UNIT 1: Photosynthesis and the Carbon

Cycle

1.1
Photosynthesis: photo means “light” and synthesis means “making” so photosynthesis is
making with light or the process of plants making food and nutrients through
photosynthesis

Why is photosynthesis important:

● Provide energy and nutrients for most organism

● Producer of the food chain
● Provide oxygen

What if there is no photosynthesis:

IF Photosynthesis had never begun on Earth, No animal would ever have been able to live
here

Chlorophyll: This is the green pigment inside the chloroplast, they capture sunlight and
absorb energy from sunlight during photosynthesis, they also give the plants its green color.

The formula for photosynthesis:

Water + Carbon dioxide -> glucose + oxygen

Formula for (plant) respiration:

glucose + oxygen -> Water + Carbon dioxide

1.2

Chlorophyll: This is the green pigment inside the chloroplast, they capture sunlight, and
absorb energy from sunlight during photosynthesis, they also give the plants its green
colour.

Chloroplast:
 ● Chloroplast contains chlorophyll
● Photosynthesis happens inside chloroplast
● Inside the leaf Co2 and H2O react making glucose and oxygen
● When the sun’s energy is higher, plants tends to make more carbohydrates that they
need so they store carbohydrate as starch, to prepare for cloudy days or days that
have less sunlight

Inside a leaf:

First the structure of the leaf:

● Leaves are very thin; so that sunlight can reach the cell need to absorb sunlight

Inside a leaf:

● The upper/lower epidermis: protect the cells

● Waxy layer: Stop the leaf cells from drying out
● Vein/Xylem vessel: Carries water to the cell in the leaves
● Palisade layer: Cells that do most of photosynthesis
● Spongy layer: Have a lot of air space/do some of the photosynthesis
● Stoma/Stomata (plural: tiny holes that lets carbon dioxide get in the leaf (ONLY in
lower epidermis) excellent
Minerals and plant growth

Magnesium:

● Needed to make Chlorophyll

Not Enough Magnesium?:

● The plants can’t grow well

● Leaves will look yellow instead of green since it’s missing chlorophyll (doesnt
have sufficient chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis. )

Nitrate:

● Contains nitrogen atoms

● Convert Carbohydrate into Proteins
● Essential for making new cells
● Nitrogen also makes chlorophyll

Not Enough Nitrate?:

● The plants will stay small (stunted growth, grows very slow or not at all)
● Leaves will die

1.3

The carbon cycle:

Carbon: Carbon is an elements the element symbol is C

Carbon is also a part of many different compound that makes up cell: Carbs, protein, fats

Fossil Fuel: When organisms die, decomposers can’t always decompose them
quickly, some fall into sea beds, where decomposers can’t respire since there is not
enough oxygen, the organism’s body gets buried; expose to high pressure + heat change
them into; Oil, Coal, natural gases.

Combustion: Combustion is the name for burning, a chemical reaction that

releases energy as heat and light. When we burn fossil fuels the carbon in the reaction,
combines with oxygen from the air and forms carbon dioxide, this is called Combustion

The carbon cycle:

1.4

Greenhouse gases: are gases that help keep the earth warm, without greenhouse gases
the earth becomes cold, frozen, unable to support life. E.g Carbon dioxide, Methane…

Climate: Climate is the long-term pattern of temp, wind and rainfall on Earth

Meteoroids: Object in space that are smaller than an asteroids

Meteor: Meteoroids as they passing through the Earth atmosphere
Meteorite: A meteor that landed on the Earth surface

Climate change: the global phenomenon that is the long-term change in Earth’s weather,
mainly caused by human activities that trap heat.

Impacts:

● Extreme weather events (include examples here)

● Rising sea levels (whats the effect of this?)
● Less predictable rainfall
UNIT 2: Properties of materials

2.1

Atomic structure and periodic table;

Protons: a subatomic particle with a positive charge (+)

Electrons: another subatomic particle but with a negative charge (-)
Neutrons: a subatomic particle with neutral charge

Atomic number: the amount of protons (also tells us the amount of electron)

Mass number: the total of proton + neutron

Arranging electrons:

First of all we use a model of atom; the developed version of Rutherford’s model; Niels Bohr

The electrons are arranged in electron shells around the nucleus. This is the electronic
structure; The first electron shells only have room for two electrons, While the second
and third can hold up to eight electrons. They are all held in places by electrostatic
forces. (remember max 2, 8, 8)

Electron shells: Areas around the centre of an atom where electrons move.
Electronic structure: How electrons are arranged in the atom’s shells.
Electrostatic forces: Forces that hold electrons in place.

2.2
Trends in group within the periodic table

Alkali Metals (Group 1):

● Structure: 1 electron in the outer shell. This makes them very volatile)
● Trends:
○ Reactivity: Increases as you go down.
○ Size: Atoms get bigger down the group.
○ Melting and Boiling Points: Get lower down the group.
 ● State: Solid at room temperature.

Halogens (Group 7):

● Structure: 7 electrons in the outer shell.

● Trends:
○ Reactivity: Decreases as you go down.
○ Size: Atoms get bigger down the group.
○ Melting and Boiling Points: Get higher down the group.
● State:
○ Gas: Fluorine, chlorine.
○ Liquid: Bromine.
○ Solid: Iodine, astatine.

Noble Gases (Group 8):

● Structure: Full outer shell of electrons (very stable).

● Trends:
○ Reactivity: Almost none (inert).
○ Size: Atoms get bigger down the group.
○ Melting and Boiling Points: Get higher down the group.
● State: Gas at room temperature.

2.3

Why elements react to form compound

Thinking about atomic structure

Atoms have electrons arranged in different electron shells or energy levels around the
nucleus. The shell with the highest energy level is the valence shell or outermost
electron shell.

Why do elements reacts together;

Atoms are more stable when they have a full outermost electron shell like noble gases as
they have 8 electrons in the outermost shell. This means that they do not react to form
compounds
Other groups like halogens and alkali metals outermost shells are not full so they are more
reactive and can form compounds. The elements in compounds are held together by
chemical bonds. These bond can be formed in two ways;

Ionic bond: Where atom form compound by gaining or losing electrons

Properties of Ionic Bonding:

● Formation: Between a metal and a non-metal.

● Electrical Conductivity: Conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted
because ions can move.
● Melting and Boiling Points: High, due to strong forces between ions.

When atoms lose or gain electrons they form an ion. An ion is an atom or molecule that has
gained or lost one or more electrons, giving it a positive or negative charge.

● Cation: A positively charged ion, formed when an atom loses electrons.

● Anion: A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom gains electrons

Covalent bond: Where atoms share electrons to form compounds.

Properties of Covalent Bonding:

1. Formation: Between two non-metals. Atoms share electrons to fill their outer shells.
2. Electrical Conductivity: Do not conduct electricity because there are no free-
moving charged particles.
3. Melting and Boiling Points: Generally low, because the forces between molecules
are weaker.
2.4
Giant structure in ionic compounds

Ionic compounds: In ionic compounds, the lattice structure is a giant grid of positively
charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) arranged in a regular pattern.

Also Ionic compounds tend to be very strong. Why? Think about this, in a magnet opposite;
positive and negative attracts right? So it’s the same case for atoms: a positively and
negatively charged ion attracts each other making a strong bond. These are held
together by electrostatic forces, act in all directions and form ionic bonds.

Giant covalent structure

Many substances that have covalent bonds are formed from simple molecules; oxygen, Co2,
methane. This is because the force of attraction holding molecules together are strong but
the force between the molecules are weak, the force between molecules are intermolecular
forces.

Covalent and Ionic substances have different properties

Melting and boiling points:

Ionic structures
 ● very high boiling and melting points since the electrostatic force is very strong
holding the ions together,
● large amount of energy is needed to overcome (break) these forces in order to
melt/boil them

Conducting electricity

Ionic compounds:
Ionic compounds can conduct electricity IF they are dissolved into water or
melted. Because normally they can’t conduct electricity, In this state the ions
are free to move and carry an electric current.

Covalent substances:
Made from simple molecules do NOT conduct electricity

UNIT 3: Forces and energy

3.1Mass and volume

Density: it’s how heavy something is for its size, the more mass in a given
volume the denser something is. If something feels heavy for its size, it's dense. If it
feels light for its size, it's not dense.

Calculating volume

When we calculate a volume of a regular object; we look at their side to calculate the
volume

for example a cuboid, V(volume) = L(length) x W(width) x H(height) (I can assure you
this is science def not maths :D ) - Just joking you all are going to rot lol

An irregular object is different you can use the displacement method, a technique to
measure the volume by submerging it into water and see how much its displace.

Here's how it works:

1. Fill a container with water and note the water level.

2. Gently place the object in the water.
3. The water will rise because the object takes up space.
4. Measure how much the water level has risen. This is the volume of the object.
Calculating density

Density = mass/volume

Floating and sinking

So basically, water have density, a certain amount of density (1.0g/cm^3); so if you are
more dense than water you will sink, if you’re less dense than water you will float

Also (you don’t need to know this but i will provide it anyway) imagine your body density =
0.9g/cm^3; 90% of your body will sink but the last 10% will float, this goes the same for
every density that is n < 1.0g/cm^3, as long as it’s less than the density of water, your body
will float the remain.
3.2

Thermal energy: Thermal energy is the total energy from the movement of particles in an
object. They always move from hotter places to colder places (dissipates)

Heat and temperature

For starter heat and temperature are not the same thing:

Heat: is the total amount of thermal energy in an object, measure in J (joules)

Temperature: is the direction that thermal energy will be transferred, also the average
amount of thermal energy in an object. Measure in C (Celcius)

Example: There are 2 glasses of water and one has more water than the other, the
temperature of both glasses are the same, but is the heat the same? No, The glasses with
more water should have a higher “heat” since the more particles there are; the total energy
of the particles of all these particles is greater than the one with less water particles. That
means the larger volume of water has a higher amount of heat than the smaller volume of
water, even if the temperature is the same.

3.3
Energy is conserved
The law of conservation energy: It is to state that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed it can only be transferred from one to another.

Conserved: means that maintain (a quantity such as energy) at a constant overall total

When we say that something (ST) is conserved, we mean that the total quantity of
something (ST) stays the same
3.4
Feeling heat
When you touch a hot coffee mug, why do you feel that it’s hot? Remember this thermal
energy always moves from hotter places to colder places, so in this situation which
place is hotter your hand? Or the coffee mug? Of course it’s your hand, so what happening
here is the thermal energy from the coffee mug is moving or transferred to your hand

Feeling cold
Imagine you are holding ice, the ice feelx`s cold (obviously :D ), it could make you think that
the cold is moving into your hand, NO “cold” does not move, Cold is the absence of heat.
When you are holding the ice your hand's thermal energy gets transferred to the ice, that’s
why you feel your hand is cold.

Dissipation: loss of energy through its conversion into heat

When thermal energy moves from a hotter place to a colder place, we say the thermal
energy has dissipated from the hotter place.

3.5
Heat and particle movement

We have learnt that thermal energy is the total energy from the movement of particles
in an object. They always move from hotter places to colder places (dissipates), so you can
say there is both kinetic and potential energy in thermal energy.

With this we know that when we heat up a particle, it will starting to vibrate or move around
more, colliding more, or in simple terms thermal energy + particle = more vigorously in
movement

Conduction

Conduction, mainly happens in solids, and solid is the best; Why? Because solid have a
fixed shape.

How does it happen? When particles are vibrating they will push the particle beside them,
the greater the energy the greater the push and this is also transferring energy. This causes
the particle beside it to move more vigorously.
Convection

Convection, mainly in liquid and gases. Convection is how liquid moves through liquid
and gases, when part of the liquid/ gases get hotter the liquid/gas will become less dense,
it will rise to the top while the cooler part sinks down lower because it’s more dense.

Radiation

Radiation is how heat moves through vacuum without any use of particles, it’s a type of
wave we cannot see, this is also how sunlight gets to earth.

All object give out thermal energy through radiation, the hotter the object, the more
radiation it will emit (emit means to give out)

The best emitters and absorber of radiation:

● Are dull
● Are black
● Have a large surface area

The worst emitters and absorbers of radiation is:

● Are shiny
● Are white

Have a small surface area

3.6
Evaporation: is the process of liquid becoming gas

Evaporating by cooling
Particles in water have different energy, water with the highest energy can escape from the
water becoming a gas, this will lower the temperature of water.

How does it cool? It cools off because the particles with highest energy have escaped
causing the water to cool off.

UNIT 4: Maintaining life

4.1

How root hairs absorb water

Root hair is developed to absorb water efficiently. They grow out to the surface of the
roots, they have a large surface area that increases the amount of water absorption.
Water moves into the root hair cell, it passes through the cell wall and cell membrane into
the cytoplasm.

How water moves up the plant

Xylem vessels: are long tube-like cells, they are also dead cells; they don’t have a normal
plant cell content (nucleus, cytoplasm … etc). All that is left is the cell wall and an empty
space inside, this is also the water transport system for the plants to help get water to
the cell.
(like a big straw)
Water that has been absorbed by the root hair cell moves from the outside of the root
towards the inside of the root. It goes into the xylem vessel and up to the cells.

4.2
How water moves through leaves
Transpiration: The loss of water vapour from leaves

Step by step about transpiration

● Water arrives at the leaf through the xylem vessels.

● Water moves from the xylem into the cells of the leaf.
● Water in the leaf cells soaks into the cell walls.
● The water changes into water vapour and evaporates.
● Water vapour diffuses into the air spaces inside the leaf.
● It exits the leaf through small openings called stomata.

Why plants need water

Water for support

Plant cells contain a lot of water, especially in their vacuoles; this keeps the plant strong and
firm. When all cells are like this they press on each other and make the plant strong and well
supported.

Water for transport

As water moves through the xylem vessel is carried dissolved mineral salt with it. This is how
water and minerals are transported throughout the plant keeping the plant healthy.

Water for cooling

When water evaporates it takes away the heat with it, the soaked cell wall changes water
into water vapour, taking the heat away with it. This is important for plants that are in hotter
places.

Water for photosynthesis

Water is one of the reactants in photosynthesis to make glucose and oxygen.

4.3
What is excretion?

Excretion: the process of getting rid of waste material that are MADE by CELL

Excretion does NOT include faeces, since faeces are not naturally made by cell, it was made
by the food that we consume, the waste that we excrete includes:
 ● Co2
● Urea
● Excess water

Excreting urea
When we eat food, it is broken down into smaller molecules that get transported to the liver.
If we have more protein than we need, the liver changes this into urea, which is a
poisonous substance. It makes a person ill if it builds up.

As soon as the liver makes the urea, it is carried away by the blood.

The urea is transported to the kidneys (an excretory system, also called the renal system).
It removes all urea and excess water from the blood, mixes them up together, and
transports it down to the bladder by the ureter and outside by the urethra.

4.4
A healthy pregnancy

Fetus/Foetus: A developing baby inside the womb, after the early stages of pregnancy,
typically from the 9th week until birth.

Fetal/Foetal: Something that relates to or is connected to a fetus, like fetal development (the
growth of the baby in the womb).

A fetus like all organisms needs to excrete waste and respire, the foetus relies on the
mother to supply it with the thing it needs, and remove waste material. The two blood
vessels of the foetus and the mother are close together but they DO NOT touch the mother
blood vessel diffuses the substances that the foetus needs through this, they also relies on
their mother blood stream to excrete waste.
Diet

A balanced diet is important for a mother to develop a healthy foetus, A good diet affects
heavily on a fetal diet.

And when a pregnant woman is… well pregnant, she often eat more than normal to supply
the fetus with what it needs

Protein: Helps the fetus grow, especially muscles and organs.

○ Foods: Meat, eggs, beans.

Carbohydrates: Provide energy for growth.

○ Foods: Rice, bread, fruits.

Vitamins: Help with brain, bone, and organ development.

○ Foods:
■ Vitamin A: Carrots, spinach.
■ Vitamin D: Eggs, milk.
■ Folic Acid: Leafy greens, oranges.
■ Vitamin C: Oranges, strawberries.

Minerals: Help bones, blood, and cell growth.

○ Foods:
■ Calcium: Milk, yogurt.
■ Iron: Meat, spinach.
■ Zinc: Meat, nuts.

Why a pregnant woman need vitamins A, C and D:

Vitamin A: Help with eye, skin and immune system development

Vitamin C: Help with skin and bones, also help with iron absorption, alas boost the immune
system

Vitamin D: Help with bone and teeth growth, help absorb calcium

Drugs

Smoking, drugs and alcohol affect the life of a foetus causing low birthweight, premature
birth and developmental defects.

Pregnant women may take antibiotics for infections and painkillers like aspirin for
discomfort, but should always consult a doctor to ensure safety.
Unit 5: Reactivity
5.1
The reactivity series

The reactivity series

A list that contains metals where the most reactive goes up top and the least at the bottom
Displacement reactions:

It happens when a more reactive element pushes out or in this case “displaces” a less
reactive element from a compound that contains less reactive element.

Example: The reaction between iron and copper sulfate where iron would “push out” the
copper which results in Iron sulfate.

5.2
(Basically, this sub-unit is just examples so ignore it)

5.3
Examples of different kinds of salts (Extension info):
- Sodium chloride: Used for preserving food
- Magnesium carbonate: Used for rubbing your hand to have more grip/friction
- Calcium sulfate: Used to make chalk
- Aluminium sulfate: Used to dry clothes

Acids and Salts

ALL ACIDS CONTAIN HYDROGEN (IMPORTANT REMINDER)

________________________________________________________________________

1) Making salts using a metal and an acid

General equation:

Acid + metal => salt + hydrogen

Example:

Zinc + hydrochloric acid => zinc chloride + hydrogen

2) Making salts using a metal oxide

General equation:

Metal oxide + acid => salt + water

Example:

Copper oxide + sulfuric acid => copper sulfate + water

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5.4
Metal carbonates and acids
They can be turned into salts using carbonates (the salt types like calcium carbonate).
Carbonates can be formed through the reaction of a metal and a carbonic acid.

We can use carbonates to form other salts by reacting them with an acid.

________________________________________________________________________

Forming salts through neutralization

Alkalis react with acids to neutralize them. When an acid is neutralized by an alkali, a salt is
produced. For example, when sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium
chloride is formed. The other product is water.

Example:

Alkalis and bases

When a metal oxide dissolves in water, it forms an alkaline solution. Metal oxides are called
bases. Soluble metal bases form alkalis when dissolved in water.
Example:

Sodium oxide + water => sodium hydroxide.

Sodium oxide is a base in this situation. The sodium hydroxide is basically an alkali.

BUT, some metal oxides are NOT SOLUBLE in water, for example iron and copper oxide.
So these will NOT form alkaline. But these will still be able to react with acids to form salts.

Example:

Copper oxide + sulfuric acid => copper sulfate + water

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5.5
Rearranging atoms
Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement n(moving) of atoms to form new
combinations without creating or destroying atoms. Elements present in the reactants
are also found in the products, as shown in reactions like iron and sulfur forming iron sulfide.

Example: magnesium & hydrochloric acid, magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to form
magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas. No elements disappear or appear; they only
rearrange. The symbol equation also shows the number of each atom involved, maintaining
balance between reactants and products.

________________________________________________________________________

Conservation of mass (Important)

Atoms HAVE mass. If no atoms are either gained or lost during a reaction, then no mass is
gained or lost either.

________________________________________________________________________
Energy and chemical reactions (related)
ALL CHEMICALS ALWAYS INCLUDE/INVOLVE ENERGY (IMPORTANT REMINDER)

Energy is used to sometimes break different kinds of bonds in different kinds of reactants
and energy which is released when new bonds are formed in the products. When different
kinds of metals react with either water or acids, energy is released, as thermal energy or
sometimes as light/sound/kinetic energy.

Example:

The law of conservation of energy (Important)

When a chemical reaction takes in/gets energy or releases energy then there will be no
overall change in the amount of energy during the reaction. This is because energy
CANNOT be created or destroyed

Energy may be transferred from one “form” to another but the same amount of energy
remains after the reaction as before. This is true for every chemical reaction.

Unit 6: Sound and space

6.1
Loudness + amplitude
The loudness of a sound is a way to know/describe how quiet/loud a sound is. Loudness is
key on 2 variables:

- How much an object is vibrating - The further/greater the distance of a vibration, the
louder the sound is.
- How far away the vibrating object is - the further away, the quieter the sound is.

The greater the distance of each vibration in the object, the greater the distance that
particles in the air will be either pushed or pulled. Sounds would also get quieter when the
distance from the vibrating object increases due to the fact of energy dissipation

When a sound wave travels forward in air

then the particles move BOTH back and
forth as seen through here =>
The movement of particles is easier to draw when on a graph (RECOMMENDED TO
SHOW) as seen below.

The graph shows the distance that particles would move back and forth through time. The
shape of this graph is what's called a waveform.

________________________________________________________________________

VOCAB SPECIAL:
Amplitude: The maximum distance that a particle moves, either back or forth (optional).

Peak: The highest point on the sound wave

Trough: The lowest point on the sound wave

Oscilloscope: A piece of equipment which displaces waveforms on sound waves.

Pitch: How high or low a sound is depending on the properties.

Frequency: The number of vibrations per second

________________________________________________________________________

(IMPORTANT NOTES)
As the distance of the vibration increases, the loudness increases. Also when the
amplitude of a sound wave increases then the loudness of the sound increases.
________________________________________________________________________

(ADDITIONAL NOTES)
The faster the vibrations, the higher the pitch of the sound

The speed of vibrations is measured by the number of complete vibrations per

second.

The frequency is measured through the unit of Hz/hertz

Using an oscilloscope can compare the frequencies of sound waves of different

pitches.

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6.2
VOCAL SPECIAL:
Interference: The effect that is made when waves would meet each other

Reinforce: To make something stronger

Cancel (in sound): Meeting the opposite parts (peaks and troughs) together and then
cancel to make almost - no sound (in this context)

________________________________________________________________________

Interference
Interference could only happen when the waves are the SAME TYPE. It is easiest to
detect when the waves would have the same frequency and the same amplitude.
Interference could also produce two different effects:

- Reinforce
- Waves would cancel each other

________________________________________________________________________

Reinforce
Waves will reinforce when the peaks and troughs are the same length and match with the
other sound wave. Shown in the diagram =>

When sound waves interfere to reinforce, the amplitude of the sound wave would increase
but the frequency won’t change at all. Due to the fact that the loudness of a sound wave
would depend on its amplitude, that means if two sound waves would reinforce, the sound
wave would become louder.

(ADDITIONAL NOTES)
This diagram shows the pattern of sound waves that could be produced from these
loudspeakers.

The curved lines represent the peaks in the sound waves. When both of the lines
cross, the waves will get stronger/reinforce each other. The person near would hear a
louder sound.

Sound waves will also reinforce each other when both of the troughs meet

________________________________________________________________________

Cancelling waves
Waves will cancel when they meet with the peaks and troughs together (basically when the
opposites meet).

The direction of waves will stay the same as usual with the same frequency of movement
that will flow the same as the other waves. Amplitude will stay the same as well.
(BASICALLY EVERYTHING STAYS THE SAME EXCEPT THE PEAKS AND TROUGHS
WILL BE OPPOSITE TO EACH OTHER PEAK - TROUGH/ TROUGH - PEAK)
________________________________________________________________________

6.3
Collision theory
Process:

________________________________________________________________________

Additional notes:

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6.4
VOCAB SPECIAL:
Nebulae: Just clouds of dust and gas in space

Nebula: singular version of “Nebulae”

Northern hemisphere: The half of the Earth on the North side

Southern hemisphere: The half of the Earth on the South side

Stellar nurseries: An area where stars get formed

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Stellar nurseries
A stellar nursery is an area where stars are born (put the meaning up at vocab special).

Some types of nebulae act as stellar nurseries. In a stellar nursery, the dust and gas can
start to collapse together under the force of gravity. When the mass of dust and gas collects
together and becomes larger, the force of gravity pulling together and becomes larger, the
force of gravity pulling inwards increases. When this force of gravity gets very large, the
pressure inside of the new star also gets very large. The pressure built causes heat which
could cause atoms to react with others causing the new star to give out heat + light.

________________________________________________________________________

6.5
Movement of tectonic plates
The mantle is heated from the innermost part of the Earth: the inner core. The inner part of
the mantle of the mantle gets thermal energy from the core. The fluid in the mantle then
expands when heated and becomes essentially less dense than the fluid surrounding it. As
this increasingly gets hotter, less dense fluid in the mantle rises towards the crust, cools and
sinks again which results in a convection current.

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Unit 7: Genes and inheritance

7.1
VOCAB SPECIAL:
Chromosome: Long stripped threads inside of a nucleus

DNA: A molecule that carries genetic information for the development or functioning of an
organism.

Genes: The functional and physical unit of “ancestor” passed from parent to offspring

Chromosomes
The nucleus of EVERY cell contains little long and stripped threads called chromosomes.
Different types of species of organism have different members of chromosomes in the
nucleus of their own cells. Human cells have 46 chromosomes but others like fruit fly cells
have 8 chromosomes and a mango tree has 40 chromosomes.

Usually there are 2 kinds of

chromosomes in a human cell
where the first one is always longer
than the second.

This picture should show all the

chromosomes in a human cell =>

Just before a cell divides, each

chromosome would make a copy of
itself.

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Genes
Each separate chromosome is made up of hundreds of different genes. The genes are
always going to be arranged in a set order along the chromosome. Each gene helps to
control a characteristic inside of your body/an organism.

This diagram shows different genes

=>

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DNA
Chromosomes are made of a chemical substance called DNA. Each chromosome is one
long molecule of DNA. Which means that genes are also made out of DNA.
A DNA molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder or as known as a “double helix”.

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7.2
VOCAB SPECIAL:
Gametes: reproductive cells/specialised cells

Egg cell: Reproductive cells for females

Sperm cell: Reproductive cells for males

Fertilization: Joining an egg cell and sperm cell

Inheritance: Passing on something

Sex chromosome: A type of chromosome which involves reproduction like X and Y

chromosomes.

X and Y chromosome: Sex chromosomes that determine whether a person is male or

female. Which one is which?

Sex inheritance: Passing on a characteristic from your ancestors

Zygote: A cell that is formed when the nucleus of the sperm cell and the egg cell join
together.

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Sperm cell

Sperm cells are very small cells. They are adapted to being very active by using their tails to
swim vigorously

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Egg cell
Egg cells are wayyyyy bigger compared to sperm cells but still small. A egg cells are the
same size as a full stop, they need this size because they need to contain lots of food
reserves. And the last difference is egg cells CANNOT move by themselves.

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How fertilisation takes place

During the start of fertilisation, the head of the sperm cell enters the egg cell, then they start
to slowly form the zygote the the nucleus of both cells start getting close together which
could take years for it to slowly divide and repeat the process.

________________________________________________________________________

Determine the gender with chromosomes

Sex chromosomes determine whether a person is either a male or a female. When a person
has two X chromosomes, XX which means that person is a female.

The other kind is called a Y chromosome, Y chromosomes are smaller than X

chromosomes. If a person has one X chromosome and a Y chromosome, XY which tells us
that the person is a male.

All egg cells would always contain one singular X chromosome. Gametes would only have
one set of chromosomes so they only have one of each kind. But a special case with sperm
cells. They can have one of both chromosomes (X and Y) which means to determine the
gender.
________________________________________________________________________

7.3
Variation with species
Individual organisms that belong to the same species have differences between them. These
are called variation

Example:

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DNA - Variation
Every person has unique DNA which is always slightly different to others, all sperm cells and
egg cells contain genes that affect the development of species. These genes could affect
many things( height skin tone, eye color)

When a sperm cell and egg cell fuse together at fertilisation, the zygote that is produced
would make a new combination of DNA. Not really the same as your siblings and not
identical.

The differences in the DNA of organisms within a species are called genetic differences.

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7.4
How does bacteria become resistant to antibiotics
Antibiotics are medicines that we use to cure diseases that are mainly caused by bacteria.
But antibiotics are starting to become useless to some other bacteria due to the fact that
over time, they have become resistant to the antibiotics.

Resistant ( in this context): where bacteria is immune to the anti-biotics, means that they
have acquired resistance 😂

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Unit 8: Rate of reactions

8.1.
Rate of reaction
The rate of reaction can be measured by working out how much of one of the products has
been made in a certain amount of time or how much a reactant has been used in a given
time.

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8.2
The effect of changing its surface area on how it affects the rate of
reaction
When you have a small item, it always guarantees you that it will react faster than the bigger
item like how you slice bread and the pieces have a larger surface area than the loaf itself.
The reason is because the bigger item is limited to the surface up top which limits its amount
of oxygen whereas the smaller item will be more free as it will have openings that oxygen
could go through.
________________________________________________________________________

8.3
The effect of temperature on how it affects the rate of reaction
Particles move constantly, when the temperature of the reaction is increased, the particles
always move faster. They collide more likely + with more energy

Basically the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of reaction.

________________________________________________________________________

8.4
The effect of concentration on how it affects the rate of reaction
The higher the concentration of an acid, the more particles there are in a given amount of
space. That mean that there will be more frequent collisions between and acid particle and a
salt particle

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Unit 9: Electricity
9.1
Series circuits
In a series circuit, there is only ONE path for the current to flow. This always would mean
that the current would flow at the same path all around a series circuit. A series circuit should
have all the current flowing through one component to the next component.

Example =>>>>>>>

=>>>>>>>

=>>>>>>>

=>>>>>>>

________________________________________________________________________

Parallel circuits
In this kind (parallel), there is MORE than one path for the current to flow in. These paths
that are connected are called branches.

There is one rule to this circuit:

 - The current through the cell is ALWAYS going to be equal to the total of the
current giauwin ALL branches

(please this is easy math, don’t fail me:(((((((((( or you are turning to Wemmbu) whats
wemmbu?

________________________________________________________________________

Advantages to parallel circuits

In a parallel circuit, the current through a branch can keep flowing even if the current stops
flowing in the other branches which means:

- The components in the same circuit can be switched on and off on its own
- If a component in one branch stops working, the other branches will not be affected

________________________________________________________________________

9.2
What is voltage????
Voltage means connected to the electrical energy in a circuit. It is usually measured in volts
or if you are lazy then V. Voltage is related to the fact that electrical energy is supplied to a
circuit by a cell, battery or a big power supply.

(Useless but maybe helpful) Mostly, cells usually have 1.5V. A battery is either 2 or more
cells joined together in the circuit. They commonly are in forms of 6V, 9V or 12V.

If you’re wondering the symbol =>

Shortest one = Cell

Medium = Battery

Biggest one = Over 220V or a power supply

________________________________________________________________________

How to measure voltage??????

Voltage is mainly measured using a voltmeter.

There are many differences between an ammeter and a voltmeter. An ammeter measures
the current flowing through a component which means that it has to be connected to the
series circuit (cannot be connected to a parallel or it can’t measure 100%) to measure it
meanwhile a voltmeter measures energy difference in both sides of the component which
means that is can also be used in a parallel circuit WITH a component.

(also plz DO NOT MIX IT UP WITH AMMETER IF YOU DO THEN YOU ARE TURNING
INTO BOOSFER). Whats this now :((((((

_____________________________________________________________
Voltage in a series circuit
Energy is always conserved (look at unit 5), so the energy that is changed by the
components in a circuit must ALWAYS be equal to the energy supplied by the
cells/batteries/power supplies.

This means that the voltages across each component in a series circuit must add up to the
voltage of the supplies.
Like this =>>

________________________________________________________________________

What happens when you add more components to a series circuit??

The voltage from the supplies in a series/parallel circuit is shared between each of the
components. This means that by adding components like lamps or buzzers, it will cause
each component to have a smaller share of the voltage

Basically, adding more of the components in a series circuit will slowly decrease the current.
As more components are added, it becomes more and more difficult for the power supply to
push the electrons around the circuit.

________________________________________________________________________

Voltage in a parallel circuit

The voltage across each branch of a parallel circuit is equal to the voltage of the power
supply. Parallel circuits have the same voltages across all paths because these branches
can flow in many different paths. Thus, the voltage is not limited and stays the same across
all branches. This also means if you have different components, they won’t be affected by
the voltage and will remain the same.
_________________________________________________________________________

What happens when you add more components to a parallel circuit??

Basically adding more branches to the parallel circuit for the current to flow through. This
makes the currents flow much easier which also means the current through the cells
increase.

REMEMBER TO KNOW THAT THE VOLTAGE ACROSS ANY BRANCH WILL ALWAYS
BE THE SAME WHICH MEANS ADDING MORE COMPONENTS WILL MAKE IT HARDER
FOR THE CURRENT TO FLOW THROUGH THAT ONE BRANCH 🙂

Adding extra cells to a parallel circuit increases the power supply which means it also:

- Increases the voltage of each branch

- Increases the current through each cell
- Increases the current through each branch

_________________________________________________________________________

9.3
Resistance
Resistance is a measure of how easy or difficult it is for electrons to move through materials.
Things like conductors have low resistance meanwhile insulators have high resistance. To
measure resistance which is measured in units also “Ohms” which has this symbol .

Example:

A 100m length of copper wire would have a resistance of 0.5 - 1.0

Meanwhile, 1 cm of some kinds of plastic has a resistance of over 1T/1 trillion

Basically resistance slows the flow of electrons which lowers the current. Like copper wire is
designed to have very low resistance so that the wire inside the circuit could affect the
current as little as possible. Meanwhile insulators such as plastic are put around the copper
wire because the resistance is so high that they do not allow currents to flow at all under
most circumstances
Some conductors are mainly designed to have a high resistance. There's a material called
filament. Filaments have very high resistance. when current flows through the filament,
thermal energy is transferred. There is so much thermal energy inside a copper wire that the
filament could actually glow and emit light.

Mostly as resistance makes it difficult for the current to flow - the greater the
resistance in a circuit, the smaller the current is in the circuit.

_________________________________________________________________________

The “Ohm's” law

Ohm’s law states that:

Voltage = current x resistance

V as in volts

I as in current/amps

R as in resistance/ohm’s

=>>>>>>> =>>>>>>>>>>

=>>>>>>> =>>>>>>>>>>

_________________________________________________________________________

Resistors
A resistor is a type of electrical component that is designed to have said resistance. Many
resistors have coloured bands because it apparently shows the value of resistance in
“ohm’s”.
_________________________________________________________________________

9.4
Types of resistors
Variable resistors: The component that is used to change the resistance

Fixed resistors: Basically the resistors in 9.3 (cant be changed)

_________________________________________________________________________

Variable resistors
A variable resistor could be used to change on how resistant you want your resistors you
want to be, it’s mainly used to not overpower the circuit and fix the issue of if you want your
buzzer to be loud or not, or if you want your lamp to shine bright (like a diamond) or make it
very dim like a light night.

_________________________________________________________________________

Regular normal circuits that you use in everyday life

A fridge:

A buzzer fridge

Car headlamp

Car engine

_________________________________________________________________________
Extra things/CheckpointQuestions that you
maybe want to revise for
What type of rock forms when lava from a volcano cools down?

Answer: Igneous (not magma nor is it going to be molten lava)

Name ways that the effect of light is affected by photosynthesis when

the plant is underwater?

Answer: Any sort of thing from the following:

- Type of water plant

- Any type of light source
- Plant growth
- Weather

Which scientist discovered the structure of the atom?

Answer: Ernest Rutherford

Which scientist discovered the neutron?

Answer: James Chadwick

Equation for photosynthesis?

Answer: Carbon dioxide + water => glucose + oxygen

Materials that light can and cannot pass through?

(ain’t giving the answer to this one bc easy)

Suggest why … is or isn’t a fair test?

Suggest a way to present this data

Electromagnetic fields

Exothermic and endothermic reactions

The thermostat question: (maybe 2 or 3 will be on the test)

- How does the metal layer keep radiation out?

- How do convection currents work inside the metal layer?
- How does the metal layer keep the heat and coolness inside the
thermostat?
- How does the bottle keep its heat inside?
- How is thermal energy transferred inside here?
 - Why does radiation bounce off the metal?

(CONTINUING NEXT WEEK WITH MORE INFO)

Btw i broke ma back to make this (i was sick doing this) so uh ya contact
me for info if u have questions

(minh007384@[Link])

A huge appreciate to Minh for this amazing work <3 Not only does this
show how dedicated you are to your studies, but absolute kindness in
supporting your classmates. Well done on this achievement. Good luck
for your Mock exams 🙂
HEHEHEHEHEHEHEH NK BEO SUSUS, Mysterious alpaca was here