
empathy traits.

Design: independent measures (empathy), repeated measures (treatment, condition)

Research Method: Laboratory experiment using computer animations and self-reports.

 IV, DV

Experiment 1: Experiment 2:

 Independent Variables:  Independent Variables:

1. Empathy level: high or low 1. Empathy level: high or low

2. Treatment: oxytocin or placebo 2. Treatment: oxytocin or placebo
3. Condition: stranger, authority,
friend, or ball

 Dependent Variables:
 Dependent Variable:
1. Mean preferred distance between
1. Preferred interpersonal distance chairs (in cm)
measured on a scale of 1–100 2. Mean preferred angle of chairs (in
using the Comfortable degrees).
Interpersonal Distance (CID)
paradigm.

Sample

54 male undergraduates from the university of Haifa aged 19-32. Mean age – 25.29

20 with high empathy scores (>=40) 20 with low empathy scores (<33) based on Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI)

Procedure

Participants high or low in empathy traits, who received either oxytocin or a placebo, indicated their
preferred interpersonal distance from different protagonists (close friend, stranger, authority figure,
rolling ball) via a computer animation (24 trials for each and 96 total). They also chose between room
images based on preference for distance and angle of furniture from another person (experimental
condition) and distance and angle of plant and table (control condition) (84 pairs shown twice, overall
168 pairs)

Results

Oxytocin decreased the preferred mean distance from another person in the high empathy group and
increased it in the low empathy group.
 There were differences between the high and low empathy groups between the preferences for chair
distance but not preferred angle.

Interaction between treatment and empathy was only present in experimental condition (distance
between chairs) and not for the control condition (distance between plant and table). This supports
the social salience hypothesis, as OT did not affect participants general preferences, only the
preferences that have a social context.

Links to assumptions

People have preferred interpersonal differences for different types of people, meaning that behaviour
is influenced by the presence of others.

Conclusion

Oxytocin affects preferred interpersonal distance, dependent on empathy levels.

Strengths

1. There was a high level of standardisation through the use of computer animations/images.
Extraneous variables were also controlled as social interaction before the experiment was controlled
(45 minutes in waiting room), increasing reliability od results.

2. There was high validity because of less demand characteristics along with less researcher bias due to
the double-blind procedure to administer oxytocin or saline solution. There was good internal
validity as well as effects were counterbalanced. This prevented order effects.

Weaknesses

1. Self-reports were used to categorise participants as high or low empathy, risking social desirability
bias.

2. Only male participants were used, so findings on the effects of oxytocin on preferred interpersonal
distance cannot be generalised to females. Lacks ecological validity as study took place in artificial
environment. Furthermore, since the had to make judge based on computer-generated images and
not real people (both experiments), it lacks mundane realism as our choices are based on complex
social cues like expressions, tone and gestures.

Links to issues and debates

Oxytocin decreased preferred interpersonal distance in those with high empathy traits, yet increased it
for those low in empathy, supporting individual explanations for behaviour.

A real-life application is that Perry et al.’s findings counter previous research and oxytocin may not be a
suitable treatment for those with social disorders.

Ethical issues

Informed consent, and was cleared by Haifa ethics committee and medical centre. They had no side-
effects and solutions were administered painlessly (protection from harm). however, they were
 deceived in experiment 2, but unlikely to suffer distress from it and they were fully debriefed in the
end.

Similarities

1. Both Perry et al. and Milgram collected quantitative data.

2. Both Perry et al. and Piliavin et al. used deception in their studies.

Differences

1. Perry et al. used animated stooges, while Milgram used a real-life stooge.

2. Perry et al. gained informed consent from participants, while Piliavin et al. did not.

Piliavin et al. (subway Samaritans)

Psychology investigated

An investigation into diffusion of responsibility and bystander apathy in emergency situations.

Aim

To see whether bystander apathy and diffusion of responsibility in a natural setting, in a real-life
setting, was affected by the victim type (drunk/ill), the race of the victim, modelling of helping
behaviour and size of the group.

Design: Field experiment; independent measures for victim type and race.

Research Method: Covert observation.

IVs:

 Victim type (ill vs. drunk).

 Victim race (black vs. white).

 Behaviour of the model (helped early or late)

 Size of sample

DV: Helping behaviour - time taken to help and number of helpers (race, gender location in carriage also
recorded)

Sample
 Subway passengers in New York City (Harlem and the Bronx) during 103 trials 4,450 men and women,
45 per cent of whom were black and 55 per cent white; opportunity sampling. The mean number of
people per carriage was 43.

Procedure

A stooge, who was either white or black, acting as either an ill or drunk person, would collapse on a
New York subway train. On some trials, a model standing in the critical or adjacent area would offer
help either early or late. Details of bystanders who offered help, and comments from others, were
recorded.

1. Critical / early: Model stood in the critical area and waited 70 seconds to help the victim.
2. Critical / late: Model stood in the critical area and waited 150 seconds to help the victim.
3. Adjacent / early: Model stood in the adjacent area and waited 70 seconds to help the victim.
4. Adjacent / late: Model stood in the adjacent area and waited 150 seconds to help the victim.
5. No model condition: The model did not help the victim until after the trial was over and the train had
reached the next stop.

Results

1. The ill person was more likely to receive help and there was no tendency for same-race helping,
unless the victim was drunk. Most first helpers were male (90%)

2. There was a weak positive correlation between group size and helping behaviour.

3. Early models were more likely to elicit help than late models (the longer an emergency continues,
the less likely it is that anyone will help

4. No evidence of diffusion of responsibility

5. There was some evidence of same race helping especially if the victim was drunk

Links to assumptions

Behaviour can be influenced by groups as others may feel less responsible in an emergency situation
due to others being available to help.

Conclusion

The findings did not support Darley and Latané’s ‘diffusion of responsibility’ hypothesis in a real-world
setting: help was offered frequently and quickly on a busy train.

Strengths

1. There was high ecological validity as the setting was a real-life subway carriage. The sample was of
over 4550 participants increasing generalisability, but since it was only from the New York subway, it
is unrepresentative of other countries for e.g.
 2. A standardised procedure was used: models only helped after a set time period, so the study can be
replicated. They also collected quantitative data, ensuring objectivity which is further increased by
the presence of 2 observers. Qualitative data allowed for in-depth understanding of behaviour

Weaknesses

1. Ethical guidelines were broken due to no informed consent or debriefing.

2. There was a lack of controls (high extraneous variables) due to the real-life subway setting, lowering
reliability and validity. It’s also possible that participants took part in study more than once,
increasing demand characteristics

Links to issues and debates

On every cane trial, someone came to help, supporting a situational explanation for behaviour. The
drunk black victim was helped only 73 per cent of the time, suggesting individual differences in helping
behaviour.

Ethical issues

Participants did not consent, they weren’t debriefed, they were deceived (they though someone had actually
fallen), and they could have experienced phycological distress (guilt of not helping)

Similarities

1. Both Piliavin et al. and Milgram used observations in their studies.

2. Both Piliavin et al. and Perry et al. used an independent measures design.

Differences

1. Piliavin et al. did not debrief participants, while Milgram did debrief them.

2. Piliavin et al. used a real-life subway setting, while Perry et al. used a laboratory setting.