SREENARAYANAGURU OPEN UNIVERSITY

Vision
To increase access of potential learners of all categories to higher education, research and training,
and ensure equity through delivery of high quality processes and outcomes fostering inclusive educa-
tional empowerment for social advancement.

Mission
To be benchmarked as a model for conservation and dissemination of knowledge and skill
on blended and virtual mode in education, training and research for normal, continuing, and
adult learners.

Pathway
Access and Quality define Equity.
 Society and Culture in Indian
History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Course Code: M21HS07DC
Semester - II

Discipline Core Course

Postgraduate Programme in History
Self Learning Material

SREENARAYANAGURU OPEN UNIVERSITY

The State University for Education, Training and Research in Blended Format, Kerala
Society and Culture in Indian DOCUMENTATION
History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) Academic Committee
M21HS07DC Dr. M. T. Narayanan Dr. K. S. Madhvan
MA History Dr. Vijayakumari K. Muhammedali T.
Semester - II Dr. C. Haridas Dr. K. P. Rajesh
Dr. Sri Parvathi Dr. Muhammed Maheen A.
Dr. Shaji A. Dr. Deepu J. S.
Dr. E. K. Rajan

Development of the Content

Dr. Ragesh K. V., R. Harinarayanan, Dr. Preethi Chandran P.B.

Review
Content : Dr. G. Sreenivasan
Format : Dr. I. G. Shibi
Linguistics : Dr. C. Ajayan

Edit
Dr. G. Sreenivasan

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work may be reproduced in any form,
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without permission in writing from
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Sreenarayanaguru Open University.
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[Link]
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January 2024

Copyright
© Sreenarayanaguru Open University 2024
Dear
I greet all of you with deep delight and great excitement. I welcome you
to the Sreenarayanaguru Open University.

Sreenarayanaguru Open University was established in September 2020

as a state initiative for fostering higher education in open and distance
mode. We shaped our dreams through a pathway defined by a dictum
‘access and quality define equity’. It provides all reasons to us for the
celebration of quality in the process of education. I am overwhelmed to
let you know that we have resolved not to become ourselves a reason or
cause a reason for the dissemination of inferior education. It sets the pace
as well as the destination. The name of the University centres around the
aura of Sreenarayanaguru, the great renaissance thinker of modern India.
His name is a reminder for us to ensure quality in the delivery of all aca-
demic endeavours.

Sreenarayanaguru Open University rests on the practical framework of

the popularly known “blended format”. Learner on distance mode ob-
viously has limitations in getting exposed to the full potential of class-
room learning experience. Our pedagogical basket has three entities viz
Self Learning Material, Classroom Counselling and Virtual modes. This
combination is expected to provide high voltage in learning as well as
teaching experiences. Care has been taken to ensure quality endeavours
across all the entities.

The university is committed to provide you stimulating learning experi-

ence. The PG programme in History is expected to expose the learners to
the intricacies of historian’s craft through modules on historiography and
historical methods. The learners will be trained on the skills for under-
standing historical forces enabling them to move further in to the com-
plexities of historical narration in order to revisit history with the right
perspective. The modules derived multi-disciplinary flavour due to their
cross border penetration. We assure you that the university student sup-
port services will closely stay with you for the redressal of your grievances
during your studentship.

Feel free to write to us about anything that you feel relevant regarding the
academic programme.

Wish you the best.

Regards,
Dr. P. M. Mubarak Pasha 01.01.2024
 Contents
Block 1 Medieval Indian Polity 1
Unit 1 Delhi Sultanate 2
Unit 2 The Mughal State 17
Unit 3 South Indian Polity 35

Block 2 Production and Appropriation 50

Unit 1 Agricultural Production 51
Unit 2 Revenue Administration 67
Unit 3 Social Stratification 86

Block 3 Urbanisation, Trade and Commerce 104

Unit 1 Medieval Urbanisation 105
Unit 2 Trade in Medieval India 117

Block 4 New Varients of Religious Systems 137

Unit 1 Confluence of Ideas and Practices 138
Unit 2 Sufism 152
Unit 3 Religion under Akbar 167
Unit 4 Promotion of Indian Legacies under Mughal Court 180
Medieval Indian Polity

BLOCK-01

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 1
 UNIT Delhi Sultanate
1
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ examine the polity of Delhi Sultanate under various dynasties
♦ analyse the nature of State in Delhi Sultanate
♦ discuss the administrative structure of Delhi Sultanate
♦ acquitaine with the Vijayanagara state polity
♦ explore the State structure in Vijayanagara Empire

Background
Delhi, initially the capital of Tomara Rajputs until they were conquered in the
middle of the twelfth century by the Chauhans (also known as Chahamanas) of
Ajmer. Delhi rose to prominence as a commercial center during the Tomaras and
Chauhans. The transformation of Delhi into a capital, controlling vast areas of the
subcontinent began with the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate in the thirteenth
century, after the defeat of the Tomara Rajputs. The Sultans of Delhi ruled for
320 years and made achievements in various fields. The history of the Sultanate
can be tracked from Al-Biruni’s geographical tract (1048) to the travels of Marco
Polo (1271-1295) and Ibn Battuta (1325-1354). The inland routes of mobility in
southern Eurasia became a continuous terrain of dynastic competition that ran
from Qom in Persia, to Samarkand in Central Asia, to Delhi, Surat and Dhaka
in India. Simultaneously, the Indian Ocean became an integrated commercial
system. This unit will discuss the establishment of Delhi Sultanate, its expansion
and administration. We also examine the Vijayanagara polity and administration.

Keywords
Chahalgani, Ulema, Sharia, Sultan, Nobility, Feudal Structure, Segmentary,
Nayankara System

2 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Discussion
1.1.1 The Delhi Sultanate
The rulers who ruled a considerable portion of North
India between 1200 CE and I526 CE were known as Sultans,
and the period during which they ruled was known as the
Delhi Sultanate. These rulers were Turkish and Afghan
in descent. After defeating the Indian ruling dynasties,
primarily Rajputs in northern India, they established their
♦ Establishment
rule in India. Prithvi Raj Chauhan (finally defeated in 1192
of Delhi Sultanate
Second battle of Tarain) was the main ruler who was deposed
♦ Five Dynasties by Muhammad Ghori from Delhi. These Sultans ruled for
more than 300 years (from around 1200 CE to 1526 CE).
The last of the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by
the Mughals under the leadership of Babur in 1526 CE, who
established the Mughal Empire in India. During this period
of around three hundred years, five different dynasties ruled
Delhi. These were the Mamluks ( Slave dynasty) ( 1206 CE-
1290 CE), the Khaljis ( 1290 CE-1320 CE), the Tughlaqs( 1320
CE- 1412 CE), the Sayyids (1412 CE- 1451 CE) and the Lodis
( 1451 CE- 1526 CE). All these dynasties are collectively
referred to as the Delhi Sultanate.

1.1.2 Nature of State in Delhi Sultanate

The nature of ‘state’ in Delhi Sultanate has been a subject of
debate among historians. Despite appearing to complement
each other, politics and religion functioned in separate areas.

Muslim Political Ideas

Muslims believe that Islamic society and government
should be organised based on divine injunctions of the
Quran and hadis, which are supplemented by the teachings
♦ Rules of law of Prophet Muhammad. The ulema (Muslim theologians)
provide various rules based on the Quran and hadis, known as
Sharia (Islamic Law). Zawabit (rules and regulations framed
by Sultans) were also used for efficient administration.
The Caliph-Sultan relationship in Islamic times
was characterised by the Sultans pretending to be the
legal sovereign while themselves being the caliph’s
♦ Caliph-Sultan representatives. They included the Caliph’s name in their
relationship Khutba (prayers) and Sikka (coins), adopting titles indicative
of their subordination. However, only Qutub-ud-din
Mubarak Khalji had the audacity to call himself the Caliph.
Only three Sultans sought a mansur or letter of investiture

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 3
 from the Caliph: Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and
Firoz. Muslims generally regarded it as incumbent on the
Sultan to show respect to the Caliph, and opposition to the
Sultan, whom the Caliph had recognized as his deputy, was
regarded as contrary to the Law.
The Law of Succession required a male adult, no physical
disability, free Muslim, faith in Islam, and election by the
people. However, in practice, several violations of these
criteria were made, such as Raziya being raised to the throne
♦ Law of despite her womanhood, Qutubuddin Aibak’s authority
succession being recognised even before his manumission, Kaiqubad
remaining the Sultan as a paralytic, Nasiruddin Khusrau
having no special reverence for Islam, and Alauddin Khalji
admitting his ignorance of the sharia.

[Link] Theory of Kingship

The doctrine of farr, or supernatural effulgence, was first
introduced in the Shah Namah by Firdausi, symbolising divine
favour to rulers. Delhi Sultans like Balban and Amir Khusrau
recognised this doctrine. Sultans’ authority was limited, and
♦ The doctrine they could not disregard the advice of ulema or theologians.
of farr The nobility’s power also limited their jurisdiction. Sultans
were not powerful enough to rule without ignoring Hindu
sentiments and had little opportunity to interfere with local
governance. The Sultanate period had various administrative
offices and a council of Ministers.

The Sultan
The Sultan was the administrative head of the Delhi
Sultanate, ruling the entire realm and holding absolute power.
They were the supreme commander of the army and led armies
to conquer other areas. This applies to most sultans, except
♦ Hold absolute for Sultan Ruknuddin Firuz, Sultan Muizzuddin Bahram,
power Sultan Alauddin Masud, and Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.
However, even in infrequent instances, the Sultan remained
the ceremonial head of the entire political establishment of
the empire, with nobles at the court being more powerful.
The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative
system, head of civil administration and Supreme
Commander of the army. He had absolute power, made
♦ Kept nobility appointments and promotions, and could remove anyone
and ulema under from service. The Sultan also headed the judiciary and
control conferred titles and honours. However, in practice, different
Sultans had varying powers. The position was always under
pressure from powerful nobility and ulema groups. Sultans

4 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 of Delhi, particularly powerful Sultans, adopted strategies
to keep these groups under control. Balban, for example,
kept the nobles under his control. The Sultan’s personality
significantly influenced the administrative structure of the
Sultanate.
The nature of politics at the time necessitated the
introduction of centrally monitored control and regulation
apparatuses. The integration of new areas into the political
empire was not guaranteed due to insufficient central control.
The “parasitic” nature of governing classes and other groups
♦ Control of required resources from other parts of the empire to maintain
central government the political structure. Bureaucratization was highest in core
areas, with a gradation of control as one moved away from
the core. This comprised the territory of the state, all tied in
their recognition of the sultan’s supremacy in their domains.

[Link] Nobility
The nobility were the most significant functionaries of the
state and enjoyed high social status. Initially, they were the
commanders of the army, and later their descendants became
the more powerful. The nobility was not homogeneous,
♦ Emergence of with different groups within it , often causing clashes and
nobility rivalries. The position and power of the nobility varied, with
nobles based in Delhi becoming powerful and sometimes
even playing a role in Sultan’s selection. The nobility was
not a uniform group. Within the nobility, there were various
groups, and there were frequent clashes and rivalries
between them.
Qutbuddin ascended the throne without conflict, as the
Muizzi (Muizuddin Ghori) nobles accepted him as their
superior and offered loyalty. Iltutmish’s accession to Delhi
marked a significant milestone in the growth of Turkish
nobility in India, demonstrating the power of nobles to select
leaders through armed strength. The principles of sovereignty
♦ Nobles gained and leadership were relegated to the background, and nobles
strength in Delhi became the hub of political activity of Turkish rule.
Iltutmish established a sovereign Turkish state in India, with
efficient administrators and merit-driven enslaved people.
The clash between Turkish and Tajik nobles began during
Iltutmish’s time and became intense after his death. The
group of chahalgani (Group of Forty) created by Iltutmish,
also emerged powerfully.
Balban, the first Sultan to bring the nobility under his
control, maintained distance from the nobility and enforced

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 5
 a strict code of conduct, focusing on ‘high blood’ as criteria for
occupying high positions and offices. The hereditary principle
resurfaced with the accession of Ruknuddin Firoz, Raziya,
and Bahram Shah, intensifying the tussle between Turkish
♦ Crush the and Tajik nobles. After Iltutmish’s death, Balban (1269) tried
power of nobility to restore the crown’s supremacy by crushing the power
of the Turkish nobility. Balban’s accession demonstrated
that heredity was no longer the basis of sovereignty and
kingship, and ability and force were also important factors in
the succession to the throne. Both Qutbuddin and Iltutmish
considered the nobles to be on par with themselves.
During the rule of Khaljis and Tughlaqs, the doors of
nobility were opened to people from every sphere of life,
making it more accessible to people of all backgrounds. It was
no longer just for Turks. Previously, according to Muhammed
Habib, during the period of slave kings, membership in
higher bureaucracy was dangerous for Indian Musalmans
♦ Change in and impossible for Hindus. However, the Khalji revolution
the character of brought about a change, with Sultan Alauddin sending an
nobility army of thirty thousand horsemen under a Hindu officer,
Malik Naik, to fight against Mongols, Alibeg, Tartaq, and
Targhi. The position of low-born men in Mohammad bin
Tughlaq’s government was the culmination of a century and
a half of process. Barani criticises Tughlaq for assigning the
Diwan-i-Wizarat to Pera Mali, the lowest of the low-born and
mean-born men of the Hind and Sind, and placing him over
the heads of maliks, amirs, walis, and governors.
With the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, the nobility was
open to people of diverse backgrounds, including low-caste
people, both Hindus and Muslims, who could rise to high
♦ Nobility open positions under Muhammad bin Tughlaq. During the Lodi
to all sections of period, the Afghan concept of equality became important,
people with the Sultan considered “first among equals,” allowing
nobles equal status with the Sultan. However, some Lodi
Sultans, like Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi, tried to bring
the nobles under their control, but the nobles resisted, causing
trouble for both Sultans.

[Link] Ulema
The Ulema, a religious, intellectual group of Muslims,
managed religious matters, interpreted religious regulations
for the Sultan, and worked as Qazis. They were influential
and commanded respect from the Sultan and nobility. They
influenced the Muslim masses and urged the sultan to run
the Sultanate according to Islamic religious laws. They

6 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 commanded respect from the Muslim masses and had
influence among the Muslim masses. The ulema, a group
♦ Ulema’s role of preachers and guardians of the Islamic religion, were
committed to upholding the Islamic religious order and
acting as socio-moral censors for the Muslim community.
They rose as a powerful political faction and held high
judicial positions, swaying the king and nobility in their
favour.
Kings embraced a policy of compromise and moderation,
paying lip homage to Shari’at while conceding sinfulness
if its provisions could not be enforced. They kept state-
controlled mullahs in check and developed their own laws
in the administration field. If traditional customs conflicted
with Shari’at, they were given the appellation of Urf, which
♦ Shari’at allowed them to supersede them. State laws known as Zawabit
developed under the monarchy’s protection, and if they
violated Shari’at, the principle of necessity or istihsan (public
good) might be invoked in their favour. The Shari’at’s was
shattered since it imparted no means of self-development.
The ulema served as the religious benchmark of the political
empire, acting as judges and principles of educational
institutions like the Nasiriyya Madrasa in Delhi. Their
primary aim was to spread the religious ‘Word’ and uphold
♦ Religious
benchmark of the the Islamic religio-moral order. This was often contentious
State as the Sultan’s ultimate goal was the success of the political
life of the Sultanate, not the glorification of Islam. Due to
the majority of the population being non-Muslim, the sultan
was more interested in acting politically tactfully rather than
solely upholding the banner of religion.
The interests of the ulema and the Sultan often clashed,
with the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq being
particularly significant. Tughlaq appointed meritorious
non-Muslims to royal service, which scholars like Ziauddin
Barani condemned. Fakhr-i-Mudabbir’s Adabu’l Harb
♦ Ulema-Sultan
conflict Was’h Shujaa’t emphasises the noble birth of state officials.
However, Tughlaq’s policies showed that religious ideals
were not always the Sultan’s priority, and the interests of
the Sultan, ulema, and learned rarely coincided.

1.1.3 Administration under Delhi Sultanate

[Link] Central Administration
The Diwan-i-Wizarat, headed by the wazir, was a crucial
position in the royal court, overseeing all departments

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 7
 and serving as the chief advisor to the Sultan. The wazir’s
♦ Important primary responsibilities were to supervise the state financial
departments organisation, advise the Sultan and occassionally led military
expedition at the Sultan’s order. The wizarat, or office of
wazir, also monitored land revenue collections, income
and expenditure, and charitable donations. The position of
the Sultan was heavily dependent on the wazir’s wisdom,
sincerity, and loyalty. Other departments under the wizarat
included Mustaufii-Mumalik (Auditor General) and Mushrif-
i-Mumalik (Accountant General). Later, other offices like
Diwan-i-Waqoof, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj and Diwan-i-Amir Kohi
were brought under the wizarat’s supervision.

Diwan-i-Arz
The department, led by Ariz-i-Mamalik, was responsible
for the military organisation of the empire, including
maintaining the royal contingent, recruiting soldiers,
♦ Military ensuring discipline, inspecting troops, and branding horses
organisation with royal insignia. During war, the Ariz arranged military
provisions, transportation, and administered the army,
providing constant supplies and custodian of war booty. The
contingent stationed in Delhi was called hasham-i-qalb, while
provincial contingents were called hasham-i-atraf.

Diwan-i-Insha
The department responsible for state correspondence,
headed by Dabir-i-Khas, drafted royal orders and received
♦ Royal reports from officers. It was the formal communication
correspondence channel between the center and other empire regions. The
Barid-i-Mumalik led state news gathering and intelligence,
while local barids sent regular news to the central office.

Diwan-i-Rasalat
The Department of Justice, led by Sadr-us-Sadur, the highest
religious officer, was responsible for ecclesiastical affairs,
appointing judges, and approving charitable grants. The
♦ Department of Sultan was the highest court of appeal in civil and criminal
Justice matters. The Muhtasibs (Public Censors) assisted the judicial
department, ensuring no public infringement of Islamic
tenets and supervising public morals and conduct.
The Sultanate had several smaller departments, including
Wakil-i-dar, Amir-i-Hajib, Sar-i-Jandar, Amir-i-Akhur, Shalinah-
i-fil, Amir-i-Majlis, Diwan-i-Isthiaq, Diwan-i-Khairat, Diwan-
i-Kohi, Diwan-i-Insha and Royal workshops (Karkhanas).
Wakil-i-dar managed the royal household and personal

8 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 services. Amir-i-Hajih acted as an intermediary between the
♦ Minor Sultan and subordinate officials. Sar-i-Jandar handled royal
departments bodyguards. Amir-i-Akhur and Shalinali-i-fil were in charge
of horses and elephants respectively. Karkhanas played a
crucial role in meeting the needs of the royal household.

[Link] Provincial Administration

The administration of areas outside the core political area
depended on the degree of political control exercised. The
Sultanate’s territorial expansion and consolidation continued
throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, with some newly
conquered areas brought directly under the Sultanate’s
control, while others remained semi-autonomous. Control
mechanisms varied, with some officials appointed by the
♦ Local officials
Centre as a symbol of imperial presence, while everyday
administration remained in local hands. The center’s
main interest was primarily economic, revenue collection.
Governors were responsible for the overall administration,
ensuring revenue collection, maintaining law and order, and
controlling rebellious elements. Local officials were often
transferred and not familiar with the areas, relying on local
officials for their duties.
The Sultan faced challenges when governors became
powerful with local rulers’ help and rebelled against them.
In the 14th century, provinces were divided into Shiqs for
administrative convenience, later transformed into Sarkar
♦ Important during the Afghan period. Faujdar and Shiqdar were officers at
officials the provincial level, with their duties often overlapping. The
Shiqdar assisted the governor in maintaining law and order,
provided military assistance, and supervised administrative
units. Other important officers included Barids, intelligence
officers, and Salib-i-Diwan.

[Link] Local Administration

The village was the smallest unit of administration,
functioning similarly to pre-Turkish times. The main village
functionaries were Khut, Muqaddam, and Patwari, working
closely with muqti for revenue collection and maintaining
law and order. Parganas formed from villages, with
♦ Village
Chaudhary, Amil, and Karkun as important officials. Village
administration
and Pargana were independent administration units, with
interrelated areas. In some cases, local rulers were recognized
as subordinates of the Sultan.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 9
 1.1.4 Vijayanagara Polity
The Vijayanagara state was founded in the middle of the
14th century by two of the five brothers named Bukka and
Harihara. The kingdom’s founding figures are also known
♦ Formation of
Vijayanagara state as the Sangamas, after their father’s name. The kingdom was
named for its capital, Vijayanagara, which was located on the
southern bank of the river [Link] state emerged
as a Hindu resistance against the “Muhammadan” invasion,
a concept introduced by Robert Sewell, who wrote the first
standard work on the history of the Vijayanagara Empire.
The Sangamas, originally a small kingdom in Gutty,
believed they could build a vast empire with the blessings
of saint Vidyaranya. However, recent historians suggest
Vidyaranya only emerged as an important figure several
decades after the founding of empire. Cultural leaders played
♦ Expansion of a crucial role in mobilising popular support for the rulers. The
empire Sangamas engaged in numerous fights against both Muslim
and Hindu rulers, defeating Rajanarayana Sambuvaraya in
1357 and Sultan of Madurai in 1370. By 1377, Vijayanagara
was the largest regional kingdom in south India. The
Sangamas continued to expand their empire, fighting against
the Kondavidu Reddies, Velamas, and Gajapati kings,
allowing them to mobilise resources for army maintenance
and expansion.
Four distinct dynasties ruled the Vijayanagara kingdom.
The Vijayanagara kingdom was founded by the Sangamas,
also known as the Yadavas. After the murder of Sangama
king Virupaksha II in 1485, the kingdom experienced a
short period of confusion before being founded by Saluva
♦ Dynasties ruled Narasimha. The Tuluva line assumed power in 1505, marking
Vijayanagara the heyday of the Vijayanagara kingdom. The last dynasty
of the Aravidu line came to power in 1542, but the empire
began to decline. The central power was weakened under
the Aravidus, and by the late 17th century, the kingdom was
fragmented due to conflict with neighbouring powers and
state crises due to rising military aspirations.

[Link] Vijayanagara State Structure

Historians disagree on how to describe the Vijayanagara
state, whether it was feudal or segmentary. Scholars suggest
that the Vijaynagara state’s character is influenced by the
feudal structure, with the practice of giving new land grants
to Brahmans leading to the rise of feudal segments. This
increased Brahmans’ autonomy, administrative powers, and

10 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 control over revenue resources. Additionally, the rulers’
proposal to protect Hindu dharma prompted the emergence
♦ Feudal
of new Brahman settlements. Historian T. V. Mahalingam
structure characterised the Vijayanagara state as feudal, comparing
it with European feudalism. He emphasised the differences
♦ Land relations
between Western and Vijayanagara feudalism models. In
the Vijayanagara polity, land was considered king-owned,
and Nayakas, who held land, ruled over it with great
autonomy. In return, Nayakas had two duties: remitting
an annual financial contribution to the imperial exchequer,
maintaining sufficient troops, and serving the king in wars.
The Nayakas, a group of landowners in the Vijayanagara
Empire, often leased their lands to tenants on similar terms
to European feudalism, which involved subinfeudation. This
subinfeudation was a feature of European feudalism, where
landholders paid homage to the lord and received land
♦ Nayankara as a fief in return for services and promises of protection.
system This was not present in the Vijayanagara Nayaka system,
which was an administrative policy where kings assigned
♦ Responsibilities
of Nayakas
territories to the Nayakas in exchange for military service
and a fixed financial contribution. The Nayankara system,
on the other hand, was an administrative policy where
kings assigned heavy responsibilities to the Nayakas, who
were not protected if they failed to perform their duties.
In European feudalism, the society was chained together
by land tenure, while the Nayankara system only linked a
section of the population. Subinfeudation was not practised
on a large scale in the Vijayanagara empire as in Europe.
Burton Stein considers Vijaynagara to be a segmentary
state. According to him, the center of the Vijaynagara state had
♦ Segmentary absolute political sovereignty, but the nayakas and Brahman
state commanders had ‘ritual sovereignty’ (symbolic control).
♦ Political and The relationship of these subordinate units - segments to
ritual sovereignty the central authority was arranged pyramidally. The greater
a segment’s distance from the center, the greater its ability to
shift loyalty from one power pyramid to another.
Nilakanta Sastri characterised the Vijayanagara state
as the closest approach to a war state ever made by a
Hindu Kingdom. European scholars have also described
the Vijayanagara polity as military feudalism, but Burton
Stein denies this, arguing that it lacks features of feudalism
such as homage and vassalage. Stein also sees no tributary
relationship. Stein described the system as segmentary, with
kings enjoying ritual sovereignty in contradiction with actual

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 11
 sovereignty. Herman Kulke and others challenged Stein’s
segmentary model, showing that kings in many parts of
♦ Various views
regarding the India enjoyed actual sovereignty over their territory. Noboru
nature of the State Karashima, after studying Tamil epigraphical sources of the
Vijayanagara empire, argued that the strength of state control
over Nayakas made Vijayanagara feudal structure similar to
the Tokugawa feudalism of Japan.
Historians have noted the centralised nature of
♦ Centralised Vijayanagara compared to previous south Indian states. The
power power of Central government representatives increased in
both villages and urban centers, with urban affairs controlled
by local Governors appointed by the central administration,
rather than assemblies attended by various castes.
[Link] Administration
The Vijayanagara Empire was a well-organized
administration with a king who held absolute authority in
executive, judicial, and legislative matters. The succession
to the throne was hereditary, with occasional usurpation.
The king’s primary duty was to protect his subjects and
maintain law and order in the state. They often intervened in
♦ The King provincial administration to end oppression by their chiefs.
As ecclesiastical or religious heads, they aimed to maintain
social solidarity, ensure peace, and maintain a balanced
policy towards secular and religious institutions. The history
of Vijayanagara demonstrates its efforts in addressing these
issues.
The Royal Council in Vijayanagara was a crucial check
on the king’s authority, advising him on state matters and
policy. It was distinct from the Imperial Council, which was a
large gathering of various elements, such as Nayakas, feudal
vassals, scholars, poets, artists, merchants, and ambassadors
from foreign kingdoms. The Council of Ministers, smaller
in size but similar to Kautilya’s Mantriparishad, played a
more significant role in influencing government policy. It
consisted of eight ministers, usually meeting in a hall called
♦ Royal Council Venkatavilasamantapa, and maintained strict secrecy. The
Prime Minister was the Pradhani, who presided over the
meetings. Ministers were expected of qualifications, and
Vijayanagara had a long line of able and efficient ministers.
The hereditary principle was used in selecting ministers, with
the son of a minister being considered a better candidate.
The Council of Ministers’ success depended on the king’s
personality, and it likely controlled the policy of the state
under weak kings.

12 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 The empire was divided into administrative units called
Mandalams, Nadus, Sthalas, and Gramas. The governor of
Mandalam is called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Local authorities
had full powers in administration. Land revenue was
♦ Administrative fixed at one-sixth of the produce, while the government’s
units expenditure included personal expenses, charities, and
military expenditure. The Vijayanagara army was efficient,
consisting of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and elephants. Top-
grade officers, known as Nayaks or Poligars, were granted
land in exchange for their services, and soldiers were paid
in cash.
The Ayagar system was a crucial aspect of village
organisation within the Vijayanagara Empire. Ayagars were
village servants or functionaries, consisting of families and
headmen (reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountants (karnam
senabhova) and watchmen (talaiyari). They were given a
♦ Ayagar portion of a village plot, which was generally tax-free as no
regular customary tax was imposed on their agricultural
income. In exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were
made for services performed by village functionaries.
Following Krishnadeva Raya’s death in 1529, tensions
within the empire began to rise, with rebellious Nayakas
causing trouble for his successors. By 1542, control shifted to
the Aravidu lineage, which remained in power until the end of
the seventeenth century. Military ambitions of Vijayanagara
rulers and Deccan Sultanates led to shifting alignments,
eventually leading to an alliance between the Sultanates and
♦ Decline of Vijayanagara. The Golconda and Ahmadnagar sultans, who
Vijayanagara had suffered from Rama Raya’s defeat, formed an alliance
Empire that destroyed Vijayanagar’s power. By 1564, four Sultans,
Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and Bijapur had begun their
march on Vijayanagar, leading to the Battle of Talikota in
1565 and the destruction of the city. Rama Raya was captured
and killed, but his brother Tirumala escaped with the king
and royal treasure.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 13
Summarised Overview

The Delhi Sultanate was a series of five distinct dynasties that ruled from Delhi
from 1206 to 1526 CE. It was founded after the second battle of Tarain, where
Muhammad Ghori defeated Rajput chiefs. After Ghori’s death, Qutbuddin
Aibak became sultan of Delhi and founded the Slave dynasty. The Sultanate was
constantly changing, with five dynasties rising and falling: the Slave dynasty
(1206-1290 CE), the Khalji dynasty (1290-1320 CE), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320 CE-
1413 CE), the Sayyid dynasty (1414 AD-1451 CE), and the Lodi dynasty (1451 CE-
1526 CE). The Khalji dynasty saw Alauddin Khalji elevate the Sultanate’s power,
while the Tughlaq dynasty saw Muhammad binTughlaq’s reign disintegrate
power and prestige. In 1526, the Mughals defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the
Delhi Sultans, at Panipat.
The Delhi Sultanate introduced a new system of administration at the top level,
with the Sultan enjoying significant power over subjects, nobles, and officials.
The core region was Delhi, with the authority of the Sultan being the most visible.
In distant territories and provinces, the authority of the Sultan was limited
depending on province-governing officers. Initially, nobles shared authority
with the Sultan, but from the time of Balban , Khalji and Tughlaq rule, the Sultan
became all powerful, with the ulema having a limited role in the administrative
process. The Sultanate established a robust and stable administrative network
for over three hundred years, despite fluctuating control levels.
The Vijayanagara state, was founded in the 14th century by the five brothers
named Bukka, Harihara, Kampana, Mudappa, and Marappa. The Sangamas
emerged as a Hindu resistance against the Muslim invasion. The Sangamas
fought against Muslim and Hindu rulers, expanding their empire. The kingdom
was ruled by four distinct dynasties, including the Saluva, Aravidu, and Tuluva
lines, but faced decline and state crises. Historians differ in opinion about the
nature of the Vijayanagara state- feudal or segmentary. The Vijayanagara Empire
was a well-organized administration with a hereditary king who held absolute
authority in executive, judicial, and legislative matters. The Royal Council,
Council of Ministers, and Nayankara system were crucial in governing the empire.
The empire was divided into administrative units and had a strong army. Local
authorities had full powers, and the Ayagar system was a vital aspect of village
[Link] Krishnadeva Raya’s death, tensions within the empire grew,
leading to the Aravidu lineage’s control and military alliances. In the Battle of
Talikotta in 1565 the combined force of Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and
Bijapur Sultans destroyed Vijayanagara.

14 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Assignments
1. Analyse the nature of the State in Delhi Sultanate.
2. Discuss the debate regarding the nature of the State in the Vijayanagara
Empire.
3. Briefly discuss the Nayankara system.
4. Examine the role of ulema in the administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Write down the names of the important administrative officers under the
Delhi Sultanate and their duties.

Suggested Reading
1. Habib, Mohammad, Studies in Medieval Indian Polity and Culture: The Delhi
Sultante and Its Time, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2012.
2. Husain, Zakir, Medieval India: Studies in Polity, Economy and Society Four-
teenth-Nineteenth Centuries, Primus Books, Delhi, 2019.
3. Sewell, Robert, The Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar, Notion Press, 2019.

Reference
1.
1. Chandra, Satish, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Delhi Sultanat
(1206-1526), Vol.I, Har-Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
2. ________________, History of Medieval India, Orient Blackswan [Link].,
New Delhi, 2014.
3. Habib, Irfan, Economic History of India, AD 1206-1526: The Period of the Delhi
Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Empire, Tulika Books, New Delhi, 2018.
4. Majumdar, R.C., et al., The Delhi Sultanate: History and Culture of the Indian
People, Vol.6, Bharatiya Vidhya Bhavan, Mumbai, 2006.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 15
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

16 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT
2 The Mughal State

Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to :
♦ explore the varying viewpoints and interpretations of the nature of the
Mughal State
♦ analyse the administrative structure of the Mughal Empire
♦ gain a comprehensive understanding of the Mughal-Rajput relations
♦ examine the structure of the Rajput state

Background
In the previous Unit, we examined the nature and characteristics of the
polity that existed under the Delhi Sultanate. The Mughal state, established by
Babur in the early 16th century, was a significant landmark in the analysis of
the state in medieval times. It lasted for over two centuries and had a lasting
impact on the Indian subcontinent’s polity. The Mughal empire’s extraordinary
longevity of the imperial structure and the control developed by its emperors
to rule such a vast empire make understanding its dynamics crucial. Historical
works have been used to study the Mughal state, from early British writings
to recent scholarly debates on whether it was a highly centralised bureaucratic,
patrimonial, or feudal state. This Unit will explain the basis of imperial political
ideology and trace it back to Central Asian tradition. It will also introduce
various interpretations of the nature of the Mughal state. The Mughal - Rajput
political relation and the structure of the Rajput State also discussed in this unit.

Keywords
Islamic State, Mongol, Feudal, Patrimonial Bureaucracy, Khalisa, Padshah, Watan,
Jagir, Bhaibant System

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 17
 Discussion
The rise of the Mughal Empire registers an epochal change
in medieval Indian history. Like ancient Indian imperialists,
Mughals did more than conquer and dominate, they set up an
imperial society that derived its strength from many sources
and continued to expand its influence long after emperors
were unable to compel submission. The greatest medieval
empire spans the wide threshold of early modern times.

1.2.1 Establishment of Mughal Rule

After the Mongol empire’s decline in the 14th century,
Timur established a large empire covering central Asia, West
Asia, and parts of South Asia. The Mughals, descendants
of Amir Timur, were an admixture of Islamic, Persian, and
Turko Mongol practices. The Timurid polity combined
attributes of Mongol Traditions, Turkish traditions, and
♦ Timurids Shara principles, transforming the Chagatai Khanate into a
close-knit system. The divine proclamation aspect was given
priority over Chingez Khan regulations, which prioritised
divine proclamation over mundane laws. Some scholars
argue that the Timurids adopted a bureaucratic system based
on Persian traditions, but their principle of shared sovereignty
could lead to partition and decentralisation of the empire.
The Mughal state was influenced by the Turko-Mongol
theory of kingship, which combines Turkish, Mongol, and
Islamic ideals. Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty in
India, believed that rulers held a higher status than chiefs.
Myths about Chingez Khan’s lineage and divine aspects led
♦ Chengez Khan to his family’s kingship until the 16th century. Sovereignty
was hereditary, confined to the Chingez house based on their
exploits and achievements and not on the basis of mythical
tradition. Timur, unable to achieve Chingez’s status, remained
with the modest title of ‘Amir’ or ‘Beg’, meaning lord or chief.
The Chingez Khan of the Mongols was a political and
warrior leader, unlike the Caliph of Islamic states, who were
religious and political heads. The Chingez Khan was elected
♦ Religious and without religious overtones and was a pure and simple
political head political sovereign. The Mongol polity divided the empire
among princes on a tribal basis, with areas of power and
authority being their autonomous domains. However, they
owed symbolic allegiance to the Khan.

18 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 The Malfuzat-I-Timuri, written by the Timur in Mongol,
is a crucial source for understanding Timur’s ideals of
sovereignty. It combines Mongol and Islamic ideals,
emphasising that the temporal empire’s positions represented
the empire of God. Timur believed that the representative of
♦ Ultimate God on earth could only be one, and no one should influence
authority of King the king. He respected nobles and officials, but the ultimate
solution was the king’s resolve, and officials’ advice was
not binding. Timur, influenced by Islamic ideals, believed
kingship could be more than just political and military. He
was credited as the champion and reformer of Islam, and
his name is mentioned alongside Ummayid and Abbasid
khalifas. Timur adopted territorial partition of the empire
among princes, a practice continued by his successors.
Abu Said Mirza, the grandfather of Babur, challenged
the Great Mongol Khan’s suzerainty in Timur’s territory.
♦ Challenge to He adopted the titles ‘Sultan’ and ‘Mirza’, challenging the
Khan Khan’s authority. Women were not allowed to become
sovereign, but could influence state functioning during the
minority of princes as regents. Babur and Akbar were both
minors when sovereign status was bestowed. Nobility and
religious groups enjoyed significant respect and authority in
Central Asia.
In 1507, Babur, a prominent Timurid ruler, adopted the
title of Padshah (emperor) and he was established in Kabul.
His political outlook was pragmatic, based on patrimony,
ancestry, and heredity. Babur believed sovereignty was like
♦ Political view of bondage, and a sovereign could not combine work with
Babur pleasure and rest. He sought advice from close associates
and believed that division was not in accordance with the
ideal of preserving sovereign power. He also opposed
the partitioning of authority, stating that partnership in
rule was uncommon and that it could lead to problems
in the functioning of the state. His memoirs do not show
superstitious or morbid regard for law or schoolmen.
The Timurids, who had a unique position as heads of the
Islamic religious and political system, rejected the authority
♦ Foundation for of the Caliph. When Babur invaded India, the authority of
the principles of the Ottomans was not accepted as higher. The accession of
sovereignty Babur and Humayun as the eldest sons established a positive
tradition for the Mughal state, providing legitimacy and
sanctity to heredity and faith. This laid the foundation for
the principles of sovereignty in the Mughal state.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 19
 After Babur’s death, Humayun inherited India without
conflict but faced challenges in dividing the empire among
his brothers. After being defeated by Sher Shah, Humayun
attempted to travel to Badakhshan, but was denied passage
by his brother, Kamran. This led to the realisation that the
division of the empire was flawed. Humayun’s personal
♦ Humayun
beliefs, including transcendentalism and astrology, led to
his ideology of kingship as the ‘shadow of god on earth’.
He organised the state into 12 parts and emphasised abject
submission to the will of the padshah. Despite his perceived
superiority, Humayun struggled to command loyalty and
subservience from his nobles.
Under Akbar, a power and hierarchy framework was
established, involving the nobility, military and civil
personnel, chieftains, and ulema. This structure combined
territory expansion with administrative structure, balancing
♦ Administrative ethnic, religious, and social groups. The nobility relied on the
structure under Emperor for positions in the Mughal administrative system,
Akbar with a diverse group composition including Indo-Muslim,
Persian, Brahman, Khatri, and Kayastha. The Khanzads and
Rajputs were the most reliable props of the Mughal state.
The principle of authority and subordination was stressed,
sustaining the state amidst challenges.
Akbar’s authority was strengthened by Abul Fazl’s
dynastic ideology, which combined Timurid traditions of
♦ Authority of hereditary monarchy with spiritual status. This shift from the
Akbar earlier Mongol appanage tradition, hindered centralisation
and cohesion. Abul Fazl’s elucidation of sovereignty is
found in the Akbarnama, which preserves events for 47 regnal
years and includes the Ain-i-Akbari, the official manual and
gazetteer. This theory helped to weaken the religious elite’s
hold on political matters.
Previous Indo-Muslim rulers relied on religious validation
for kingship, with the khutba and Khalifa being crucial for
acceptance and legitimacy. However, none of the kings
before Akbar could claim infallibility. Akbar was perceived as
possessing indescribable brightness and glow, which could
♦ Mahzar only be noticed by those with mystical and spiritual leanings.
♦ All religious His mystical and spiritual accomplishments surpassed the
matters into authority and wisdom of interpreters of sharia, sufi saints,
Akbar’s hand and charismatic saviours. Akbar’s assertion of the right of
final judgment between various interpretations of sacred law
resulted from his struggle with conservative ulema holding
state positions in the 1560s. The final resolution of this issue

20 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 appeared in the Mahzar of 1579 , which stated that the rank
of the Sultan is higher in the eyes of God than of a Mujtahid.
Akbar incorporated supernatural and complex traits into his
personality, resulting in his foresight and idealism, which
gave him dominance and authority.
Akbar’s administrative and political initiatives were
closely linked to his personal traits, which were shaped by
contemporary 16th-century chroniclers, nobles, and agents
of regional kingdoms. His approachable personality allowed
♦ Administrative for the creation of unbridled power. After 1580, Akbar’s
and political unrestrained power was justified through an ideology
initiatives blending dynastic traditions and religious beliefs. His
decision to establish his capital at Fatehpur Sikri and large-
scale construction activities were manifestations of his desire
to assert his power. His close association with the Sufi mystic
Shaikh Salim Chisti further enhanced his charisma in political
life. His esoteric proclivities were an asset in his ideological
debates with the ulema, which were necessary for making the
state broad-based.

1.2.2 Nature of Mughal State

Historians have various interpretations of the Mughal
state, including the theory of sovereignty and the Aligarh
school’s study of the agrarian system. W.H. Moreland’s
analysis of the Mughal agrarian system is a significant
contribution to the study of the Mughal empire. The Aligarh
school focuses on the economic organisation of the Mughal
♦ Aligarh state, identifying its monetary, fiscal, ranking (mansabdari),
schools’s view on and revenue assignments (jagirs). The flourishing overseas
the nature of State trade, particularly the development of ports like Surat, Thatta,
♦ Agrarian Goa, Hughli, Balasore, and Masulipatnam, is considered a
system hallmark of the Mughal period. T. Ray Chaudhury argues
that the Mughal state’s actions were largely driven by a
small ruling class’s desire for more material resources. The
state obtained surplus from the agrarian economy as land
revenue, which constituted a significant part of the produce.
The revenue demand varied from 1/3 to 1/2 or more of the
produce. Historians like Habib, Raychaudhuri, and Richards
believe that during Akbar’s reign (1556-1605), a cohesive and
uniform agrarian system emerged and this view was largely
based on the work of British administrative historian W.H.
Moreland.
Irfan Habib argues that the ‘Zabt/Zabti system’ (method
of revenue assessment based on measurement) was the
epitome of the unified administrative system under the

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 21
 Mughals. In 1574-75, Akbar took several measures to work
out revenue rates, including collecting information on yields,
prices, and cultivation area for each locality for 10 years. The
♦ Revenue revenue rates were fixed directly in cash for each crop, and
assessment
the provinces of Lahore, Multan, Ajmer, Delhi, Agra, Malwa,
Allahabad, and Awadh were divided into revenue circles
with separate schedules of cash revenue rates.
Historical sources suggest that the zabt system was
operational through a military cum bureaucratic system
in the entire region from the Indus to Ghagra, with state
demand fluctuating between one-third and half of the
yield. However, a re-examination of contemporary sources
reveals certain lacunae in the interpretation of the sources
♦ Gap in the used by historians. Scholars like Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay
interpretation of Subrahmanyam point out that towards the end of Akbar’s
sources reign, many Subas had no data on arazi (measured) land,
♦ Zabt leading to about one-third of land revenue collection under
the Mughals being done by methods other than zabt. In
Malwa and Gujarat, zabt was not adopted in total or on a
large scale, and a large portion of land was with chieftains
who adopted methods other than measurement for revenue
fixation.
The 17th century saw significant growth in the fiscal system
and trade expansion, with the rise of bankers remitting
revenue from provinces to the center and the integration
of trade-related and monetary aspects into the economic
system. The nobility and rulers also played a significant
♦ Fiscal system role in commerce and trade. Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay
Subrahmanyam argue that Shahjahan’s trade was part of an
♦ Trade
implicit bullionist orientation in Mughal state policy. Fiscal
expansion
dispatches were conducted through bankers and hundis,
while cash transfers by imperial agents and armed bearers
continued. This period was marked by the involvement of
the nobility and rulers in commerce and trade.
Dastur ul amal or revenue documents used by historians,
indicate the centralised character of the Mughal state.
Shahjahan’s and Aurangzeb’s reigns saw efforts to bring more
♦ Centralised land under the Khalisa, land owned directly by the emperor.
character Changes were introduced in mansabdari, an administrative
system that developed and grew in the late 16th century. No
single ruler can be credited for perfecting these institutions.
Shah Jahan’s period saw the expansion of agriculture
by cutting forests, with woodcutters and ploughmen
accompanying troops to clear forests and cultivate land. This

22 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 period was notable for growth in trade, fiscal system, and
agricultural expansion.
The analysis of the Mughal state as one based on a uniform
♦ Criticism
on unified and unified administrative apparatus is now being questioned
administrative by scholars. Studies on population, urbanisation, and external
structure trade are all based on the interpretation of concise data given
in the Ain-i-Akbari , which are being scrutinised afresh.
The Aligarh school emphasises the period from Akbar
to Aurangzeb was considered as the most reliable source.
♦ Centralized and They believe Mughal institutions were established by
bureaucratised Akbar and continued under his successors, but developed
system cracks in Aurangzeb’s period. The school views the state as
a centralised and bureaucratised system, characterised by
uniform revenue, mansabdari/jagirdari, and coinage systems.
The 18th century is considered a period of anarchy and
decline, with inflation aggravated.
During the reigns of Jahangir and Shahjahan, kingship
was divinely ordained, with the king’s image being placed as
that of a sufi saint. Sir Thomas Roe, an English ambassador,
describes Jahangir as a greater Prophet than Muhammed,
and he formed a new law combining all religions. The
♦ Jahangir and
king’s image was compared to that of a sufi saint, as seen
Shahjahan
in the use of terms like pir-o-murshid and qibla. However,
♦ Kingship was during Shah Jahan and Jahangir’s period, there was a shift
divinely ordained
in ideology, with Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi promoting Islamic
revivalism and strict adherence to Shariat principles. This led
to a permeation of Sufi ideology with orthodoxy, influencing
politics by enlisting nobles as disciples and encouraging
Islamic revivalism.
The compilation of dastur ul amal or revenue documents
during Shah Jahan’s and Aurangzeb’s periods emphasizes
formalism and emphasis on procedure and propriety. The
Akhbarat serves as a medium for communication between the
♦ Period of
Aurangzeb
center and provinces. Aurangzeb’s efforts to define a legal
procedure based on Hanafite law led to insurrections and
revolts. The crisis was a result of economic and bureaucratic
issues and the desire for political power and autonomy. The
Mughal religio-legal scheme and the role of judicial officials
in settling religious and other discords are also studied.
According to R. P. Tripathi, the Afghan and Timurid polities
were essentially decentralised. The Mongol traits inherent
in Timurid polity, particularly Chingez Khan’s decrees,
emphasised partition of authority through the division of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 23
 tribes, which supported the establishment of an appanage
system. This prevented the establishment of a bureaucratic
structure and a strong ruler, both of which were required
for centralisation. Scholars such as I. A. Khan claim that
♦ Decentralised Humayun had to deal with the authority of the nobles and
power his brothers, but Akbar was able to overcome this difficulty
by adopting the techniques of the Turkish monarchs of the
13-14th centuries and establishing a powerful absolutist state.
Recent evidence suggests that the Timurid polity evolved
from a loosely cohesive system to a tightly knit despotism,
based on Timur’s empire’s combination of divine sanction and
Chingez Khanid traditions. This divine aspect gave legitimacy
to despotism. Streusand argues that Persian bureaucratic
♦ Scholar’s view traditions were adopted by the Timurids, contradicting the
on centralisation decentralised contention of scholars. Sanjay Subrahmanyam
emphasises the importance of studying Akbar’s half-brother,
Mirza Hakim’s position and the threat he posed to Akbar,
as succession always presented challenges. He argues that
partition and appanaging were issues in succession, and the
idea of ‘linear succession’ was not always feasible. Scholars
believe that the tradition of partition and appagnage counters
the centralisation perspective.
Some scholars argue that the institutions established under
Akbar paved the way for centralisation, but it is important to
note that the jagir or mansab had origins in earlier periods
and were not the creation of Akbar’s genius. M. Hodgsons’
♦ Various ‘gunpowder empires’ proposition emphasizes the role of
perspectives on firearms in establishing centralized empires like the Mughal
Mughal state
state. Struesand views the Mughal state as an admixture of
Islamic and Hindu ideals, similar to Burton Stein’s segmentary
state theory. During the Post-Akbar period several factors,
such as the jagir system crisis, contributed to decentralisation.
Stephen Blake’s analysis of the Mughal state suggests it
was a patrimonial bureaucratic empire, a concept borrowed
♦ Patrimonial from Weber. In small states, rulers governed as if it were
bureaucracy their household, but as territories expanded and large states
emerged, a bureaucracy was needed for effective governance,
forming the basis of this empire.
Contemporary Europeans like Francisco Pelsaert and
Francois Bernier criticised the 17th-century Mughal state
for its limitations, including the ‘agrarian crisis’ caused by
issues in the jagirdari system. This view was adopted by W.
H. Moreland, M. Athar Ali, and Irfan Habib. Bernier divided

24 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
♦ Economic the Mughal state into superstructures led by the tyrant and
criticism native princes dominated by the sovereign. Scholars like
Chetan Singh have analysed the Mughal state’s regions.

1.2.3 Administration under Mughals

1.2.3.1Central Administration
Emperor
The Mughal empire had a centralised military power
structure based on the absolute authority of the emperor
and the strength of the army. The emperor was the supreme
commander of the armed forces, determining the rank of
mansabdars and allotting jagirs for their maintenance. He
♦ Role of was the fountain of justice and supreme judge, making laws
Emperor and issuing administrative ordinances. The Mughal Empire
followed a policy of individualistic minimum interference,
discharging only police duties and revenue collection.
Jadunath Sarkar observed the Mughal administration as a
combination of Indian and extra-Indian elements or more
correctly, it was the “Perso-Arabic system in the Indian
setting”.
It was during the reign of Akbar that the Mughal rule
was systematically implemented. When Babur won the First
Battle of Panipat and came to power in Delhi, he took the title
of Padsha which means Chakravarthi. This was followed by
his successors as well. Unlike the Delhi sultans, the Mughal
rulers had implicitly stated that they were independent
♦ Independent rulers and not controlled by the Caliphs. Aurangzeb was the
rulers
only Mughal emperor who sought to rule only according
to Islamic law. Jahanbani or the protection of the empire
and Jahangiri or developing the borders of the empire was
declared as the primary aim of the Mughal rule.
The Padshah, or emperor, was the head of state and empire,
responsible for legislative, administrative, and military
functions. He had the power to accept or reject the advice
of ministers, who advised him on financial [Link]
ministers’ advice and suggestions were generally accepted.
♦ Power of The emperor was considered ‘God’s representative on earth’,
Padshah and the welfare of the people was the primary goal of rule.
They considered the suggestions of ministers and sought
the advice of powerful nobles, who often exerted a decisive
influence on the government.

Wazir and Mirbakshi

Next to Padshah, the most powerful in the Mughal Empire

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 25
 was the Prime Minister or Wazir. According to the central
Asian tradition, the Wazir acted as a mediator between the
emperor and various departments. Some Wazirs even started
to control the emperor. That is why Akbar introduced some
restrictions on the authority of the Wazir. Mirbakshi, the
♦ Officers head of military affairs, was also the head of the nobility.
under Mughal Under Mirbakshi, there were spies of royal officials or barids
administration throughout the empire. News reporters in the empire were
known as Waquia-navis. These too were under the control of
Mirbakshi.

Diwan-i-Kul and Sadr-us Sudur

Diwan-i-Kul was the chief diwan responsible for revenue
and finances, strengthened by Akbar. He inspected
transactions and payments all departments and supervised
♦ Minister provincial diwans. The diwan was responsible for the entire
in charge of revenue collection and expenditure of the empire, and the
Revenue collection diwans were required to report daily about state finance to
the Emperor.
The Sadr-us-Sudur was the head of the ecclesiastical
department, responsible for protecting Shariat laws and
distributing allowances and stipends to eligible individuals
and religious institutions. During Akbar’s first 25 years,
the office was lucrative. However, in 1580 the Mahzar
promulgation restricted Sadr’s authority. Akbar believed
he should prevail in conflicts among religious scholars and
regulated revenue-free grants for religious and charitable
♦ Ecclesiastical
purposes. Later restrictions restricted Sadr’s authority, and
department
Muhtasibs were appointed to ensure morality observance.
They also examined weights and measures and enforced fair
prices.
Mir Saman was the officer responsible for managing royal
household, Karkhanas, overseeing purchases, storage, and
manufacturing of various items for the royal household, as
well as supervising the production of various items. Other
departments were: diwan-i-khalisa (incharge of crown lands),
♦ Other diwani-tan (incharge of jagirs), mushrif-i-mumalik(Accountant
departments General), mustau-l-mumalik (Auditor General), daroga-i-dak
chauki (Postmaster General), mir-i-arz (incharge of petitions),
mir-i-mal (incharge of privy purse), mir-i-tozak (incharge
of ceremonies), mir bahr (incharge of ships and boats), mir
manzil (incharge of quarters), mir atish or daroga-i-topkhana
(head of artillery).

26 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 [Link] Provincial Administration
The Mughal Empire was divided into twelve provinces
or subas by Akbar, including Allahabad, Agra, Awadh,
Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi, Kabul, Lahore,
Malwa, and Multan. As the empire expanded, the number
of provinces increased to twenty. Each suba was under a
provincial governor, who was responsible for maintaining
♦ Administrative general law and order, encouraging agriculture, trade, and
division of empire commerce, and enhancing state revenue.
The head of the revenue department was the Diwan, an
independent officer appointed by the Emperor to supervise
revenue collection and maintain expenditure accounts. The
Bakshi in the province performed similar functions to Mir
Bakshi’s at the center, checking and inspecting horses and
soldiers and issuing paybills. In provincial level, Sadr was
♦ Important responsible for the welfare of religious activities and learning.
officials and their Other officers at the provincial level included Darogai-i-Dal,
duties Waqainavis, and waqainigars, who provided reports directly
to the Emperor.

[Link] Local Administration

The provinces were divided into Sarkars and Parganas,
with villages being the smallest units of administration. At
the Sarkar level, there were two important functionaries: the
faujdar and the amalguzar. The faujdar was appointed by the
♦ Sarkars imperial order and was responsible for safeguarding the
life and property of the residents, addressing law and order
issues, and collecting revenue. The amalguzar was the revenue
collector, responsible for assessing and supervising revenue
collection, increasing land cultivation, and encouraging
peasants to pay.
At the Pragana level, the Shiqdar was the executive officer,
while the amils looked after revenue collection at the Pargana
level. The Quanungo kept land records in the pargana. Kotwals
were appointed mainly in towns to maintain law and order.
♦ Pargana Muqaddam was the village headman, while Patwari looked
after village revenue records. Zamindars maintained law and
order in their areas and collected revenue. Forts were under
the Qiladar, while port administration was independent of
provincial authority.

1.2.4 Rajput Polity

The Mughal policy towards the Rajputs was crucial for the
expansion and consolidation of the Mughal Empire under

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 27
 Akbar and his successors. The alliance was influenced by
the personal religious beliefs of the rulers, such as Akbar’s
liberalism and Aurangzeb’s orthodoxy. However, recent
studies are examining the Mughal-Rajput relations within
the framework of the Mughal nobility and the tensions within
♦ Various views different segments of the nobility. The political vicissitudes
on Rajput- Mughal of the Mughal Empire were largely governed by the struggle
relations for supremacy or autonomy by the aristocratic elements,
including the Mughal bureaucracy and autonomous rajas
and zamindars. The Mughal-Rajput conflict is part of a
broader historical conflict, developed during the decline of
the Delhi Sultanate and the emergence of a new state system
in Rajasthan, Malwa, and Gujarat.
In the late 15th century, a conflict emerged between Rana
Sanga of Mewar and the Lodis for control over eastern
Rajasthan and Malwa. Sanga feared the Lodi’s strengthening
and began negotiations with Babur against the Lodis. Sanga
♦ Rana Sanga feared Lodi power strengthening and negotiated with
Babur against the Lodis. However, Babur’s ascendancy in
the Gangetic valley surprised Sanga, leading to an alliance
between Afghans, Rana Sanga, and other Rajput princes to
hold back his advance towards Delhi. Babur later focused
on countering Afghan danger and securing control over the
region.
Babur aimed to adopt a forward policy in Mewar and
Malwa but did not do so until the Afghan problem was
resolved. The Mughals and Rajputs’ relations were not
♦ Relation based definite and positive, but rather in line with political needs.
on political need When Humayun ascended the throne, the political situation
in Malwa and Rajasthan changed significantly. Bahadur
Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, captured Malwa and Rana Ratan
Singh of Mewar sided with him. However, a rupture between
Rana Vikramjit and Bahadur Shah led to the siege of Chittor.
Humayun’s stance towards Rajasthan was primarily
defensive, postponing an offensive policy. He realised that
Mewar’s power was waning due to internecine warfare, and
♦ Babur and its military importance as an ally was inadequate. Bahadur
Humayun relation
Shah’s success was short-lived, as Chittor was devastated.
with Rajput
Babur and Humayun’s relationship with the Rajput rulers
could be analysed in the context of the Afghan problem,
which prevented them from making friendly overtures.
Akbar’s relations with the Rajputs have been a subject
of debate. Some argue that his policy initiated a system

28 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 where religion would not be discriminated against in public
appointments, while others believe it was a deliberate
attempt to exploit the martial attributes of the Rajputs for
the expansion of the Empire. Akbar’s Rajput policy was
part of a broad policy of wooing the zamindars and martial
classes, including the Rajputs and Afghans. The loyalty of
Rajputs was legendary, and a matrimonial alliance between
♦ Akbar’s
relations with the
Bhara Mal’s daughter and Akbar in 1562 was a common
Rajputs feature before his time. These alliances did not lead to a
special bond between Rajputs and Mughals, nor were they
intended to counter recalcitrant elements or use the Rajputs
for military gains. However, the war with Chittor, where the
Rajputs offered firm resistance, was a religious conflict that
emphasised the religious dimension of the conflict.
In 1570, the Rajputs established closer relations with Akbar.
The Gujarat expedition of Akbar marked the evolution of
Mughal-Rajput relations, as Rajputs were enlisted as soldiers
and given significant assignments. During the Gujarat
♦ Rana Sangha insurrection, Akbar relied heavily on Rajput (Kachawahas)
power declined Man Singh and Bhagwant Singh. The battle of Haldighati
♦ Rajput’s between the Rana of Mewar and Akbar was not a struggle
alliance with for independence but rather a declaration of regional
Mughals independence. However, Rajput states were vulnerable to
internecine warfare due to lack of supreme regional power.
The rulers of Bundi and Mawar were subdued, causing
the Rana’s power to be severely weakened, and Rajputs
becoming allies of the Mughals.
Akbar’s reliance on religion for political purposes during
his reign, particularly during the invasion of Punjab by
Mirza Hakim in 1580, led to a break with orthodoxy. He
rewarded Rajaput nobles like Man Singh and Bhagwant
♦ Akbar’s Singh, who resisted the invasion and became the sword-arm
close relations
of the Empire. Akbar also sought to maintain close relations
Kachhawaha
family with the Rajput ruling houses, with the Kachhawaha family
holding a special position in Mughal-Rajput relations.
In 1585-86, the administrative sphere was given a new
shape, with the Kachhawahas holding the largest share of
appointments among Rajputs. The Rajputs became stable
allies and partners in the Empire.

[Link] State Structure

The Rajputs’ state structure was based on the ‘bhaibant
♦ Bhaibant
system’, a loose confederation where regions were held by
system
clans or khaps with close kinship ties. The leading family
was called rao/rai-rana, and there was no definite law of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 29
 succession. The deciding factors were the support of Rajput
sardars and military might.
The leading family held only a few parganas or mahals
under direct control, while the rest were assigned to
individual members who erected their own fortresses or
♦ Parganas places of residence called basi or kothri. Holders of these
fortresses were called dhani or thakur, and these holdings
were hereditary. The Rana tried to extend their holding at
the expense of the thikanedars, while the clan attempted to
gain at the cost of neighbouring clans.
Rajput rajas were given jagir against their mansab, which
consisted of mahals or tappas where the clan members lived.
These mahals were part of parganas with a fort or garhi
where the raja resided with his family. The real watan of the
♦ Watan jagir raja was the region, sometimes extended to include the entire
tract held by the raja and his clansmen. The term watan jagir
came into vogue at the end of Akbar’s reign. Jagirs in close
proximity to the watan were not transferable except in case of
rebellion. Outside Rajasthan, jagirs were transferrable. The
first reference to this term is found in a farman of Akbar to
Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner.
Rajasthan’s state structure evolved with the introduction
of watan jagir, replacing bhaibant. By Jahangir’s time, watan
jagirs were firmly entrenched, bringing areas controlled by
clan members under the raja’s control. This allowed rajas to
♦ Watan jagir consolidate their position against pattayats, nobles, leading
replaced Bhaibant to a stable and centralised state structure. Watan and riyasat
sometimes overlapped, and when a raja died, his parganas
were not inevitably inherited by his successor. Instead, his
successor was given a few parganas based on his mansab,
dividing jagir rights in a pargana to exercise control over
Rajput rajas.
Akbar faced disputes with Rajputs over territories, such
as Pokharan, which was claimed by the Bhatis of Jaisalmer
♦ Dispute over and rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur. The Mughals, aware of
territories these differences, took advantage of them by transferring
♦ Mughal took
disputed parganas. The control over an autonomous raja was
advantage determined by the Mughal concept of paramountcy attitudes
and political expediency. Chittor and Ranthambhor forts
were under the control of Akbar. Land revenue was assessed
and collected according to custom, but certain taxes were
disallowed. Marwar was under direct Mughal rule from 1563
to 1583, and parts of Mewar were directly controlled by the

30 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Mughals from 1568 to early Jahangir’s reign.
Rajput rajas were granted jagirs outside their watan in
neighboring subas or subas where they served, either in
productive or rebellious areas. Jagirs in Rajasthan were
more attractive due to their prestige and ability to maintain
power. The establishment of Pax Mughalica (Mughal peace)
♦ Policy to was crucial for Rajput rajas to serve in different parts of
weaken aristocracy
the empire without worrying about their homelands. This
policy aimed to weaken the aristocracy by instigating
middle and lower strata to assert their independence. The
Mughals enlisted many minor feudatories of Rajput rajas in
the Imperial service.
The issue of succession in Rajput states led to fratricidal
civil wars, but the Mughal Paramountcy allowed for control
over the throne. Akbar tried to encourage mixed contingents,
but this was not accepted by many. The Rajputs also struggled
♦ Liberal policy to adjust to the Mughal service. Akbar’s alliance with the
Rajputs began as a political coalition but later evolved into a
closer relationship between Hindus and Muslims, forming a
liberal tolerant policy.
The concept of justice became extensive, emphasising
justice for all, regardless of religion, faith, caste, and race.
However, this alliance was not in line with social and
political realities, as the Rajputs were generally orthodox
♦ Collapse of and refused to join Akbar’s Tauhid llahi. The Mughal elite
alliance and ulema feared a broad liberal policy would harm their
dominant position. The alliance collapsed due to limited
influence from non-sectarian movements.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 31
Summarised Overview
The Timurid dynasty’s origins in the Turko-Mongol region influenced the
Mughal concept of empire and kingship. Babur’s ideas of sovereignty and kingship
were closely linked to tribal Mongol and Islamic traditions. Akbar introduced a
rational element to the Mughal theory of sovereignty, which demanded obedience
and justified the sovereign’s claims over individual subjects. This theory’s
strength lies in its secular character and alleged social needs. The Mughal emperor
was the supreme authority, commanding absolute loyalty from all subjects. To
counterbalance the threat from the nobility, the Mughals developed a mechanism
of checks and balances. The Mughal emperor ensured his position as a superior
arbiter in conflicts over power sharing and agrarian surplus.
The Mughal state has been analyzed by some historians as a highly centralized
bureaucratic empire, while others focus on the systemic perspective and economic
management. Irfan Habib explained the system, which grew with a centralised
bureaucratic state apparatus appropriating surplus and exploiting peasants.
Scholars like Blake and Pearson describe the Mughal authority as personal and
patriarchal, while Muzaffar Alam and Sanjay Subrahmanyam emphasise regional
differences rather than uniformity. Chetan Singh also suggests a regionalisation
or decentralisation of administrative functionaries.
The Mughal policy towards the Rajputs was crucial for the empire’s expansion
under Akbar and his successors. Influenced by religious beliefs, the alliance was
shaped by the Mughal nobility’s struggle for supremacy. The Mughal-Rajput
conflict is part of a broader historical conflict.

Assignments

1. Explain the nature of the Mughal state refering the viewpoints offered by
different historians.
2. Discuss the provincial and local administration under Mughals.
3. Write a short note on Wazir and Mir Bakshi.
4. Analyse the Mughal relationship with Rajputs during Akbar’s reign.
5. Describe the Structure of Rajput State.

32 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Suggested Reading

1. Athar, M. Ali, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2006.
2. Habib, Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556-1707, Oxford Univer-
sity Press, New Delhi, 2013.
3. ___________, (ed.), Akbar and His India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
1999.
4. Shireen Moosvi, The Economy of the Mughal Empire, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 2015.
5. Sanjay Subramahnyam, The Mughal State 1526-1750, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 2000.
6. John F Richards, The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Reference

1. Chandra, Satish, History of Medieval India, Orient Blackswan [Link]., New

Delhi, 2014.
2. ______________, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Mughal Empire
(1526-1748), [Link], Har-Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2007.
3. Habib, Irfan, Medieval India I: Researches in the History of India 1200-1750,
Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1998.
4. ______________ and Raychaudhuri. T (ed.), Cambridge Economic History of
India, vol. I, Orient Longman Ltd., 1984.
5. Husain, Afzal, The Nobility under Akbar and Jahangir, A Study of Family Groups,
Manohar Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1999.
6. Rahim, Abdul, Mughal Relations with Persia and Central Asia, Department of
History, Aligarh Muslim University, 1935.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 33
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

34 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT
South Indian Polity
3
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to :
♦ gain insights into the south Indian polity
♦ identify the reasons for the decline of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas
♦ analyse the emergence of nadus
♦ assess the polity of Chalukyas
♦ explain the feudal tendencies in South India

Background
The land lying to the south of the Vindhyas and Narmada and stretching almost
east to west along the Tropic of Cancer is known as South India. The peninsular
part of this region juts out into the Indian Ocean between the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal. It narrows to a point at Cape Comorin or Kanyakumari. The history
of South India is divided into two well-marked regions to the north and south of
Krishna-Tungabhadra. The former is traditionally known as the Deccan Plateau. In
the early medieval times, like North India, South India also was ruled by a number
of dynasties. During 800-1200 CE, South India became the centre of political
activity. The Pallavas, a significant force, were declining, and the Chalukyas of
Badami were overthrown by the Rashtrakutas. The Cholas, feudatories of the
Pallavas, began to assert their power and replace them, marking the beginning of
a new stage in South Indian history. In this unit, the decline of the Cholas, Cheras
and Pandyas and the emergence of the nadus are discussed. It also examined the
polity of chalukyas and fuedal tendencies in South India.

Keywords
South Indian Kingship, Centralised Administration, Segmentary, Feudal, Nadu

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 35
 Discussion
In the Deccan, the Rashtrakutas ruled from about the middle
of the eighth century to the close of the tenth century, when
they were overthrown by the Chalukyas, who founded an
independent kingdom with their capital at Kalyani. In the far
south or in the region to the south of Krishna-Tungabhadra,
the contemporaries of the Rashtrakutas were the Pallavas of
Kanchi, who ruled from the middle of the sixth century to
the close of the ninth century, when the Cholas took their
place. Besides these four dynasties, there were many smaller
dynasties like the Cheras of Kerala, the Pandyas of Madurai,
the Chalukyas of Vengi or Eastern Chalukyas, Badami and
Kalyani which ruled over various parts of South India
during the period.

1.3.1 Decline of Chera, Chola and Pandya Dynasties

[Link] Chera
The Chera dynasty was one of the most powerful kingdoms
of the Sangam period in Tamil Nadu and the present-day
state of Kerala. They were divided into two periods: Early
♦ Chera dyansty
Chera (2nd century BCE-3rd century CE) and Later Chera
(8th-12th century CE). Their history was marked by constant
conflict with the Cholas and the Pandyas, highlighting their
historical influence in the region.
Rashtrakutas conquered the Cheras in 805 CE and briefly
ruled them between 855 and 865 CE. King Goda Ravi Varma’s
annexation of the Ay kingdom into the Chera kingdom
heightened tensions. The Cheras granted political asylum
to Maravarman Rajasimha II, further infuriating the Cholas.
During King Indu Kotha Varma’s reign, Chola emperor
Parantaka Chola invaded and annexed Kongunadu’s
northwestern parts, ruled by Chera relatives. The Pandyas
joined Chera army in the Chola- Chera war, which began
♦ Chola- Chera during Bhaskara Ravi Varman I’s reign. The Cholas defeated
conflict the Chera armies in various locations, including Kandalur,
Vizhinjam, Quilon, and Mahodayapuram Udagai. By the
end of Raja Raja Chola’s reign, they annexed southern
Travancore from the Cheras. In 1028 CE, the Cheras revolted
against the Cholas, but the Cholas suppressed the uprising
and won several victories in subsequent campaigns.
The Chera kingdom was significantly weakened by
prolonged wars, leading to several chiefs asserting their
independence. The Cholas later consolidated control over a

36 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 large area of the kingdom. The Cheras acknowledged their
supremacy but made efforts to re-establish themselves.
♦ Weakened by The Cheras reorganised their defenses and broke free from
prolonged war Chola rule, assisting the Pandyas in regaining territories.
♦ Disintegration In retaliation, the Chola Emperor Kulattunga attacked
the Chera kingdom, causing an unprecedented crisis
for the newly crowned King Rama Varma Kulasekhara.
The Chavers, a significant portion of his army, fought
heroically and relocated his capital to Quilon after capturing
Mahodayapuram. The later Chera kingdom emerged as
principalities led by separate chieftains.

[Link] Chola
The Chola Empire declined when Vikrama Chola, son of
Kulottunga I, recaptured Vengi and took control of a section
of Gangavadi. The Cholas’ dominance was consolidated
under Hoysala rule, and the last Chola kings, Kulottunga II,
♦ Chola’s Rajaraja II, and Rajadhiraja III, were powerless to stop the
position Hoysalas from annexing the Chola Kingdom. The Cholas’
control over the Pandyan realm was waning, and around
1243 CE, the Pallava chief proclaimed his independence. The
Kakatiyas and Hoysalas divided the Chola Empire, and the
kings of Ceylon, Kerala, and the Pandya kingdom tried to
divorce their allegiance.
Rajadhiraja II managed to resolve the succession in
favour of his protege, but Chola authority fell so low that
♦ Ceylonese the Ceylonese king dared to engage in Pandyan matters on
assault behalf of one of its contenders to the throne. Kulottunga III
successfully marched to Madura, pushing back the growing
tide of Ceylonese assaults in the peninsula.
A civil war between Rajaraja II and Rajendra III broke
out in 1246 CE, allowing the Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra,
Kakatiyas of Warangal, and Pandyas of Madurai to enrich
♦ Decline of themselves at the expense of the decadent Chola monarchy.
Chola Jatavarman Sundara Pandya struck the death blow to the
Chola dominion during Rajendra III’s reign, who governed
alone until 1267 CE, failing to stop the decay and later the
empire had collapsed and the Cholas vanished into obscurity.

[Link] Pandyas
The Chalukyas of Vatapi and the Pallavas of Kanchi were
often at war due to political ambitions to acquire resources
for their governments. Mahendravarman I expanded the
Pallava dynasty’s territory, while the Vishnukundins

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 37
 became a neighbouring kingdom. Pulakesin II defeated
the Vishnukundins, allowing the Chalukyan dynasty to
♦ Conflict between take over the conquered territory. Vishnuvardhana later
Chalukyas and founded the Chalukyan kingdom of Vengi. With the decline
Pallavas of Vishnukundins, the Chalukyans became the Pallavas’
neighbouring territory. This led to constant conflicts between
the two dynasties.
The Pandyas of Madurai, a neighbouring kingdom of the
Pallavas, played a significant role in the conflict between
them. The Pandyas sought to control the fertile Kaveri
delta and formed alliances with the Chalukyas of Vatapi to
♦ Struggle achieve their ambitions. They also engaged in wars with the
for political Cheras to extend their territorial boundaries. The victorious
expansion rulers demonstrated pride through various means, such as
Jayantavarman, who adopted the epithet of Vanavan. The
Pandyas also attempted to invade Ceylon during the reign
of Sinhalese ruler Sena I, causing destruction and a large
booty. The succeeding Sinhalese emperor Sena II invaded the
Pandya kingdom to avenge the Pandyas.
The Pandyas sought to disrupt the Pallava kingdom’s
internal conflicts. Maravarman Rajasimha I, a Pandyan king,
formed an alliance with the Chalukya emperor Vikramaditya
♦ Pandyas conflict II and supported Chitramaya for the throne. He defeated
with Pallava Pallava king Nandivarman II multiple times and took the
title ‘Pallava Bhanjana’ (Breaker of the Pallavas). Chitramaya
was ultimately killed by Nandivarman II’s military general.
However, Nandivarman II was alarmed by the Pandyas’
interference in the Pallava kingdom’s affairs and repeated
attacks, aiming to contain their growing influence.
During Kirtivarman II, Dantidurga, a Chalukya
feudatory with political ambitions, attempted to establish
♦ Foundation
an independent territory by attacking the Pallava monarch
of Rashtrakuta Nandivarman II. The latter fought Dantidurga hard, and as
empire of a result of their negotiations, Dantidurga gave his daughter
Manyakheta Reva in marriage to Nandivarman II. Meanwhile, Dantidurga
defeated Kirtivarman II and established the Rashtrakuta
empire of Manyakheta.
The Chalukyas, in alliance with the western Ganga dynasty,
fought against the Pallavas in numerous battles. The Pandyas,
after their alliance with Dantidurga, sought to reduce the
power of the Chalukyas. The Pallava monarch formed a
confederacy of rulers to support him against the Pandyas.
Kongu, a kingdom near the Ganga dynasty, was one of the

38 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 members of the confederacy. The Pandyas defeated Kongu’s
♦ Battles with emperor and merged it into their territory. The Pandyas also
Pallava advanced into Pallava territory, but the Pallavas failed to
stop their advance. Despite numerous battles, defeats, and
victories, neither side could claim territorial gains for long.
After King Maravarman Kulasekara I’s death in 1308,
his sons Vira and Sundara fought for the throne. In March
1311, Malik Kafur invaded the Pandyas’ territories, causing
widespread raids and destruction of temples. The Pandya
♦ Decline of brothers fled, and Kafur pursued them, intending to make
Pandyas one a subsidiary of Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khalji. Sundara
Pandya was defeated and sought help from the Delhi
Sultanate, regaining control of the South Arcot region by
1314. However, two other Khalji Sultanate expeditions,
led by Khusro Khan in 1314 and Ulugh Khan under Sultan
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq in 1323, destroyed the Pandyan
dynasty. Ulugh Khan not only looted the Pandyan kingdom
but also captured it and brought it under Delhi Sultanate
control.

1.3.2 Chalukya Dynasty

Chalukya dynasty ruled large parts of southern and central
India between the 6th and 12th century CE. Three important
branches of Chalukya dynasty, Chalukyas of Badami, Vengi
and Kalyani ruled during this period.

[Link] Chalukyas of Badami and Chalukyas of

Vengi
The Badami Chalukyas were the earliest dynasty of the
Chalukya empire. The Pallava king Simhavishnu expanded
his territories, while the Chalukyas of Badami, led by
Pulakesin I, established their capital in Bijapur District.
Pulakesin converted a hill near Badami into a fortress, and
Kirtivarman I conquered and annexed the territories of the
Kadambas of Banavasi and Mauryas of Konkan. Pulakesin
♦ Political II (609-42 CE) expanded the Chalukya territory, subjugating
expansion Ganga rulers of South Karnataka and Alupas of the West
coast, bringing the entire Kannada-speaking area under one
rule. The army expanded to Malwa and Southern Gujarat,
where Latas, Malwas, and Gurjaras became submissive.
Pulakesin II defeated Harsha of Kanauj, his greatest northern
adversary, on the Narmada river, and assumed the title of
Parameshvara (Supreme Lord).

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 39
 Pulakesin II attempted to control the Deccan region by
attempting an expedition into the Eastern Deccan and coastal
Andhra, causing conflict with the Pallavas. Mahendravarman
I, a Pallava king, was also ambitious. The Pallavas were
defeated, and the Chalukyan army penetrated into their
♦ Chalukyas of territory. Pulakesin II appointed Vishnuvardhana to rule
Vengi over the Andhra country, leading to the Eastern Chalukyas
of Vengi. Narasimha I, son of Mahendra I, defeated the
♦ Decline
Chalukyan king in battles and entered Chalukyan territory,
even entering Badami, where an inscription of his victory
was found on a rock. Over the next few decades, the
Chalukyas and Pallavas engaged in more hostilities, but no
significant changes occurred. In 750 CE, the Chalukyan rule
in Badami was replaced by the Rashtrakutas, who defeated
the Chalukyan king Kirtivarman II.
The Eastern Chalukyas, also known as the Chalukyas
of Vengi, were a South Indian dynasty that ruled from the
seventh to the twelfth centuries. They began as Chalukya
governors of Badami and eventually ruled over the Vengi
region of modern-day Andhra Pradesh until around 1130 CE.
After 1130 CE, they continued under Chola’s overlordship,
with their capital initially in the city of [Link] Eastern
Chalukyas, under Vengi’s rule, were involved in numerous
♦ Establishment
of Chalukyas of conflicts with the Cholas and Western Chalukyas. Pulakesin
Vengi II, a Chalukya king, conquered coastal Andhra in 616 CE, and
Vishnuvardhana was appointed as viceroy. After Pulakesin’s
death in 624 CE, Vishnuvardhana I declared independence
and established the Eastern Chalukya dynasty, which
extended to Cheepurupalli, making him the founder of this
dynasty.
The Eastern Chalukyas faced opposition from the Pallavas
of Kanchi and Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, who replaced
the Badami Chalukyas. Due to ongoing conflicts with their
♦ Conflicts
neighbours, the Vengi Chalukyas formed alliances with the
Cholas of Tanjore to protect their territory. From 642 CE to
705 CE, some kings ruled for short periods, leading to family
feuds and ineffective governments. The Badami or Western
Chalukyas were defeated by the Rashtrakutas.
The Rashtrakutas, who repeatedly conquered Vengi’s
kingdom, challenged its weak rulers until Gunaga Vijayaditya
III emerged in 848 CE. Vijayaditya declared independence
♦ Decline after Amoghavarsha’s death, and their rule has been a source
of numerous wars between Cholas and Western Chalukyas
for control of the strategically important Vengi country.

40 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 During Vengi’s Eastern Chalukya rule, the region unified
and flourished with Telugu culture, literature, poetry, and
art. This period is considered the golden age of Andhra’s
history. However, the Vengi kingdom was defeated by the
Chola empire, ending its existence.

[Link] The Chalukyas of Kalyani

The Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as the Later
Chalukyas, originated after the Chalukyas of Badami. They
♦ Emergence were also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas, as their capital
of Chalukyas of was Kalyani in the eleventh century. Their descent from
Kalyani Badami Chalukyas is uncertain, but their fortunes were
established by Taila II, a subordinate of the Rashtrakutas,
who claimed to be the direct descendant of the Chalukyas
of Badami. The Rashtrakutas were overthrown in 973 CE by
Tailapa or Taila II, who belonged to the Chalukya dynasty.
The dynasty founded by him, with its capital at Kalyani
(Karnataka), is known as later Chalukya or Chalukyas of
Kalyani.
Taila II waged a protracted war with the Parmaras of
Malwa and eventually killed the Paramara king Munja,
leading to the Chalukya-Chola struggle. Somesvara I’s
accession to the Chalukyas of Kalyani marked a brilliant
period, but he was defeated by his son Rajendra I at the
battle of Koppam, where Rajadhiraja, the Chola king, fell. He
not only conquered north Konkan, but also attacked Gujarat
♦ Struggle for and Malava and received Parmara Bhoja’s submission.
expansion Vikramaditya VI, the last great Chalukya ruler, conquered
north Konkan, invaded Gujarat and Malava, and received
Parmara Bhoja’s submission. He killed his elder brother
Somesvara II and ascended the throne in 1076 CE, withdrew
from the Shaka era, and introduced the Chalukya-Vikrama
era. During his reign, he fought against various rulers,
including the Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra, Kakatiyas of
Warangal, Yadavas of Devagiri, and Kadambas of Goa, and
was patronised by authors Bilhana and Vijnanesvara.
The Chalukya dynasty declined in the mid-twelfth
century due to the defeat of Somesvara IV by Yadava
♦ Decline
king Bhillana, and its successors, the Yadavas of Devagiri,
Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra, and Kakatiyas of Warangal,
gained prominence.
1.3.3 Feudal Tendencies and Emergence of Nadus
and Principalities
The Chola state was established in the 10th century CE

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 41
 and saw the growth of a king’s government with numerous
functionaries or agents. These functionaries were primarily
landed magnates who gained strength in the tenth century
♦ Landed and after. By the middle of the tenth century, these magnates
magnates
emerged in the Kaveri delta and outside the state, holding
titles like Udaiyan, Velan, Araiyan, and Muventavelan. These
titles indicated land ownership and state structure, often
prefixed by the name or title of a Chola king. In some cases,
the titles were actually conferred by the state, ‘Pattam Kattina
Peyar’.
The Kaveri delta experienced a surge of landowners
following agrarian expansion, leading to the state’s recognition
of these magnates. These recognised magnates carried out
state functions, with most agents or “officers’’ being drawn
from this class of landed magnates. Examples include
Adhikàris, Olainayakams, Dandanayakams, Srikaryans, and other
♦ Role of landed similar functions of the king’s government. Functionaries who
magnates performed significant functions held more impressive titles,
indicating greater importance in society. They carried out the
king’s work, looking after Nam Karumam Aràyum, meaning
‘our work’ and Nantamar, i.e.,” our men ‘’ for the king and
Koyirramar, “the king’s men” for others. They carried out the
administration of the kingdom, both in the capital city and far
afield. The transfer of state agents from one place to another
is evident, indicating the existence of an officialdom. This
pattern of landed magnates being recognised and enlisted
as state agents became popular in the late 10th century and
elaborated during the reigns of Ràjaràja I and Rajendra I. It
began to decline by the mid-12th century CE.
The royal government at the center did not have absolute
power, with numerous local nodes of power at various levels.
The chiefs in the localities, known as “feudatories,” were
possibly second only to the king at the center. The chiefs of
the “Sangam ‘’ period in South India, known as Ays, Vels
♦ Feudatories
and Malavas were not landed magnates. They recognised the
overlordship of the Chera, Chola, or Pandya, with evidence of
their suzerainty evident in various ways. This superordinate-
subordinate relationship was evident in the dating of records
in their territories during the regnal years of the overlords
and the complex network of political and matrimonial
alliances with them. Their role in early South India’s polities
was crucial.
Chiefs had diverse territories, varying in size, ambition,
and administration. They had “Companions of Honour‘’ that

42 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 served as military and police forces. Some had elaborate
bureaucracies, while others were humbler. The chief of
Valluvanadu in Kerala fought the Battle of Takkolan for
their Chera overlords, who were subordinate to the Cholas.
Overlords claimed revenue from chiefs’ territories, with the
Chera overlord receiving one-tenth of the share. Matrimonial
♦ Overlord-chief
relationship relations between chiefly houses and the overlord’s house
strengthened this relationship. Chiefs were required to
attend the suzerain’s court, as evidenced by attestations
from major Kerala chiefs in Jewish Copper Plates and
Kalingattup-parani.
In early medieval South India, local groups played a unique
role in polities, with the Sabha being the most significant
body of Brahmanas. They controlled vast amounts of
agricultural land and had the largest number of inscriptions
in their villages and temples. However, the population of
these groups was smaller than the rest, and they enjoyed
♦ Sabha and Ur
landright that was out of proportion to the population. The
agrarian settlements, called Brahmadeya in Tamil-speaking
regions and Grama in Kerala, were less numerous than non-
Brahmanical villages, called the Vallanvagai or ur. Despite
having fewer records, the urs were larger in number and
exerted greater influence on the economy, society, and
politics.
The information on non-Brahamanical land-owning
groups in the Pandya and Chera situations is limited, but their
existence and vitality are not to be doubted. They constituted
habitation sites, cremation grounds, drinking water sources,
irrigation channels, cultivated land, and pasture land.
Residential areas consisted of landowners, artisans, and
agrestic labourers. The Kutis or households formed the
basic unit, while labourers and artisans formed the primary
producers. Landowners, called Ulukutis, held superior
♦ Non-brahmanical
land owning group rights over the land and met in assemblies of the Ur, known
as Urar and Urom. These assemblies were exclusive groups
of elders of families with landed property and commanding
authority in the countryside. They decided on property and
other community interests and related themselves with the
state, functioning as a channel of communication between
the king’s government and the political structure.
The Nadu, a local group in early medieval South India,
has gained significant importance in recent years. The nadu
denoted both the locality and the assembly of its spokesmen,
known as Nattar or Nattom. The nadus was a grouping of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 43
 non-Brahamanical agrarian settlements, with no natural
boundaries and varied in size. The nomenclature of Nadus
also indicates the spontaneity of their origin. The nadu was
named after one of the constituent Urs, mostly the first clan
settlement to emerge, and was generally a toponym. This
♦ Nadu
contrasts with the units called Valanadus, which had natural
boundaries, were comparable in size, and were given the
name of a Chola ruler or his title.
The nadus, a pastoral grouping, emerged in the Pallava
territory, with the Kottam becoming an agricultural cum
pastoral region. The Pandyan kingdom and Chera kingdom
also had similar nature and functions. However, the Chera
kingdom used the term nadu for locality chiefs’ territories. The
number of nadus increased over time due to the expansion of
the agrarian order and the belief that nadus were groupings
of agrarian villages. The nadus, consisting of agrarian villages
and the dominant Nattar, primarily focused on agriculture,
managing irrigation and other related arrangements. They
♦ Role of Nadu
paid taxes to the king’s government and played a crucial role
in carrying out royal orders, resettling land, collecting taxes,
and managing temples. The nadus was recognised as an agent
in the locality, exercising power and authority on its behalf.
The Brahmadeya villages were managed by corporate
bodies called Sabhas, consisting of Brahmanas with property
ownership and knowledge of Vedas and Sastras. These bodies
followed Dharmasastra’s prescriptions and maintained
solidarity as non-cultivating intermediaries with superior
rights over land. The writings engraved on Manur and
♦ Brahmadeya
villages and Parantaka inscriptions show class and caste interests among
Nagaram Brahmanical groups. Nagarams were organised bodies
where traders organised themselves, similar to corporate
bodies of other groups. They provided administrative, fiscal,
and judicial rights to trading groups. These groups, including
Jewish, Christian, and Muslim groups of West Asian origin,
also had local origins, significantly influencing statecraft in
these polities.
The principalities were ruled by several chiefs who
recognised the suzerainty of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya
kings. Later, these chiefs became state functionaries and
♦ Local groups
were absorbed into the state system. Local groups’ political
aspirations were articulated through assemblies like Sabha
and Ur.

44 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 [Link] Debates on Feudalism in South India
The South Indian feudalism during the early medieval
period was suggested by Kesavan Veluthat. Veluthat argues
that the basic direct producers in a feudal system own the
means of production themselves in a very technical sense.
The possession of superior rights over the land by local
magnates, as well as the extra-economic coercion by which
those magnates extract surplus from the primary producer,
are among the foremost characteristics of the feudal mode of
production in medieval South India. The political structure
♦ Features of
of early medieval South India was like the feudal pyramid
feudalism
with the king at the top, with the feudatory chieftains
immediately below him, with the local groups of nadus,
brahmadeyas and nagarams below them, the tenants and
cultivators below these groups and finally the landless
labourers at the bottom. This pyramidal hierarchy is found
in military organisation and judicial administration as
well. Compared with agricultural production, commodity
production was limited.
Numerous scholars have conducted a study on medieval
South Indian polity, proposing various arguments to
understand the period from the 7th century CE to the 13th
century CE. Kesavan Veluthat, a South Indian scholar, posits
that the Chola dynasty’s collapse was due to centrifugal forces
resulting from the political order, and that chiefdoms began
re-asserting themselves during this period. The concept of a
♦ Kesavan Veluthat feudal South Indian order is a recent idea, based on a recent
negates the idea of analysis by Noburu Karashima and Subbarayalu. Historical
Nilakanta Sastri analysis began with studying inscriptions of this period. In
1886, the Madras government established the Department of
Epigraphy under Dr. Hultzsch. Nilakanta Sastri’s historical
treatment of the medieval south India was criticised for
glorifying the highly centralised and bureaucratised state.
This view remained unchallenged for nearly forty years until
Burton Stein challenged this view with his Segmentary State
Theory, borrowed from Aidan Southall. Kesavan Veluthat
later proposed a feudal model based on R.S. Sharma and
Noburu Karashima, challenging the conventional historical
view.
Previous attempts to define the Chola state as feudal were
tentative and lacked thorough scrutiny. Karashima suggests
a feudal nature in the later Chola period, while Veluthat and
M.G.S Narayanan propose studying the feudal potential
of the South Indian macro-region. Veluthat’s postulates on

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 45
 feudal society in India, as proposed by R.S. Sharma, include
♦ Kesavan the alienation of administrative, judicial, and political power,
Veluthat’s view through religious grants, erosion of state power, and an
on South Indian intricate hierarchy of officials. Veluthat acknowledges the
feudalism need for a precise definition of feudalism within the south
Indian Medieval context, utilising a framework from Noboru
Karashima, a Marxist-oriented work, to provide a concise
model for this purpose.
Veluthat, based on Karashima’s formulation, argues that
peasant society in the region is stratified by individual peasant
producers, who are linked to the kutis of South India. These
serfs hold land but pay feudal rent, initially in surplus form
♦ Superior
and later as land rent. Veluthat refers to landed magnates
rights of landed
magnets
with superior land rights, who extracted feudal rent through
extra economic means. The landed labourer was at the
bottom of this peasant hierarchy. Veluthat’s feudal society
is structured with the king as the supreme head, followed by
chieftains, brahmadeya units, nadus and nagarams, tenants,
and labourers, descending from the nadu.
Veluthat suggests a military stratification with the king’s
bodyguard at the center, followed by similar forces in each
♦ Military nadu, special forces, and mercenary troops from peasants and
stratification artisans. This graded hierarchy was maintained through the
system of jati, reaffirmed by the Varnasrama Dharma and the
Bhakti movement. Veluthat argued that the feudal structure
described was not an archetypal European feudalism analogy
but a unique one for South India.
Kesavan Veluthat argues that direct producers in a feudal
system own the means of production themselves, with local
magnates possessing superior rights over the land and
extracting surplus through extra-economic coercion. The
political structure of early medieval South India was a typical
feudal pyramid, with the king at the top, feudatory chieftains
♦ Pyramidical below, local groups below, tenants and cultivators below,
and landless labourers at the bottom. This hierarchy was also
present in military organisation and judicial administration.
Commodity production was limited compared to agricultural
production, and trade was marginal to the economy and
society.

46 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Summarised Overview
The Chera kingdom appears to have been conquered by some of the major
dynasties of medieval South India, including the Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya,
Rashtrakuta, and Chola. By the 10th/11th century CE, Cheras appear to have
been absorbed into the Pandya political system. The Cholas and Pandyas had
alternating friendly and hostile relations with the Chera kingdom. In the early
11th century CE, the Cholas attacked and eventually forced the kingdom into
submission. When the Chera kingdom was dissolved in the 12th century, the
majority of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. The Chola dynasty
ruled South India from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries. In 1264, Jatavarman
Sundara Pandyan I sacked Gangaikonda Chozhapuram, the Chola capital.
Kanchipuram was lost to Telugu Cholas, and remaining Chola territories fell to
Pandyan rule. The dynasty declined 1279 when Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan
I established Pandya rule. Two Khalji Sultanate expeditions, led by Khusro Khan
in 1314 and Ulugh Khan under Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq in 1323, destroyed
the Pandyan dynasty, looted it, and brought it under the Delhi Sultanate.
Three branches of Chalukya dynasty ruled from 6th century CE to 12th century
CE; Chalukyas of Badami was the earliest dynasty followed by Chalukyas of
Vengi and Chalukyas of Kalyani
The nadu, a kinship-based agrarian unit, had collective controls over production
and hereditary land rights. Despite its segmentary state, it was marginally studied
due to its phased opening of the Tamil plains. The debate now focuses on nadu
autonomy and organisation stability, affecting the segmentary state [Link]
realm was ruled by several chiefs who recognised the suzerainty of the Chera,
Chola, and Pandya kings. Later, these chiefs became state functionaries and were
absorbed into the state system. Local groups’ political aspirations were articulated
through assemblies like Sabha and Ur. Different perspectives on political
organisation help critically analyse the nature of polity during this period.

Assignments
1. Examine the emergence of nadus during the medival period.
2. Write down the reasons for the decline of Chera, Chola and Pandya
dynasties.
3. Discuss the emergence of Chalukyas.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 47
Suggested Reading
1. Karashima, Noboru, A Concise History of South India, Oxford, 2014.
2. Sastri, [Link], A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to
the Fall of Vijayanagar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1997.
3. Stein, Burton, Essays on South India, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, New Delhi, 1996.

Reference
1.
1. Subbarayalu, Y., South India Under the Cholas, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 2011.
2. Veluthat, Kesavan, The Early Medieval in South India, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2010.
3. Veluthat, Kesavan, The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India,
Orient Blackswan Private Limited, New Delhi, 2012.
4. Stein, Burton, Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India, Oxford India
Paperbacks, New Delhi, 1995.

48 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 49
 Production and
Appropriation
BLOCK-02

50 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT Agricultural Production
1
Learning Outcomes
Upon the successful conclusion of this unit, learners will be able to:
♦ acquire an awareness of the nature of the agricultural economy of the
medieval period
♦ get introduced to the intricacies of the land revenue assessment
♦ discuss the iqta system of the Sultanate and jagirdari system of the
Mughals
♦ evaluate the formation of irrigation facilities during the medieval period

Background
During the early medieval era, North India had several kingdoms but did not
produce a major power until the Delhi Sultanate. Agriculture formed the backbone
of the medieval Indian economy, undergoing a significant expansion, utilising
innovative techniques and cultivating diverse crops. The revenue of the state
heavily relied on land taxes, leading to the establishment of complex tax systems.
Peasant discontent and uprisings marked the period despite government efforts
to assist farmers. Provincial administrations and revenue systems like iqta and
jagirdari played crucial roles in governance and revenue collection.

Keywords
Agricultural production, Crop pattern, Land tenures, Zabt/Zabti, Iqta, Jagir, Diwan-i-
amir- i-Kohi, Irrigation canals

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 51
 Discussion
2.1.1 Agricultural Production during Medieval
Period
[Link] Extent of Cultivation
During the medieval period, there was an abundance of
land available. The state aimed to increase the revenue by
increasing agricultural production, hence putting more land
under cultivation. The Sultanate had abundant land, such as
the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, which was fertile. The rulers of
this time aimed to encourage farming in areas where there
♦ Increase in
was no cultivation before. Forests were cut down, making
agricultural
production
those lands suitable for cultivation. From the Sultans to the
Mughals, farming expanded across the country, with the
extent of cultivation increasing during Aurangzeb’s reign.
The rise of farming in Bihar, Awadh, and some parts of
Bengal was attributed to the clearing of forests, the use of
ploughs, and animal power. The Mughals’ reign saw the
expansion of agriculture in almost every part of the country.

[Link] Crop Pattern

During the medieval period, the inhabitants of India
cultivated a diverse array of crops, including food crops,
cash crops, vegetables, and spices, among other things.
According to Ibn Battutah, they produced two crops a year-
Kharif (Monsoon) and Rabi (Winter) crops. Medieval Indian
♦ Techniques for society was aware of the most cutting-edge techniques for
crop cultivation cultivating crops at the time, such as do-fasli (double cropping),
harvesting three crops at the same time, crop rotation, using
manures, and utilising a variety of instruments for watering
the crops, among other things.
i. Food crops: Wheat, rice, barley, and millets (Jowar
and Bajra) are the principal crops that were utilised for
the production of food, including a wide range of pulses,
including gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd, and khisari,
amongst others.
ii. Cash crops: Sugarcane, cotton, indigo (which was
utilised in the production of blue dye), opium, silk, and other
commodities were among the most significant cash crops
in medieval India. Sugarcane was a most important cash
crop during the Mughal rule, with Bengal being the most
productive region. Bayana and Sarkhej regions produced
high-quality indigo during the Mughal reign. Sericulture, or
the rearing of silkworms on mulberry bushes, grew more

52 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 widespread during this period. Bengal became the world’s
significant silk producer. Bihar and Malwa were known
for producing high-quality opium. Tobacco cultivation was
introduced to India by the Portuguese in the 16th century,
and Surat and Bihar became key locations for tobacco
production. Large-scale coffee growing began in the 1600s.
The cultivation of these commodities contributed to the
growth of the economy in medieval India.
iii. Fruits and vegetables: During the Medieval period,
there was a rapid expansion of horticulture. Some of the
sultans in Delhi tried their best to support the people in
growing food for themselves. Firuz Shah Tughlaq is credited
♦ Types of crops for building 1,200 gardens in and around Delhi, 80 on the
cultivated Salora embankment, and 44 in Chittoor. Fruits like grapes and
pomegranates were grown during this time. In the 16th and
17th centuries, India received a small amount of fruit from
foreign countries. The Portuguese introduced pineapple,
bananas, papaya, and cashew nuts. Afghanistan was the
origin of cherry. Peasants in India farmed a diverse selection
of vegetables, with potato, red chillies, and tomato plants
being introduced at the end of the period. Abul Fazl’s book
Ain-i-Akbari provides a list of these vegetables consumed
during this period.
iv. Spices: During the Medieval period, Indian peasants
made important spices like pepper, clove, cardamom, ginger,
saffron, betel leaf, and many others. By the time of the
Mughals India’s southern coast was sending many different
kinds of spices to different parts of Asia and Europe.

2.1.2 Assessment of Land Revenue and Magnitude of

Demand
[Link] Land Revenue Assessment and Manage-
ment
Land taxes were the state’s principal revenue source.
Rulers like Alauddin Khalji, Sher Shah Suri, and Akbar
created a complex land tax system in the Medieval period.
Land revenue management ended up with well-thought-out
guidelines. These were:
i. Actual cultivable land measurement for land
revenue calculation
ii. Land categorisation by soil fertility
♦ Land tax
iii. Setting the land revenue demand rate
iv. Calculating and collecting land revenue in cash

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 53
 During the medieval era, various methods were used to
calculate and collect taxes. The most fundamental method
was the sharing of crops, also known as batai, where a
♦ Batai and
Kankut systems
delegated official collected the state’s portion of the crop. The
area of the property did not affect the total amount of money
gathered. The second method, Kankut, involved measuring
the land and analysing its productivity to determine the
required amount of money for each metre of land.
Sher Shah, the founder of the Suri dynasty, did not rely
on crop-sharing or estimation for land revenue assessment.
Instead, he used the Zabt system of measurement, which
involved analysing the productivity of the land. Under Sher
Shah, samples were taken from three distinct kinds of land to
♦ Zabt system determine the overall level of productivity of the land: good,
under Sher Shah middling and bad. The average yield was then calculated,
and its one-third was the share of the state. The amount of
money that each harvest was required to bring in every bigha
was referred to as the “Rai of Sher Shah.”
During Akbar’s reign, the kingdom used various methods
to calculate revenue. The third approach, known as Zabt,
based on measurements, was significantly developed
during Akbar’s reign. Each region was divided into revenue
circles or dasturs, where cash revenue rates for crops were
determined based on their yields and production expenses.
The adoption of Ain-i-Dahsala, or income rates averaged
over 10 years, was a solution to the need to calculate new
♦ Zabt and
Dahsala System rates each year for different regions. In this system, the cash
under Akbar revenue rate for a particular crop was calculated using an
average of the rates used over the previous 10 years. However,
these rates did not undergo regular revisions and changed
at sporadic intervals. The system was initially applied to
Agra, Allahabad, Awadh, Delhi, Lahore, and Malwa but
expanded to other locations. Despite measurements being
taken in some areas, some territories remained unsurveyed.
Consequently, almost every region, including the Zabti
regions, used different approaches to measuring and data
collection processes.

[Link] Classification of Land and Crop

Sharing
Following the completion of the survey, the land was
divided into three categories according to its level of fertility:
good, average, and poor. The land was further subdivided
into four categories called Polaj, Parati, Chachar, and

54 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Banjar, based on the duration of time it had been used for
agricultural purposes. In Polaj areas, two different crops were
♦ Cultivation cultivated annually. On the other hand, once two different
strategies crops had been grown on the land in Parati, they had to lie
fallow (meaning they could not be utilised) for a period to
rejuvenate the fertility of the soil. Due to its limited fertility,
Chachar land was cultivated only once every three to four
years at most. Since the land in Banjar was not suitable for
cultivation, there was not much of an agricultural presence
there. The majority of the state’s wealth was acquired from
the sale of land. To maximise the profits that could be made
from farming, the State tried to expand the quantity of land
that was being cultivated.
In addition, the State put forth effort to collect the
maximum amount of taxes from the farmers. The Mughal
administration maintained records at the pargana level to
track the payment of land taxes. Separate officials handled
land measurement and tax collection. While Amil and Amin
were responsible for obtaining the funds, Amin was in
charge of the crew that carried out the surveys. The Qanungo
♦ Tax collection assisted the Amin and was in charge of keeping track of all
structure of the revenue-related data. Chaudhari also assisted Amil in
revenue collection. At the village level, the village headman,
also known as the Muqaddam, was responsible for managing
records and fund collection. There was also a clerk named
Karkun and a treasurer named Potdar. Documents were
composed not only in Persian but also in the local languages.
The Diwan was in charge of the administration of taxes for
the suba and served the emperor as a free and loyal servant.
It was his responsibility to retrieve funds from the suba and
monitor how those funds were being utilised. He intended
to cultivate more crops on additional acreage. Loans, known
as Taqavi, were frequently provided by his office to those
living in rural areas.
There were three different methods for dividing up the
harvest. Following the removal of the grain, the first thing that
needed to be done was to split the crop up on the threshing
floor. The second strategy was known as Khet-Batai, and it
♦ Patta and
Qabuliat included separating the field in which the crop was growing
while it was still in its early stages. In the third place, which
was known as Langbatai, the crop was harvested and then
stacked without the grain being separated. This decision
determined the share of the state each would acquire.
The state provided each cultivator with a document

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 55
 known as a Patta (title deed), which outlined the various
types of land that the cultivator owned as well as the rate
of land revenue that was payable on specific crops. The
cultivators were asked to sign a document called a Qabuliat,
♦ Harvest
a commitment to pay a specific land tax to the state. These
division
documents were collected from cultivators. Further, farmers
were required to pay particular additional cesses on top
of the land revenue to cover the costs of assessment and
revenue collection.

[Link] Role of Landed Intermediaries in

Revenue Collection
The peasants and the state were separated from one
another by a variety of forms of intermediaries in addition to
the state officials. The use of intermediaries was essential for
the State to acquire revenue from the lands. They attempted
to negotiate tax breaks or a share of the land earnings in
♦ Intermediaries
exchange for the labour in the farming fields. Historical
and revenue sources refer to the pre-Delhi Sultanate period using titles
acquisition such as Raja, Rajaputra, Ranaka, and Mahasamanta, among
others. The land rights of these individuals had been
inherited from previous generations. They went around to
the farmers in their separate regions and collected money
from them, some of which they gave to the state and part of
which they retained for themselves. In addition, as we have
seen, the state did not impose any taxes on Brahmins or the
churches when the state granted them land. They were also
awarded funds derived from the land at these places.
During the Sultanate period, landed middlemen continued
to play an important role in the process of collecting revenue.
Small landowners, who were referred to as Khuts, local
♦ Middlemen leaders known as Muqaddams, and a set of middlemen, such
in the Sultanate as rai, rana, and rawats, had higher land rights than peasants.
period Alauddin Khalji made an effort to restrict the rights and
shares held by these groups. In later years, Sultans of Delhi
like Ghiyasuddin and Firuz Shah Tughlaq bestowed upon
them a variety of unique privileges.
Middlemen were typically referred to as Zamindars
during the Mughal dynasty. Some middlemen, including
rais, ranas, and rawats, inherited the rights to the land from
their ancestors. Zamindars were local land revenue collectors
or proprietors of land under the Mughal administration.
They were responsible for collecting taxes from the peasants
and forwarding a portion of it to the state. Their primary
role was to ensure revenue collection from their assigned

56 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 territories. The Iqta was rebranded as the Jagir during the
time of the Mughal emperors. Jagirdars were recipients of
the Jagir, which was a type of land grant given by the Mughal
emperor in exchange for services rendered, usually military
or administrative. They were not typically subordinate
♦ Zamindars and to Zamindars but held land granted by the state in return
Jagirdars
for specific duties. In northern India, the muqaddams and
the Patels served as the roles of village leaders. They were
accountable for the collection of taxes as well as the upkeep of
the peace in the community. In return for their cooperation,
they were granted land in the village that did not have any
tax obligations attached to it. Patwaris in northern India and
Kulkarnis in the Deccan received salaries similar to those of
village leaders.

[Link] Condition of Peasantry

During the medieval period in India, the population
was primarily composed of peasants, albeit with varying
characteristics. Wealthier peasants, known as Khuts and
Muqaddams (during the Delhi Sultanate) and Khudkasht (during
♦ Peasantry and
the Mughal Empire), held extensive land and cultivated their
taxation
crops with the aid of hired labourers. On the other side of the
spectrum were small farmers and village workers, referred
to by diverse names like Balahars, Reza Riaya, Paltis, Kunbis,
Pahikaasht and Upari. Most identified themselves as raiyats and
were obliged to provide a significant portion of their crops
as land tax. Additionally, a large number of landowners and
intermediaries kept some of the surplus food for themselves.
Due to the regressive nature of land taxes, an enormous
load of repaying debts, and the regular occurrence of
famines, sicknesses, and epidemics, peasants were always on
the edge of hunger. Problems and frustrations experienced
♦ Peasant by peasants sometimes led to riots and uprisings. Under
discontent and the rule of the Sultanate, Muhammad bin Tughlaq made an
uprisings effort to expand the Doab region’s economic opportunities.
A significant uprising broke out among the farmers in the
region as a result of such initiatives. During the reign of
Aurangzeb, discontent among groups such as Jats, Sikhs,
Marathas, and Satanamis increased significantly. It reflected
widespread dissatisfaction among farming communities,
often culminating in revolts.

Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi
During Muhammad ibn Tughlaq’s reign, the Diwan-i-
Amir-Kohi, an agricultural service named after Amir, was

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 57
 established to improve agricultural practices and productivity
in the fertile Doab region between the Ganges and Yamuna
rivers. This department aimed to assist farmers in the Doab
♦ Agricultural province by enhancing agricultural output and efficiency.
initiative The Doab region, known for its fertility between the Ganges
and Yamuna rivers, was vital for agriculture during that
era. The Diwan-i-Amir Kohi was a separate entity that was
primarily focused on agricultural matters. Its objective was
to elevate the economic status of local farmers by enhancing
productivity.
Department heads allocated areas designated for
development within the Doab. They provided financial aid,
encouraged better crop yields, educated farmers on modern
practices, and promoted cash crops like sugarcane, which was
in great demand in the market at that time. The government
♦ Downfall of offered interest-free loans to farmers, repayable after crop
Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi production. The establishment of the Diwan-i-Kohi was a
crucial step in enhancing agricultural sector and raising the
overall productivity of the land. However, the department
was finally brought down by issues such as dishonesty and
bad management, which led to its downfall.

2.1.3 Provincial Administration of Medieval India

[Link] Provincial Administration and Iqta System
A number of methods were used to manage administrative
tasks in locations outside of the core political region. It was
dependent on the level of control that the central government
had over various areas. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the
Sultanate’s realm flourished under the influence of continued
expansion and growing stability. Some of the newly captured
areas came under the direct rule of the Sultanate. In contrast,
others maintained some degree of independence. As a direct
consequence of this, the Sultan utilised a variety of tactics
to preserve his control in each of these regions. The day-to-
day management of things was left up to the people of the
♦ Sultanate Sultanate, even though the Centre did station a few officials
administration
in parts of the Sultanate to assert authority symbolically. The
Centre’s primary motivation for looking into these areas was
financial, such as the possibility of profiting from them. The
Governors were in charge of both the regions and the general
management of the territory they were responsible for. This
included making certain that taxes were paid, preserving law
and order, and bringing disorderly people under control.
The Sultan appointed him to serve as an ambassador in his
area. As a result of the authorities being moved often and

58 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 their lack of familiarity with the places, they usually require
aid from the local officials to carry out their responsibilities.
Without the support of these officials, obtaining funds would
have been challenging.
As a direct consequence of this, the governor and the power
brokers in the local community worked closely together.
This alliance eventually led to the governor’s assertion of
♦ Governor’s
increased power, often challenging the Sultan’s authority and
authority causing difficulties for the Sultan at times. In order to make
the administration of the government more manageable, the
lands were subdivided into Shiqs in the 14th century. The
Shiqdar was in charge of watching over the Shiqs. During the
time of the Afghans, the Shiqs were succeeded by the Sarkar.
However, the Shiqdar was not the sole administrative
figure; alongside them, the Faujdar also held a significant
role. Although their specific functions may have seemed
to overlap at times, the Shiqdar assisted the governor in the
upkeep of law and order as well as in the resolution of military
♦ Provincial conflicts. Additionally, he ensured the smooth functioning of
officials
the more decentralised administrative units. The Faujdar was
responsible for carrying out the same tasks as the Shiqdar. The
Kotwals supervised the Faujdar during this period. Moreover,
other important provincial officials included Barids, a spy and
reporter, and Sahib-i-Diwan, who recorded how much money
the province earned and spent. The Barids and Sahib-i-Diwan
collaborated closely in their respective roles.

[Link] Iqta System

The Iqta was a form of recognition given to individuals in
the early Islamic world in recognition of their contributions
to the state. Under the authority of the Caliphate, officers
in both the civil and military sectors were paid with it.
Following the establishment of the Sultanate, the Iqta system
♦ Evolution of was put into place by the Sultans. In the beginning, territories
Iqta were delegated to army commanders and nobles so that they
could manage them and collect taxes. The individuals who
were granted these lands were referred to as Iqtadar or Muqti,
while the lands themselves were referred to as Iqta. In its
most basic form, this was a system for paying commanders
and having them maintain the army themselves. Rules and
regulations were progressively put into place to provide
structure for the entire system. During the Sultanate period,
it grew into the principal administrative instrument used by
the government. By using this strategy, the Sultans were also
able to collect surplus goods across the empire.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 59
 Walis, also known as Muqtis, were the leaders of military
and administrative tracts known as Iqta. The earliest mention
of Walis or Muqtis is from the 14th century. The circumstances
dictated how their particular powers manifested themselves.
Following the established procedures, the Muqti was granted
complete authority over the administration of the Iqta, which
included the duty of ensuring the continued existence of
♦ Responsibilities an army. It was the responsibility of the Muqti to provide
of Muqti the Sultan with the help of his troops whenever the Sultan
needed assistance. It was anticipated of him that he would
be able to sustain the army while also meeting his financial
obligations with the funds that were gathered. After the
Muqti had paid for his expenses as well as the expenses of the
army, he was supposed to remit the remaining balance (also
known as the Fawazil) of the money to the centre, beginning
with Balban. This indicates that the central revenue agency
estimated the anticipated income of the Iqta, in addition to
the expenditures necessary to sustain the army and fund the
personal costs of the Muqti.
During the reign of Alauddhin Khalji, this method became
a far more stringent one. The Muqti’s administration was
subject to a greater degree of oversight as a direct result of
the establishment of central authority. The Khwaja, who was
most likely the same person as the Sahib-i-Diwan, was given
the responsibility of recording the revenues of the Iqtas. A
♦ Iqta and state Barid, also known as an intelligence officer, was given the
control responsibility of keeping the Sultan up to date. During
Muhmmad-bin-Tughlaq’s reign, several governors were
selected, and as a condition of their appointment, they were
compelled to pay a price to the state that had been specified
in advance. Under the rule of Feroz Shah Tughlaq, Iqtas were
made inheritable, which reduced the state’s ability to exert
control over those individuals.

[Link] Jagirdari System

The Mughals maintained a system where nobles received
financial resources from their provinces as a reward for their
services to the empire, known as Jagirs. The individuals who
owned them were called Jagirdars. The Jagirdari system was
an essential component of the Mansabdari system that was
established by Akbar and continued to evolve throughout
the reigns of his successors after his death. During Akbar’s
reign, the territories were divided into the Khalisa and the
Jagir. The revenue from the Jagir was sent to the Jagirdars
in the form of a non-cash stipend, while the Khalisa’s funds

60 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 went to the imperial treasury. The Zat and Sawar grades of
♦ Khalisa and the mansabdars were used in the calculation of their wage
Jagir entitlements. The salary may either be paid in cash, which
was known as naqdi during that period, or it might be
assigned as a Jagir, with the latter being the more favoured
way. If the payment was made through the assignment of
a Jagir, the office of the central Diwan would select parganas
whose Jama totalled up to the required amount for the
mansabdars’ salaries. This would be done to make room for
the distribution of the jagir. The assignee was responsible
for making up the difference with the central treasury if the
recorded Jama was higher than the salary claim. If it came
in lower than the required amount of salary, the difference
between the two was covered by money taken from the
general treasury.
Nevertheless, none of the positions were either permanent
or hereditary. At any given time, the emperor could
relocate either a portion of the Jagir or the entire Jagir to a
different region of the imperial empire. During the reign of
♦ Relocation of the Mughals, there was a lot of fluctuation in the ratio of
Jagirs Jagir to Khalisa. Khalisa accounted for a little more than five
percent of total revenue during the reign of Akbar; during
the reign of Jahangir, it was ten percent; and during the
reign of Shahjahan, it fluctuated from nine to fifteen percent.
During the latter half of Aurangzeb’s reign, there was a lot
of pressure put on the Khalisa since the number of people
making claims for Jagir increased along with the number of
Mansabdars.
There was also a transfer of Jagirdars from one Jagir to
another (but in certain cases, they were allowed to keep
their Jagir in one locality for a longer period). Because of the
transfer system, the Jagirdars were unable to develop roots in
the community. At the same time, it presented a challenge in
♦ Variety of that it discouraged Jagirdars from making sustained efforts to
jagirs enhance the quality of life in their districts. There was a wide
variety of Jagirs to choose from. Tankha Jagirs were granted
in place of a salary, Mashrut Jagirs were presented based
on certain requirements, and Watan Jagirs were assigned to
Zamindars or Rajas in their respective regions. Altamgha Jagirs
were titles of nobility that were granted to Muslims in their
native towns or places of origin. Tankha Jagirs were subject to
possible relocation once every three to four years.
Watan Jagirs could only be interited and could never
be sold. When a Zamindar was elevated to the rank of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 61
 mansabdar, he was given Tankha Jagir in addition to his watan
Jagir in another region if the compensation that came with
his new position was more than the income that he had been
earning from his watan Jagir. In line with the restrictions of
♦ Jagir the imperial government, the Jagirdars were only permitted
regulations to collect the legalised forms of revenue. The Jagirdars
were given their very own officials, such as Amil, to work
for them. The authority of the imperial government was
keeping a close check on the Jagirdars. The Diwan of the
Suba was established to prevent the Jagirdars from abusing
their power over the peasantry. To monitor compliance with
imperial laws among Jagirdars, Amil established a presence
in each suba. In the past, when the Jagirdars were having
difficulty collecting taxes, the Faujdar would step in to help.

[Link] Madad-i-Maash
Land grants from the state served as income sources for
diverse groups like government officials, artists, scholars,
and theologians. In particular, those who held positions of
religious authority, such as scholars and religious divines,
♦ State
heavily relied on these grants. In Mughal terminology, these
assistance to
religious figures gifts were referred to as Madad-i-Maash, while in Rajasthani,
they were called sasan. These religious leaders and academics
relied on the state for their livelihoods, and in exchange, they
provided the government with assistance in maintaining
social harmony and cohesion.

2.1.4 Means and Methods of Irrigation

In the long and illustrious history of irrigation in India’s
agricultural regions, various water sources, including rain,
wells, rivers, tanks, canals and lakes, have played significant
roles. Dams, lakes, and storage tanks were essential
components in the system that ensured crops received the
appropriate amount of water. The state, together with the
♦ Water resources assistance of local chiefs and religious authorities, facilitated
and irrigation the construction of numerous dams across rivers in southern
India. For example, the rulers of Vijaynagara built the
Madaga lake on the Tungbhadra river so that irrigation
could be more easily accomplished. For irrigation purposes,
medieval Rajasthan relied significantly on several lakes
and water storage sites, such as the Dhebar and Udaisagar
in Mewar, the Rajsamand and Jaisagar in Marwar, and the
Mansagar in Amber.
Nearly every area had access to wells, which were one
of the few ways to collect water that was safe to drink. The

62 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 extraction of water from its subsurface sources has been
artificially assisted in a variety of ways. Pulleys were installed
above the wells to accomplish this goal. The principle of
♦ Techniques levers was also utilised in another type of machine. A hefty
weight was attached to the end of a fork that was put on an
upright beam. This was done to counterbalance the weight of
the bucket once it had been filled. The complete equipment
was hung from a long rope.
When it came to moving large amounts of water, the
Persian wheel was at the cutting edge of technology. It
wasn’t until the period of the Sultanate that people in India
started making use of it. After coupling a gear system with a
string of pots, which was then secured to the rim of a wheel,
the device was ready for use. After that, the wheel was spun
with the help of several animals. The Delhi Sultans placed a
high premium on the construction of canal irrigation systems.
During his rule, from 1320 to 1325, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
created a series of artificial rivers to accomplish the objective
♦ Canal above. However, Firuz Shah Tughlaq was responsible for the
construction
construction of more canals than any other emperor before
him. In contemporary works, reference is typically made to
four of these rivers: from the Yamuna to Firuzabad, from
the Nandavi and Simur hills to Arasani, from Ghaggar to
the city of Hiransi Khera, and from the Sutlej to Ghaggar.
Additionally, the Sutlej was used to go from Ghaggar to the
city of Arasani. The Mughal rulers continued the practice
of canal construction initiated by the Delhi Sultans. For
example, during Shahjahan’s reign, the Nahr Faiz was built
to divert Yamuna water to irrigate a larger territory. This
was accomplished by the construction of a dam.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 63
Summarised Overview
The medieval period in India witnessed a focus on expanding agricultural
production by putting more land under cultivation. The state was consistently
seeking innovative approaches to expand the total acreage of land that it could
tax to generate more revenue. Techniques like ploughing, animal power, and crop
rotation were used to enhance agricultural output, especially during the Mughal
period. Food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables, and spices were cultivated
extensively. Indian spices like pepper, clove, cardamom, etc., were significant
commodities traded with Asia and Europe during the Mughal period.
The Sultanate and Mughal administrations managed provinces through
governors, Shiqdars, Faujdars, and other officials while using systems like the
iqta and jagirdari for revenue collection and governance. Various methods were
used for land revenue assessment and collection, including batai, kankut, and
zabt systems under rulers like Sher Shah and Akbar. The actualisation of land
income was impossible without the participation of these intermediaries like
zamindars, jagirdars, and other local leaders. However, peasants faced challenges
due to regressive land taxes, debts, famines, and epidemics, leading to frequent
uprisings and discontent, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb.
The era also saw advancements in irrigation techniques. Various water sources
and methods like dams, canals, wells, and Persian wheels were utilised for
irrigation across different regions. The Delhi Sultans have given importance to
the construction of canal irrigation systems.

Assignments
1. Analyse and explain the expansion of agricultural cultivation and its impact on
the economy and society during the medieval era in India.
2. Analyse the intricate land revenue assessment systems, including crop-sharing,
land measurement, and the roles of landed intermediaries in revenue collection.
3. Discuss the provincial administration structures, including the Iqta and Jagirdari
systems, and their significance in governance and revenue distribution during
the medieval period.
4. Assess the challenges faced by the peasantry, comprehend their socio-economic
conditions, and analyse factors leading to peasant discontent and uprisings.
5. Evaluate the means and methods of irrigation used during the medieval period
and their importance in agricultural practices and land productivity.

64 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Suggested Reading
1.
1. Chandra, Satish, Essays on Medieval Indian History, Oxford University
Press, 2004.
2. Habib, Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, Oxford University
Press, 2013.
3. Moosvi, Shireen, Peoples, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India, Oxford
University Press, India, 2007.
4. ______________, The Economy of the Mughal Empire, Oxford University
Press, 2015.

Reference
1. Banerjee, A. C., New History of Medieval India, S Chand and Company,
WNew Delhi, 1990.
2. Chitnis, K. N., Socio-Economic History of Medieval India, Atlantic
Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 1990.
3. Chitnis, K. N., Glimpses of Medieval Indian Ideas and Institutions,
R K Chitnis, Poona, 1981.
4. Habib, Irfan, and Raychaudhuri, T., (ed.), The Cambridge Economic
History of India, Cambridge University Press, London, 1982.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 65
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

66 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT Revenue Administration
2

Learning Outcomes
Upon the successful conclusion of this unit, the learners will be able to:
♦ get introduced to the revenue administration of Medieval India
♦ analyse the revenue reforms of Alauddin Khalji, Sher Shah Suri and
Akbar
♦ familiarise themselves with the Dahsala and Zabti systems under the
Akbar and Ijarah system in the eighteenth century

Background
The Persian chronicles provide only a limited amount of information on the
early medieval Indian economy. There are, on the other hand, a great number
of allusions in contemporary Sanskrit and other regional Indian languages
that provide light on the situation of agriculture and other related industries
throughout the state. The former systems of taxes continued in their entirety even
after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate. However, as the years passed and
the Sultanate’s influence increased, initiatives were launched to improve the tax
collection. Sher Shah is credited with instituting a tax system that required farmers
to pay predetermined rates of assessment as payment. One may trace the origins
of the Mughal tax system back to Akbar. Through a process of trial and error,
Akbar refined the taxing system. His method of taxing was founded not only on
the measurement and zoning of land but also on the creation of fixed revenue
rates. In this unit, let us focus on the revenue administration of Medieval India and
the reforms implemented by rulers such as Alauddin Khalji, Sher Shah, Akbar
and Ijarah system in the eighteenth century.

Keywords
Revenue administration, Dahsala system, Zabti System, Batai system, Nasaq system,
Ijarah system

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 67
 Discussion
2.2.1 Revenue Administration of Alauddin Khalji
A vast portion of northern India was subject to a unified
taxation system thanks to Alauddin Khalji, who was
responsible for its implementation. The levy might be paid
in either cash or in kind by the taxpayer. Alauddin issued
♦ Unified a proclamation that the peasantry would be subject to
taxation system three taxes: the kharaj, which was a tax on agriculture; the
charai, which was a tax on animals; and the gharai (tax on
houses). The taxing system established by Alauddin is likely
the one institution left over from his rule that has survived
the longest. The dominant social group came to capture the
majority of the surplus produced by the peasantry through
the primary mechanism of land revenue.
Alauddin Khalji was not satisfied with simply managing
markets and maintaining price control. He intended to
increase the state’s available financial resources through
his efforts. As a result, he shifted his focus to the changes
♦ Laws and that would be made to the income. Not only did he want
regulations to improve the effectiveness of the administration of the
income, but he also wanted to bring about a fundamental
shift to maximise the amount of money he brought in from the
revenue. Alauddin altered the income laws and regulations
of the Delhi Sultanate to accomplish the goals mentioned
above by introducing many innovative new policies and
procedures.
The first step that Alauddin took was to seize property that
was mostly in the possession of Muslim grantees and religious
figures. Therefore, all of the land that was part of the empire
was turned into khalisa land, which means that it was directly
under the administration of the state. Resumption of land
that was held as Inam (gift), milk (property rights provided
♦ Strict laws were by the state), Idrarat (pensions), and Waqf (endowments). The
implemented only thing that was given as a concession to certain people
was permission to enjoy the benefits of the land that they had
originally owned. The second step that Alauddin took was to
take away all of the advantages that the Hindu muqaddams,
Khuts, and Chaudharis had been using for many years. They
were forced to pay the land revenue taxes together with the
home taxes and the grazing taxes, just like everyone else.
The land revenue in the centre areas of the empire was
determined based on measurement, and the share of the

68 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 total output that was allocated to the government was
always set at fifty per cent. In the past, payments for land
revenue might be made in either cash or in kind. However,
when restrictions concerning the market were implemented,
Alauddin favoured the payment of land income in kind. In
addition to that, the housing and grazing taxes had to be
♦ Jizya and paid by the peasants. In addition to that, the jizya tax had
grazing tax to be paid by the Hindus. According to Barani, the grazing
tax was collected from every head of cattle that entered the
village commons. However, according to Firishta, a person
who had ten goats, two cows, two buffalo, two oxen, and
two pairs of oxen was free from paying the grazing tax. The
grazing tax had to be paid by anybody who had more than
the required minimum number of animals.

2.2.2 Administration and Land Reforms of Sher Shah

Sher Shah’s ministers were nothing more than his
creations; they followed Sher Shah’s directives and worked
under his direct supervision as they went about their daily
administrative tasks. There were departments whose
administrative chiefs possessed the title of minister in addition
to their responsibilities. The following is a list of them:
Diwan-i-Wizarat (finance), Diwan-i-Arz (army), Diwan-
i-Risalat or Diwan-i-Muhtasib (foreign affairs), Diwan-
♦ Diwan-i- i-Insha (palace), Diwan-i-Qaza (Justice), Diwan-i-Barid
Wizarat
(intelligence division) and Diwan-i-Saman (management of
the royal household). Out of these departments, Diwan-i-
Wizarat had the primary responsibility to oversee the state’s
finances and income. The Wazir, the Minister of Finance,
was in charge of the office and this department. In principle,
he was able to exercise some level of general control over
the activities of the other ministers. Sher Shah was himself
a financial and land-revenue professional with extensive
experience. He took a close interest in the department’s day-
to-day operations.
The primary sources of money for the state included land
revenue, unclaimed property, trade, mint, salt tax, Khams,
and jizya, as well as gifts from subordinate kings, governors,
nobles, and traders, amongst other people. The costs
associated with maintaining the army, paying the salaries
of civilian officials, and funding the expenses of the royal
household and the Sultan were the primary components of
the total expenditures. Abwabs were the name given to the
local taxes, which were primarily levied on the production
and consumption of various trades and professions, in

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 69
 addition to transportation costs. Despite this, money from
land remained the state’s principal source of income for
♦ Source of state
income the longest time. In his childhood, Sher Shah served as
the manager of the Jagir that belonged to his father. This
experience provided him with a first-hand understanding
of the challenges associated with land revenue as well as the
key to the state’s prosperity and stability.
According to Abul Fazl, Sher Shah was the one who first
implemented Alauddin Khalji’s system of land revenue.
This perspective held by Abul Fazl on Sher Shah, on the
other hand, appears to be inaccurate. Sher Shah did not
unquestioningly adhere to Alauddin’s method of collecting
♦ Zabt system
taxes. He chose to trust his instincts and acted upon what
under Sher Shah he believed was the correct course of action. He used the
Zabt system of measurement, in which the productivity
of the land was analysed. The samples were taken from
three distinct kinds of land to determine the overall level
of productivity of the land: good, middling and bad. The
average yield was then calculated, and its one-third was the
share of the state. The amount of money that each harvest
was required to bring in every bigha was referred to as the
“Rai of Sher Shah.”
Sher Shah believed that the welfare of the peasants was
the key to ensuring the welfare of the state, and he felt this to
be the case. As a result, he devoted his particular attention
to the management of the revenue, and he successfully
implemented several new methods to enhance its quality.
His management of the country’s taxes is often regarded as
one of the finest examples of its kind from the medieval ages.
The following is a list of its fundamental characteristics:
1. Elimination of the intermediaries, zamindars, agents
or contractors for collecting the land revenue was
the most significant contribution to the efficiency of
its land revenue system by Sher Shah. The Ryotwari
♦ Features of system, also known as the system of cultivators or
land revenue ryots, was implemented in the majority of the regions
management in which the state maintained direct ties with the
peasants to assess and collect land tax. However, due
to the ongoing use of the Jagirdari system in Malwa,
Multan, and Rajasthan, the new system was unable
to be implemented in those regions.

2. Based on their ability to produce crops, all of the land

that could be farmed was ranked as either excellent,
moderate, or poor. A standardised method was

70 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 used to measure the land, and the quality of the land
owned by each cultivator was evaluated and ranked
accordingly. After determining the typical value of
the harvest in each instance, Qanungo argued that the
peasants needed to contribute equal to one-fourth of
the typical value. On the other hand, the vast majority
of historians, including P. Saran and R.P. Tripathi, the
cultivators were required to hand up a third of their
harvest to the state.

3. The state favoured collecting money in the form of

cash over any other medium. Despite this, the farmers
were provided with the option to pay some or all of
their earnings in kind. Cash was the sole acceptable
method of payment for the peasants’ share of the
earnings from the sale of perishable goods.

4. The facility for the peasants to pay their revenue

in two instalments every year, according to the
agricultural seasons, was made available to them by
the government.

5. The state provided the peasants with qabuliyats

(documents of agreement) and pattas (title deeds) so
that they may legally own their land. Patta provided
details on the various types of land possessed by the
farmer as well as the rates of land income payable by
the cultivator on the various types of crops. Through
Qabuliyat, the farmer committed the state to pay a
certain amount of money from the land.

6. Peasants were required to pay two additional taxes,

which were referred to as the jaribana (surveyor’s
fee) at the rate of 2.5 per cent and the muhasilana (tax
fee) collector’s at the rate of 5 per cent of the land
revenue to the state. Both of these taxes were paid as a
percentage of the total land revenue.

7. In addition to these obligations, the peasants were

required to hand up 2.5 per cent of their harvest in
the form of in-kind payments. These funds were to be
restored to them in the event of any natural disaster.
8. Sher Shah’s standing instructions to the tax collecting
officials were that they should show mercy to the
cultivators at the time of measurement but collect the
money with the utmost strictness.
9. During the conflict, every precaution was taken to preserve
the harvest from being destroyed, and if it was destroyed,
the peasants were reimbursed by the state for their losses.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 71
 Sher Shah made several attempts to improve the
management of the land revenue, but his efforts were
ultimately unsuccessful. Under this arrangement, the farmers
♦ Unsuccessful who owned property of average or poor quality had to pay a
attempt higher price than those who owned land of high quality since
the former group was required to do so. The taxation system
that required the peasants to pay one third of their harvest as
revenue, including the jaribana, the muhasilana, and additional
tax for unexpected events was unquestionably demanding
for the peasants.
Because of the variations in cost from region to region,
it’s likely that the peasants had trouble making their cash
payments for the earnings they received. The yearly settlement
of the tax presented difficulties for the peasants as well as for
the authorities of the state. The system was not implemented
in the lands owned by Jagirdars; as a result, the peasants who
♦ Protection of lived in such areas were unable to get any benefits from using
peasant interests it. Sher Shah was unsuccessful in his efforts to clean up the
land tax department’s unethical practices. Nevertheless, the
policies that Sher Shah put into place had, for the most part,
been successful in improving the peasants’ lot and raising the
income of the State. As a result, the method of collecting taxes
that Sher Shah used has been considered to be superior to the
methods utilised by the various other medieval Indian rulers.
In comparison to other rulers, he did not levy a particularly
high tax burden on the peasants of his domain. He exacted
punishment on anyone who caused the peasants any kind
of problem, and he even took a personal interest in ensuring
that the peasants’ interests were protected. As a result, the
Sher Shah administration of the tax system has garnered
commendation from all historians.

2.2.3 Revenue Administration Under Akbar

[Link] Evolution of Akbar’s Revenue Policy
Land revenue was the Mughal government’s primary
source of revenue, despite the fact that it also possessed other
♦ Foundation for sources of income like as customs, mint, inheritance, pillage,
Akbar’s taxation tribute, and monopolies, among other things. Sher Shah was
system the first ruler of Hindustan to implement extensive revenue
reforms, which were advantageous to the state as well as
to the people. These changes benefitted both parties. Sher
Shah’s tenets served as the foundation for Akbar’s taxation
system, and Akbar incorporated several novel ideas into the
framework to make it more effective.

72 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 The Ain-i-Akbari written by Abul Fazl provides a
comprehensive account of Akbar’s tax management system.
When Akbar became emperor, he immediately implemented
Sher Shah’s method, which involved measuring the extent
of the cultivated land and developing a centralised plan. It
♦ Adoption established a crop-wise obligation for the peasant depending
of Sher Shah’s on the amount of produce that might be harvested from the
method land. A comprehensive price schedule was constructed using
this plan as the basis. Akbar discovered that this method of
establishing a central schedule had certain restrictions attached
to it. One of the consequences was that there was a delay, and
another was that it made life difficult for the farmer. Because
the prices specified and typically prevailing in the imperial
court were often higher than those in the countryside, the
farmer ended up parting with more produce than he had
originally intended. When it came to the management of
taxes, Akbar tried out numerous different approaches.
It was important for him to have a direct line of
communication open with the cultivator. Because of logistical
challenges, such as the variety of crops grown and the diversity
of the land, it was challenging to implement a standard
♦ First system across the empire. Akbar made certain changes to
experiment Sher Shah’s method. In the year 1560, Akbar conducted the
first experiment by attempting to improve tax management
by assigning Khwaja Abdul Majid Khan to the position of
wazir. He made the decision to collect the income in cash and
set the amount at a greater level, but the farmers were unable
to pay the increased amount and were thus unsatisfied.
Itimad Khan was given the position of diwan in charge of
Khalisa lands by Akbar in the year 1563. He divided the region
belonging to the Khalisa from the land of the Jagir. He then
split the Khalisa territories into income divisions, with each
division resulting in an annual revenue of one crore rupees.
The name “krori” eventually evolved to be given to the officer
♦ Revenue in charge of each section. In the year 1564, Muzaffar Khan was
reforms - Krori given the position of diwan-i-kul. He was instrumental in the
system
introduction of revenue changes alongside Raja Toder Mal. It
was requested that Qanungos, located in a variety of regions,
provide revenue figures for their particular regions to the
wizarat, which would then determine revenue rates based on
the facts that were provided to it. In the year 1569, he was
the one who initiated the yearly tax. Because the qanungo was
already familiar with the environment, he was given the task
of providing a report on the real produce, local pricing, sales,
and the state of the crop. The yearly evaluation was flawed in

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 73
 that it made life difficult for both the peasant and the state,
and this was the assessment’s flaw.

[Link] Raja Toder Mal’s Bondobast

Following Akbar’s conquest of Gujarat (1573), Raja Toder
Mal was selected by Akbar to oversee the implementation
of tax reforms in the newly acquired province. Toder Mal
carried out routine land surveys, and assessments were
performed with consideration given to both the total area
and the quality of the land. The Jagirs were included in the
♦ Todar Mal as Crown’s existing estates. One hundred eighty-two Parganas
Diwan were each given control over a portion of the empire in its
entirety at that time. The harvest brought in one crore dam
from each paragana (equivalent to two and a half lakh rupees
a year). Kroris was the name given to the police officers
who were put in charge of collecting this income. Akbar
selected Toder Mal to serve as the diwan and Khwaja Shah
Mansur to serve as his deputy so that the tax reforms could
be put into action. Toder Mal is credited with establishing
the foundation for the management of land income for the
empire.
The following are the three primary actions that Toder Mal
took:
i. Measurement of land that was used in the
process of conducting a systematic survey of land.
In the past, the land was measured using a rope
made of hemp, which would either shrink or expand
depending on the quantity of moisture that was
present in the air. The hemp rope was substituted
with either jarib or bamboo that were held together
by iron rings and maintained their original length.
ii. Following the completion of the measurement,
the land was categorised. This action was taken to
maintain the cultivation process. The land was
divided into these four categories as a result: (i) Polaj,
which was land that was always farmed, was never
allowed to lie fallow and produced income every year.
(ii) Parauti refers to land that has been abandoned for
a year or two to enable it to regain its vitality and
productivity. (iii) Chachar: It is the land that has been
abandoned and left unused for a period of three to four
years. (iv) Banjar: It is a term that refers to land that has
been uncultivated for more than five years. The terri-
tories of the polaj and the parauti were further divided
into three categories: excellent, moderate, and terrible.

74 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Following the calculation of the average of the three,
the evaluation was completed. It was recommended
that banjar land be used for agricultural purposes.
iii. Measuring and evaluating were only done in the
areas that were under cultivation. The state’s share
was equal to one-third of the average yield, although
this number may be higher or lower depending on
the method of assessment and the productivity of the
land. There were varying prices for the various types
of crops. Because Toder Mal’s bandobast system was in
place, both the government and the farmer were re-
lieved of a great deal of uncertainty. The amount that
the farmer was going to pay was clear to him. The
farmer was given a receipt when the payment was
♦ Todar Mal’s made. A record was maintained of all of the holdings,
effort obligations, and collections that were made. Each
farmer was provided with a patta, which is similar to
a title document, and forced to sign a qabuliyat, which
is another term for an agreement. This paperwork
included the cultivator’s land plot specifications, in-
cluding the acreage of each plot as well as the income
that the cultivator was required to pay for each plot.
The record of the collected was sent to the treasurer
by the collector. The books of accounts were written
in Persian.

[Link] Systems of Revenue Collection

Dahsala System
When Toder Mal was appointed to the position of Diwan-
i-Ashraf, (Minister in charge of Agricultural Department),
the mechanism for collecting revenues was completely
restructured. The ever-expanding size of the empire made
♦ Restructur- the necessary changes to the tax system unavoidable. The
ing of revenue assessment used to be fixed each year depending on the
collection
yield and price, which resulted in the state demand being
varied from one year to the next. However, this practice
was discontinued at some point. To prevent the hassle
and annoyance brought on by the yearly settlement, Toder
Mal established a set of principles. As a result of this, a
compromise known as the Dahsala system was implemented
for 10 years. This method allowed for the calculation of the
average yield of a variety of crops as well as the average
prices that have been in effect over the previous ten years.
The state’s portion of the overall produce was equal to one-
third of the whole amount.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 75
 It was requested of the cultivators that they pay the
revenue in cash. To accomplish this goal, the prices of each
cereal were standardised throughout all regions since the
regional pricing varied. A.L. Srivastava asserts that Akbar
partitioned his whole kingdom into several dasturs. It was
♦ Functioning expected that the pricing for all types of crops would be
of the Dahsala the same across the entirety of the dastur’s areas. For each
system dastur, an individual calculation was made to determine the
average price that was paid during the past 10 years for each
kind of crop. The price of the crop during the assessment
year was determined to be equal to the crop’s average price.
There were multiple pricing schedules for each type of crop,
and these price schedules varied from dastur to dastur. There
were also separate price schedules. The provinces of Bihar,
Allahabad, Malwa, Awadh, Agra, Delhi, and Lahore, as
well as a portion of Multan, were among the first to use the
Dahsala system.
According to the Dahsala system, the peasants were
required to pay a fixed revenue for 10 years. If they were
able to create more as a result of their efforts, then they were
free to reap the benefits of doing so. In addition, all Jagirdari
land was managed by state authorities, who had complete
authority over it. Since there were no intermediaries such
♦ Benefit to both as Jagirdars or landlords, the peasants were not subject to
the State and the exploitation. As a result, the method of collecting taxes that
peasants Akbar implemented was advantageous not only to the state
but also to the peasants. It caused a rise in output, which
in turn contributed to the expansion of both industry and
commerce. Even though Akbar was always engaged in
warfare for this reason, his treasury continued to be well-
stocked throughout his reign. Vincent Smith argued that
Akbar’s method of collecting taxes was a commendable one.

Zabti System
The Zabti system was another method of collecting money
from land, during the Mughal period, with its inception
credited to Sher Shah. Under the rule of Akbar, this system
underwent multiple revisions before ultimately settling
into its final [Link] this system, when the time came
to plant crops, a group of officials went on a trip across the
towns and communities to determine the precise amount of
arable land that was being used for farming to compile the
crop statement. After determining the total area of each crop
grown on each holding, the official in charge of collecting
taxes, Bitikchi, then used the specified rates to arrive at the

76 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 amount of money that the farmer owed. In the subahs of
Bihar, Allahabad, Multan, Awadh, Agra, Malwa, Delhi, and
Lahore, as well as in certain sections of Gujarat and Ajmer,
the Zabti system was the dominant social structure.

Ghallabakshi or Batai System

This was perhaps the oldest and most widely used method
of obtaining financial contributions. The state and the farmer
each received a certain share of the harvest, which was then
split between them according to the predetermined ratio.
♦ Fixation of land The crop was separated into its parts either while it was still
revenue standing in the field after it had been harvested, or after it
had been threshed. This system was also referred to as the
Batai or Ghallabakshi system at one point in time. This system
continued to be used in Qandahar, Kashmir, and some
regions of Sindh and Multan.

Nasaq System
In addition, there existed a system known as nasaq, which
was quite common at the time. After conducting a thorough
examination of a field, competent appraisers derived an
approximate estimate to represent the yield of the field. The
state’s allotment was decided to be equal to one-third of the
total expected harvest. At one point, a weighted average
of the land revenue that the farmer had paid out over the
♦ Crop-sharing previous 10 years for all of his land was determined. It is
system believed that Aurangzeb supported the nasaq system. When
Aurangzeb was in power, the demand for state rose to the
level where it consumed half of the whole output. In the
states of Bengal, Gujarat, and Kathiawar, the nasaq method
of taxation was a most common practice.

[Link] Revenue Officials

Ryotwari was the mechanism that Akbar used to collect
taxes. The real landholders who were responsible for
cultivating the land were made accountable for the annual
payment of the set revenue. Patwaris and Muqaddams were
♦ Aurangazeb
not officers of the state, yet the state acknowledged the
favoured the
services they provided, assessed and collected tax with
Nasaq system
their assistance, and kept records with their assistance. In
exchange, a portion of the earnings was distributed to them.
The Amil was in charge of collecting the taxes. He was
helped in his endeavours by the Qanungo, the Bitikchi, and
the Potahdar. In the final years of Akbar’s reign, Qanungos
were elevated to the status of state officials and given wages
by the government of Akbar’s empire. In charge of Amils

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 77
 were Amalgujars, who reported to regional diwans, who, in
turn, were responsible to the central Diwan (Wazir). Akbar
had a keen interest in the development and expansion of
agricultural practices during his reign. He gave amil the
♦ Paternal
attitude towards instruction to behave paternally toward the peasants. It was
the peasants requested of him that, in times of need, he lend money to the
peasants in the form of loans so that they might buy things
like seeds, tools, animals, etc., and that he collect the money
from them in manageable instalments. During the time of
Akbar’s rule, the peasants were not subjected to excessively
high levels of taxation. From the peasants, Akbar demanded
and received the customary one-third share of the harvest as
payment for the land.

[Link] Other Sources of Revenue

Other taxes and levies, known as Abwabs, were imposed
on the peasants in addition to the usual revenue from the
land to boost the amount of money the state brought in.
These taxes included duties on the sale of produce, fees on
the sale of immovable property, perquisites taken by the
officers for their own sake and fees or commissions taken
♦ Abwabs and
for the state, license-tax for carrying on certain trades, forced
Jizya
subscriptions, and imposts on the Hindus, such as a tax on
bathing in the Ganges and for carrying the bones of the
deceased Hindus for immersion in the Ganges. Aurangzeb
got rid of a lot of the Abwabs, but he also created some new
ones so that the state could make more money. Jizya, the poll
tax that was required to be paid by non-Muslims and had
been eliminated by Akbar in the past, was reinstated by this
ruler.

[Link] The Zamindars

During the time of Mughal rule, the Zamindars were
also responsible for an important part of the management
of income. They were in charge of upholding the law and
preserving order in their respective regions. They were not
members of the government in the same capacity as the
♦ Zamindari
rights amalguzars. In the community, the Zamindars served as a
form of minor landholding. A good number of them were
the offspring of long-established governing families who
nonetheless maintained possession of their family territory.
Others had positions of authority, such as Rajput princes.
The Zamindars were responsible for the cultivation of the
lands that they held. They also inherited the right to collect
land revenue from many villages, which was a significant
source of income for them. The Zamindars did not personally

78 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 possess every piece of land that was included in his Zamindari.
If the tenant farmer paid his land rent, he was protected
from eviction and could continue cultivating the property.
In Bengal, the revenue that was paid to the state by each
Zamindar was predetermined. His income was determined
by what was available after deducting what he owed the
government. The amount of money that the peasant was
required to pay to the state was predetermined in some areas.
As a result, the Zamindar instituted a distinct tax to enrich
♦ Responsibilities himself. Because of the Zamindars’ treatment of the peasants,
the peasants came to be known as the “exploited classes.”
The Zamindars were responsible for the upkeep of their
armies. They made their homes in strongholds known as
garhis or forts, which were indicators of their social standing.
As long as they maintained a consistent flow of income
into the imperial treasury, they were given the autonomy
to run their affairs as they saw fit. The Zamindars wielded
significant authority and influence in their communities,
and the administration of the imperial state was unable to
ignore them.

[Link] The Jagirdars

When Akbar was in power, the government officials,
particularly the mansabdars, received their salaries in cash. On
the other hand, Akbar’s successors made certain adjustments
♦ Allocation of to this system. The Mughal officials who worked in the
jagir imperial service were compensated not in cash but rather
with revenue-generating land that was personally allotted to
them. The position of the person in charge of the assignment
was known as the Jagirdar. The mansabdar’s standing and
rank determined whether or not he was given a Jagir. He
supported himself financially thanks to his Jagir.
The evaluation of the assignments was carried out by the
Wizarat. Because of their positions as state officials, Jagirdars
were subject to being moved about every few years. This was
♦ Transformation done to prevent them from cultivating any vested interests
and crisis in a certain area. These Jagirdars did not make many efforts
to improve the quality of life for the people who lived on
their Jagir. The imperial authority did not exercise any kind
of consistent control over the Jagir at any point in time. The
Jagirdari system turned into a hereditary structure during
the authority of the later Mughals. One of the causes of the
fall of the Mughal Empire was a crisis that occurred inside
the Jagirdari system.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 79
 2.2.4 Decline of Agriculture and Revenue
During the reign of Jahangir, both revenue and agricultural
production suffered from a slow but steady decrease.
The Jagirdars were given unrestricted authority over the
management of their respective estates. The peasants were
typically subjected to oppression at the hands of these
Jagirdars. The amount of money made from khalisa lands
likewise gradually decreased. Shahjahan endeavoured to
improve the lot of his peasants during his reign. He made
an effort to increase the amount of land that was cultivated.
The system of providing mansabdars with jagirs rather than
♦ Gradual
a monetary payment was maintained. The agricultural
decline
problem got much more severe during the reign of
Aurangzeb. The state was unable to evict peasants thus they
needed to maintain working in agriculture. The peasants
were subjected to tyranny at the hands of the officers and
Jagirdars. During the rule of the later Mughals, revenue
management began to deteriorate, which had an effect on
tax collection and contributed to the worsening status of the
imperial finances.

2.2.5 Revenue Administration during 18th Century

[Link] Later Mughals
The crisis that befell the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth
century was the precipitating factor that ultimately resulted
in the empire’s disintegration. As the influence of the
Mughal Empire declined, the governors of the provinces,
subedars, and the large Zamindars all grew more influential
and asserted their autonomy. The regional states that existed
during this time may be classified into the following three
categories:
1. Some of the states’ founding families were prominent
♦ First Category Mughal lords who held high mansabs at the time of
their states’ establishment. Even though they achieved
♦ Awadh, Bengal, independence, they never severed their links with the
and Hyderabad Mughal Empire. Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad are
three of the most significant states that fall within this
group.

Sa’adat Khan is credited with establishing the state of Awadh.

Murshid Quli Khan is credited with establishing the state of
Bengal, whereas Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah established the
♦ Establishment state of Hyderabad. These three individuals were not only
of regional states influential members of the Mughal nobility but also served
as governors of their respective regions. There was a large-
scale movement of troops and bureaucrats from Delhi to
these new states when the Mughal Empire began to decline.

80 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 These new states presented several opportunities for their
new residents.

In these states, the former Zamindars were demoted to

a different post. Sa’adat Khan, for instance, was able to
take control of some Rajput Zamindaris in addition to the
agriculturally productive territories of the Afghans in
Rohilkhand. Similarly, Murshid Quli Khan sent all Mughal
Jagirdars to Orissa and commanded a significant recalculation
♦ Zamindar of Bengal’s income to lessen the authority of the Mughals in
demotion Bengal. All Zamindars were required to pay their revenue
in cash, and the collection process was very stringent. As a
direct consequence of this, many zamindars were forced to
get loans from various bankers and moneylenders. Those
who were not able to make the payments were ordered to
sell their land to Zamindars with more resources.

There was also an increase in the number of bankers and

moneylenders known as Mahajan in these states during this
period. When it came to loans, both the state and the landed
elite were dependent on them. These bankers, in turn, rose
to positions of power and had an impact on the government.
♦ Role of bankers
The state sold the privilege to collect taxes by auction to
whoever placed the highest offer, which was mostly bankers
and Mahajan. In return, the lenders committed to the state
that they would pay a certain amount of money. As a result,
the state was guaranteed a consistent revenue. The people
who purchased the right to collect taxes were referred to
as ijaradars under this system, which was referred to as the
ijaradari system. The Mughal state has never supported this
method of government. There was a possibility that those
who collected the tax would take advantage of the peasants
by collecting far more than the predetermined amount. As a
result, they would send less money to the state, which would
result in a decrease in the amount of money the state received.

2. The second group of regional states in the eighteenth

century was comprised of those states that had
previously been granted a significant amount of
♦ Second
freedom as Watan Jagirs while they were under Mughal
Category
authority. These were the states that belonged to the
Rajput dynasty.
3. The states in the region that had developed as a result
of uprisings against the Mughal power constituted
the third group of regional states. They included the
♦ Third Category Sikhs, the Marathas, and the Jats. As an illustration,
the Sikh uprising against the Mughals resulted in the
establishment of a state in Punjab.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 81
 [Link] Ijarah System
The Ijarah method involved awarding a task in exchange
for a sum of money to the person who submitted the
highest bid. During the time of the Mughal emperors, it had
widespread popularity. Jahadar Shah, who reigned from
1712 to 1713, is credited for instituting the Ijarah system,
♦ Introduction of
which was a revenue farming system at the time. During the
the Ijarah system
18th century, this method of collecting and assessing taxes
and other forms of income gained widespread popularity.
When local farmers lacked the resources necessary to grow
their property properly, this same mechanism allowed them
to lease it to other parties instead of cultivating it themselves.
Officials of the revenue department and their families were
restricted from using the system.

Summarised Overview

Land taxes contributed much more than any other source of revenue to the
medieval state’s coffers. A unified taxation system characterised the revenue
administration of Alauddin Khalji. Alauddin Khalji’s reforms aimed at maximising
state revenue, altering income laws, and implementing strict measures. On
the other hand, Sher Shah implemented the Zabt system for land revenue. He
prioritised peasant welfare, eliminated intermediaries, and introduced the
Ryotwari system in certain regions.
Akbar refined the measurement-based taxation system and introduced
innovative measures like the Dahsala system. Toder Mal, appointed as the diwan,
implemented systematic land surveys, categorised land, and introduced the
concept of ‘kroris’ for revenue collection. Additionally, the Ghallabaksha or Batai
system and the Nasaq system represented alternative methods of revenue collection
involving crop-sharing and approximate yield estimations, respectively.
The revenue officials were instrumental in maintaining records and facilitating
tax collection. Zamindars inherited rights to collect land revenue from villages.
The Jagirdari system, initially non-hereditary, later transformed into a hereditary
structure. The decline in agriculture and revenue during Jahangir’s reign persisted
through Shahjahan and worsened under Aurangzeb. The unrestricted authority of
Jagirdars and oppressed peasants led to agricultural problems. The later Mughals
witnessed a deterioration in revenue management, affecting tax collection and
overall imperial finances, which contributed to the gradual decline of the Mughal
Empire. The Ijarah system, or revenue farming, gained popularity during the
18th century.

82 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Assignments
1. Describe the significant reforms introduced by Alauddin Khalji in the
taxation system during his reign.
2. Analyse the revenue reforms implemented by Sher Shah Suri.
3. Discuss the revenue reforms introduced during Akbar’s reign.
4. Examine the role of Raja Toder Mal in Akbar’s revenue
administration. What were the key actions taken by Toder Mal
to improve land revenue collection?
5. Discuss the features of Dahsala, Zabti, Batai and Nasaq Systems of
Medieval India.
6. Explain the Ijarah system during the eighteenth century.
7. Describe the revenue administrative structure of the medieval period.

Suggested Reading
1. Chandra, Satish, Essays on Medieval Indian History, Oxford University
Press, 2004.
2. Farooqui, Salma Ahmed, . A Comprehensive History of Medieval India:
Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, Pearson India Education
Services, 2011.
3. Habib, Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, Oxford University
Press, 2013.
4. Malik, Z., Agrarian System in Medieval India, Rawat Publications, New
Delhi, 2001.
5. Mohammed, J., Revenue Free Land Grants in Mughal India, Manohar
Publishers and Distributors, 2002.
6. Moosvi, Shireen, Peoples, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India, Oxford
University Press, 2007.
7. Moreland, W. H., From Akbar to Aurangzeb: Study in Economic History,
London, 1923.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 83
Reference
1. Chandra, S., Essays in Medieval Indian Economic History, Primus
Books, 2015.
2. Grover, B.R., Land and Taxation System During the Mughal Age,
Low Price Publications, 2009.
3. Habib, Irfan, The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556-1707, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2014.
4. Moosvi, Shireen, The Economy of the Mughal Empire, Oxford University
Press, 2015.

Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions

Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

84 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 85
 UNIT Social Stratification
3
Learning Outcomes
Upon the satisfactory conclusion of this unit, the learners will be able to:
♦ understand the nature of the rural society of Medieval India
♦ analyse the intricacies of the caste system and craft production during
the medieval period
♦ know the condition of women in Medieval India

Background
The Mughal Empire reached its largest territorial size by the end of the
seventeenth century. We have discussed the political and administrative challenges
faced by the empire and significant economic developments that happened during
the medieval period. The social structure during the Sultanate period persisted
under Mughal rule, showing signs of both continuity and change. Important
developments included the increased stratification of society, the growth of
urbanisation, and the emergence of the artisan and master-artisan class. Moreover,
there was an expansion in the composite ruling class, along with bureaucratisation
and commercialisation. There was an overall expansion and strengthening of the
middle segments and the commercial classes. Now, let us focus more on the nature
of rural society, the caste system and craft production during this period. This unit
will also provide an overview of the status of women in Medieval India.

Keywords
Non-agricultural activities, Caste, Village craftsmen, Iqtadar, Zamindars, Mansabdars,
Jagirdars, Women

86 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Discussion
2.3.1 Non-Agricultural Activities of Medieval India
In Medieval India, despite agriculture being the primary
source of income for the majority of the population, a wide
range of crafts were also produced on a substantial scale
across the country. These craft making were prevalent in both
♦ Craft rural and urban settings. The production of textiles, ceramics,
production dyes, sugar, metalwork, papermaking, woodworking,
weapons and armour manufacture, shipbuilding, chemical
operations, and other types of work were all included in this
category of crafts.
In medieval India, one of the most frequently practised
crafts was the creation of textiles. Cotton, silk, woollen, and
mixed coarse cotton were the four primary forms of woven
cloth that Indian weavers manufactured. Important centres
for the manufacture of cotton textiles in India include Bengal,
Lahore, Agra, Awadh, Patna, Fatehpur Sikri, and Gujarat,
♦ Textile amongst others. Agra, Lahore, and Kashmir were three of
production the most important centres for the production of shawls and
carpets. Both Bengal and Gujarat were well-known for the
export of textile items in addition to their industrial industries.
During this period, the process of dying or bleaching textiles
evolved into its own distinct and specialised art form. The
cities of Bharuch, Ahmedabad, Surat, Patna, Sonargaon,
Dacca, and Masulipatam, among others, were important
centres for dyeing and bleaching.
The medieval period was marked by technological
advancement. One significant advancement in the textile
industry that happened during the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries was the introduction of the spinning wheel, also
known as a charkha. This innovation led to a sixfold increase
in yarn production speed compared to the traditional
spindle-based method. Similarly, the pit loom, introduced in
♦ Textile technology
India around the fourteenth century, sped up the weaving
process. The drawloom was yet another key piece of weaving
equipment that allowed for the simultaneous weaving of
patterned threads of several colours. Similarly, the use of
block printing is believed to have originated in India during
the medieval period.
Sugar was produced in several locations around the nation.
♦ Sugar products In addition to Bengal and Orissa, Ahmedabad, Lahore, and
Multan, many more cities and towns contributed to the
production of sugar in its numerous forms, including Gur,

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 87
 powder, and finely ground sugar, amongst others.
The mining of minerals was also a significant business
in medieval India. On a massive scale, the production of
various minerals such as salt, saltpetre, alum, and mica took
place. The Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, the rock salt mines
in Punjab, and the water from the sea were all significant
contributors to salt production. The regions of Bengal, Sind,
Malabar, and Mysore, as well as the Rann of Kutch, were the
♦ Mineral primary producers of sea salt. One of the most significant
production products derived from minerals was called saltpetre, and its
primary function was in the production of gunpowder. In
the beginning, it was obtained from Ahmedabad, Baroda,
Patna, and other locations. Despite this, by the second half
of the seventeenth century, Patna had established itself as
one of the most prominent centres for the processing of this
material.
In terms of metals, India lacked an adequate quantity of
gold and silver mines. Because of this, the majority of these
metals were imported. Golconda was the location where the
vast majority of diamond mining activity took place. The
regions of Biragarh (Berar), Panna (Madhya Pradesh), and
♦ Metal Khokhra (Chotanagpur), among others, were also important
production diamond-producing centres. Khetri in Rajasthan was the
most important location for the manufacturing of copper. Iron
was the most common metal that was discovered. During
the medieval period, important centres for the production of
iron were located in Bengal, Allahabad, Agra, Bihar, Gujarat,
Delhi, Kashmir, Chotanagpur, and the districts of Orissa that
were adjacent to these places.
Manufacturing has undergone a revolution with the
adoption of various new technologies, particularly in
metallurgy and metalworking. These include the use of
pulleys, vertical bore pits, oval shaft deep mines, and other
similar technologies. During this time, the production of
♦ Advances in high-quality steel and the bidri alloy, made of copper and
metalworking zinc, were major advancements in metalworking. The arrival
of the Turks in India also led to the practice of tin coating,
where the interior of copper and brass utensils was coated
with tin to protect food from acidic substances.
The use of gunpowder, cannons, and firearms also
emerged as significant developments in the arms and armour
♦ Modern
industry during the medieval [Link] introduction of
artillery
modern artillery in India can be attributed to both Babur,

88 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 who brought it from Persia, and the Portuguese. Additionally,
Fatullah Shirazi, a prominent scholar and engineer during
Akbar’s reign, made important contributions to this field.
The art of papermaking first appeared in India during
the time of the Sultanate. Around the first century of the
Common Era, it was first produced in China and the practice
♦ Paper making
experienced rapid expansion. During the Mughal period,
practically every province was home to a significant paper
manufacturing industry.
Although ancient Indians had the technology to make
glass, glass jewellery was limited to beads and bangles.
♦ Glass works However, during the medieval period, the production of
various glass goods, such as pharmaceutical phials, vessels,
and other items, began.

2.3.2. Organisation of Craft Production

Craft production was organised not just in Qasbas but also
in nearby communities. There were also imperial Karkhanas
in existence. Craftspeople manufactured items that were
used daily in rural communities. The social network in the
community was known as the jajmani system, and these
artisans were members of it. The Deccan and Maharashtra
both have highly organised versions of this system. Balutedars
♦ Jajmani system were the names given to the village artisans and servants in
various parts of the world. Individual craftsmen who lived out
of towns produced the core of the goods that were intended
for sale. They were responsible for the acquisition of essential
raw materials and tools, the manufacturing of goods, and the
sale of those goods on the market.
The handcrafted method of production that was being
used, on the other hand, had a significant flaw. Because each
craftsman was responsible for their output, they did not have
access to significant resources that could be invested in the
manufacturing process. In order to find a solution to this
♦ Dadni sWystem
issue, a redesigned method of manufacturing known as the
dadni system was established. Under this method, a merchant
who dealt with the relevant goods would offer an artisan
with the essential raw materials as well as advance payment
for their work. When the allotted amount of time had passed,
the merchants gathered the finished products and brought
them to the market to be sold.
Another unit of craft production was the Royal Workshop,
also known as the Karkhana. The royal institution included

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 89
 these karkhanas as one of its components. These divisions were
responsible for producing a variety of goods for the royal
household and the court. They produced, for the most part,
costly goods and articles of luxury such as cloth embroidered
with gold and silver thread, silk and so on. The Karkhanas
♦ Karkhanas hired skilled workers and centralised their operations so
that authorities from the state could monitor them. It would
appear that there were two unique sorts of Karkhanas. First,
there was the traditional kind of Karkhanas, which produced
luxury goods in limited quantities but of high artistic value;
second, there were mints or arms manufacturing units,
which engaged in large-scale production that was standard-
oriented and technologically advanced; both of these types
of establishments produced goods.

2.3.3 Caste System during the Medieval Period

It is belived that there were minimal changes in the
structure of Hindu society during this period. An indefinite
number of sub-castes and mixed castes of varying status,
as well as a group of despised castes coming in at the
bottom of the scale, make up the social structure described
in the smritis. These four primary castes are known as the
Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas, and the Shudras. Their
♦ Primary Castes rank and status decrease from highest to lowest. According
to Al-Biruni, eight antyaja castes hold a status lower than
the Shudras. They were the blacksmith, the juggler, the
shoemaker, the fisherman, the hunter of wild animals, and
the basket maker, in that order. All of those people who did
not belong to any of the conventional castes were referred
to as “outcastes” or chandalas. This was a derogatory term
for them. People from higher castes took advantage of those
in lower castes, who were also subjected to indignities and
insults at the hands of those higher up the social hierarchy.
Even the government practised caste-based discrimination
against its own population.
The Smriti writers of the time consistently upheld the
higher status of the Brahmins while strongly condemning
♦ Higher status of those deemed unworthy within the order. According to one
Brahmins school of thought, brahmins were not only allowed to engage
in agriculture during times of distress but also in normal
times, as officiating at sacrifices did not provide sufficient
means of subsistence in the Kali Age.
The Smriti texts continued to emphasise that the
responsibility of punishing the wicked and nurturing the good
rested with the Kshatriyas, and the exclusive right to wield

90 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 weapons to protect the people belonged to them alone. The
duties, occupations, and limitations of sudras were reiterated,
with the highest duty being the service of other castes. While
sudras were allowed to engage in all occupations, except
♦ Condition of dealing in liquor and meat. The prohibition on the study and
lower castes recitation of the Vedas by Sudras persisted, although listening
to the recitation of the Puranas was allowed. Some writers
even advocated not only avoiding eating sudra’s food, but also
sharing the same house, sitting on the same cot, and receiving
religious instructions from a learned sudra. However, the
strictest restrictions were imposed on interactions with
chandalas and other ‘outcastes’.
The shifting political and economic landscape affected
the social stratifications that were defined by caste. Both in
the north and the south, a great number of the older castes
disappeared, while a number of new castes emerged or rose
to prominence. In theory, members of the Brahmin, Kshatriya,
and Vaisya castes were required to work in their customary
vocation, but, in fact, this requirement was not strictly enforced.
The Kayastha people are one of the several subcastes that can
be found in northern India. The government employs them
and has risen to a prominent position there. The Khatri people
originally hail from Punjab. They were skilled administrators
and clever bankers, and their influence eventually stretched
♦ Proliferation of over the entirety of northern India. In Agra and Malwa, where
castes the Nagars of Gujarat settled after migrating from Gujarat
to other regions of northern India, they had a significant
political and social influence. They remained the guardians of
the Hindu faith. The Brahmin caste in South India kept their
place at the top of the social hierarchy. Great administrators
came from the Konkan or Chitpavan branch of the Brahmin
caste in Maharashtra. Among the other groups, the Chettiars
maintained a monopoly on commerce for a long time.
The concept of caste was foreign to Muslims, who adhered
to the Islamic belief that all humans should be treated as equals
and should have a brotherly relationship with one another.
Islam does not recognise any differences between people.
♦ Division among However, Muslim society in India experienced divisions
Muslims along ethnic and racial lines. Muslims came to be subdivided
into distinct groupings such as Sayyids, Sheikhs, Mughals,
Pathans, and Indo-Muslims. Distinctions in their respective
sects further segmented these bigger ethnic groupings.
Notably, there were significant economic disparities among
Turks, Iranians, Afghans, and Indian Muslims. According to
Satish Chandra, Inter-marriage between these groups was

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 91
 rare, leading to a level of exclusivity.
Interaction between the Hindu and Muslim upper classes
was limited during this era. The Muslims also faced caste-
like restrictions imposed by the Hindu upper castes, similar
to those applied to the Sudras. The early Muslims were
considered to be Mlechchas by the Hindus, who accorded
them a social standing that was significantly lower than that
of the Sudras. However, it is important to note that these caste
restrictions did not completely prevent social interaction
between Muslims and upper-caste Hindus or Sudras. Hindu
soldiers served in Muslim armies, nobles enlisted Hindus as
♦ Relation be-
personal managers, and the local administration machinery
tween the Hindus
remained predominantly in the hands of Hindus. The
and the Muslims
prevailing notion that both communities remained isolated
from each other is not accurate and is not supported by
available evidence. Some of the distinctive social practises
that are unique to Hinduism have been preserved by Hindus
who have converted to Islam. Conflicting interests and
differences in social, and cultural ideas, practices, and beliefs
did contribute to tensions, hindering the processes of mutual
understanding and cultural assimilation.

2.3.4 Women in Medieval Society

The status of women in Hindu society underwent minimal
changes during the medieval period. Traditional regulations
advocating early marriage for girls and emphasising the
wife’s duty of service and devotion to her husband persisted.
Some scholars argue that marital dissolution was permitted
under specific circumstances such as abandonment or
serious illnesses. Widow remarriage remained prohibited,
particularly among the three upper castes in the Kali age. As
♦ Position of for the practice of Sati, opinions varied among writers, with
women
some expressing strong approval while others supported it
under certain conditions. Numerous travellers documented
its prevalence in different regions of the country. Ibn
Battutah, in particular, recounted a disturbing incident
where a woman immolated herself on her husband’s funeral
pyre amidst loud drumming.
During this era, the practice of secluding women and
requiring them to veil their faces in the presence of outsiders,
known as purdah, became prevalent among upper-class
women. The tradition of isolating women from public view
was observed among upper-class Hindus and had historical
roots in ancient Iran, Greece, and other regions. The Arabs
and Turks adopted this custom and introduced it to India,

92 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 where it gained widespread acceptance, especially in northern
regions. R.C. Majumdar asserts that the Hindus implemented
the practice of purdah as a preventative precaution to preserve
the honour of their women and the integrity of their social
order. The concern that Hindu women would be taken captive
by the invaders, as women were considered potential prizes
♦ Purdah or Veil of war, is said to be the driving force behind the expansion of
system purdah. A crucial factor contributing to the growth of purdah
was its adoption as a symbol of higher social classes. Many
sought to emulate it as a mark of respectability. Religious
justifications were also found to support this practice.
A system of early marriage was prevalent during the
medieval period. Up to the time of Akbar, nobody made any
effort to investigate the system of early marriage. Before they
♦ Early marriage could get married, he issued decrees that stipulated that the
male counterpart had to be sixteen years old and the ladies
had to be fourteen years old. On the other hand, subsequent
emperors did not strictly implement this command and did
not continue to uphold it.
The dowry system was a norm during this period.
Marriages between members of different castes were not
permitted in Hindu society. In traditional Hindu society,
remarrying a widow was not common, with a few exceptions
for members of lower castes. Even though Akbar made
widow remarriage legal, he did not execute the legislation.
Widows were not allowed to inherit property. The Hindu
religion did not encourage or support the practice of divorce.
Some of the upper- and middle-class Muslim families
♦ Widow
followed polygamy. Monogamy was practised by Muslims
remarriage and
divorce
who belonged to the lower social strata of society since these
individuals were unable to support extra wives and the
children that were born to them. The practice of having only
one spouse was often frowned upon among Hindus. Only a
very tiny percentage of affluent people and princesses have
had more than one spouse in their lifetime. Under Hindu
law, a man was not allowed to divorce his wife except under
exceptional circumstances, such as if his wife turned out to be
sterile or was caught engaging in adultery.
During the medieval period, many regions of India
continued to uphold the tradition of Sati, under this ritual,
the woman would sacrifice herself by setting fire to herself
on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband to demonstrate
her devotion and love for him. This custom was especially
prevalent among the noble classes, most notably the Rajputs.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 93
 The most credible evidence for the existence of the practice
of sati in various regions of India may be found in historical
sources. Friar Odoric, who lived during the years 1321 and
1322, observed that the Indians of Quilon, who lived along
the Malabar Coast, had a strange ritual. Near Dhar in Malwa,
♦ Practice of Sati
the monk Jordanus, who lived between the years 1323 and
1330, was a witness to the practice of Sati. Both Nicolo Conti
and Duarte Barbosa, writing at the beginning of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, respectively, provide an account
of the practice of Sati that was common in the Vijayanagar
Empire. Abul Fazl documented several incidents in which
recalcitrant widows were coerced into performing sati as a
result of pressure from their families or the opinion of the
general public.
Several of the sultans of Delhi and Mughal made an effort
to put an end to the practice of sati, which was practised by
a significant portion of the Hindu population at the time. It
was possibly Muhammad Bin Tughlaq who placed some
constraints on the practice of this ritual. For a widow to
engage in Sati inside his dominions, she was required first
♦ Efforts to put to get permission. It is stated that Humayun put an end to
an end to Sati the practice of widows who were still fertile being burned
at the stake. In order to discourage the practice even more,
Akbar made it illegal to force a widow who did not want to
be burned to death.
Another custom that was common among Hindus,
particularly Rajputs, was called Jauhar. In most cases, when
confronted by outsiders, Rajput females would do Jauhar,
which meant there was no chance of winning the battle. This
was done with the primary intention of avoiding dishonour
at the hands of the adversary if victory was not achieved.
When Hamir Deva, the Chauhan ruler of Ranthambhor,
♦ Jauhar realised he had no chance of defeating Alauddin Khalji, he
decided to take his own life by committing Jauhar. The Jauhar
that the Rajput ladies of Ranthambhor perpetrated was
vividly described by Amir Khusrau, who had accompanied
Alauddin Khalji during the Ranthambhor expedition.
There were certain households in whom the birth of a
daughter was considered to be a tragedy, but the birth of a
son was cause for tremendous joy and celebration. Women
♦ Female
who gave birth to several daughters in quick succession were
infanticide
looked down upon as well. Certain groups of Rajputs were
known to engage in the despicable practice of infanticide,
which consisted of the swift and brutal murder of newborn

94 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 female infants shortly after their birth.
The relationship between a woman and her husband was
traditionally viewed as one of dependent but honourable
servitude. In the work known as the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri,
Jahangir argues that according to the Hindu belief system,
males are unable to carry out any kind of socially beneficial
activity in the absence of their wives, whom they see as
being one-half of their entire being. This suggests that even
♦ Subordinate though wives were relegated to a low position in comparison
position to their husbands, they were still accorded the appropriate
amount of significance. The situation of a woman was
pretty unhappy when she was a girl, a bride, or a widow.
However, because of her role as a mother, she was accorded
a high level of respect and honour. The Rajputs accorded the
highest respect to their mothers and did what they were told
the majority of the time. There are a few instances of Mughal
Emperors travelling to meet their mothers that are recorded
in contemporary sources.
It was customary for a Muslim lady to inherit a
predetermined portion of either her husband’s or her
father’s property. Additionally, she had complete discretion
over how to get rid of it. A Muslim woman, in contrast to
a Hindu woman, was allowed to keep the right even after
she was married. A Hindu woman had no claim to the
property that belonged to her husband’s parents. However,
a Hindu woman was entitled to costs related to her upkeep
♦ Property rights and housing, in addition to moveable goods like ornaments,
jewellery, and so on. Therefore, from a legal standpoint,
women were relegated to a position of reliance in every aspect
of life. Commentators support the widow’s entitlement to
her soneless husband’s property if it was not jointly owned
and had been divided. The widow not only served as the
guardian of this property but also had the full right to
manage and dispose of it. This suggests an improvement in
women’s property rights within Hindu law.
Although the women were compelled to live a solitary
existence and were prevented from attaining a position of
pride in the social order, some of the more intellectual and
gifted women distinguished themselves as administrators
and authors of exceptional value. Razia Sultan was able
to demonstrate her prowess as an effective ruler and
administrator during the early medieval period in India. She
was also a skilled fighter, and she led her army personally
into combat on many occasions. During the later part of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 95
 the Medieval period, some women who belonged to royal
families distinguished themselves via their work in the
administration of their various kingdoms. Between the
years 1560 and 1564, Maham Anga, who was Akbar’s foster
mother, exercised full authority over the administration
of the kingdom. Chandella princess, Gondwana Rani
Durgavati, Chand Bibi of Ahmadnagar, and Makhduma-
i-Jahan, who governed the Deccan as regent on behalf of
♦ Women in ad- Nizam Shah, provided an outstanding description of their
ministrative roles capacity to not only repel the invaders but also to run their
domains. Makhduma-i-Jahan was the regent for Nizam
Shah and controlled the Deccan region throughout his reign.
The true force behind Jahangir’s rule was Nur Jahan. In the
struggle for independence that the Marathas fought against
the Mughals, Tara Bai, the widow of Rajaram, the Maratha
ruler, emerged as a significant guiding force for her people.
She was exceptionally adept in the areas of organisation and
administration.
Gulbadan Begum, the author of Humayun-nama, and
Jahan Ara, who wrote the biography of Moinuddin Chishti
titled Munis-al Arwah, were both significant female figures
who contributed to the literature of that period. Poets of note
♦ Literary include Mira Bai, Salima Sultana, Nur Jahan, Sith-un-nisa, and
contribution Zeb-un-nisa. Zeb-un-nisa, the eldest daughter of Aurangzeb,
was also an accomplished writer. Ramabhadramba,
Madhuravani, Mohanagi, Aka Bai, Kena Bai, and many other
influential women writers of the medieval period include
some of the others.

2.3.5 Administrative Institutions

[Link] Iqtadars or Muqti
There are references to walis or Muqtis who served as
commanders of military and administrative tracts called
Iqtas or wilayat under the Khalji era. The Muqti, responsible
for an Iqta, collected taxes, transferred funds to the state
treasury, and upheld law and order within their Iqta. They
were expected to keep a portion of the earnings for their
♦ Duties of the
Iqtadars or Muqti
use and deliver the remaining sum to the Sultan. Auditing
procedures were carried out on the muqti’s revenue and
spending records. If a muqti engaged in corrupt behavior or
illegal activity, they were severely punished and the sum
was taken back from them. It was expected of the muqti to do
military duty if the Sultan required assistance from the armed
forces, and any non-compliance was considered an act of

96 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 defiance. Muqti were incapable of waging war or negotiating
peace on their own and were required to obtain orders from
the king before embarking on conquering missions. It was
forbidden for any muqti to hold his court or to make use of a
royal symbol insignia.
The Muqti was not allowed to claim ownership of the
property that had been given to him. Instead, he was given
money generated from the land in exchange for his duties.
The land grant, known as an iqta, could range from a single
town to a province. It was possible to transport the Muqti
♦ Muqti’s
from one location to another. But he could not consider it an
administration
inherited possession. The central government’s control over
the Muqti’s administration increased, with the Naib Diwan,
or Khwaja, supervising the Iqtas income administration. An
intellectual officer, Barid, was responsible for monitoring
Muqtis’ activities in their individual Iqtas.

[Link] Zamindars
Zamindars held the most important position in the
agricultural hierarchy of Mughal [Link] were responsible
for the distribution of taxes. Since the reign of Akbar , the
term has been used to refer to any individual who has a
hereditary claim to a direct part in the peasant’s production.
According to Nurul Hasan, Zamindars are classified into
three categories.
i. Primary zamindars who owned a portion of the
land and had some proprietary rights to it.
ii. Secondary zamindars were individuals who pos-
♦ Classification sessed the rights of an intermediary and assisted
of Zamindars the state in the process of collecting land income.
iii. Autonomous chiefs were granted certain powers
within their territories in exchange for a prede-
termined monetary contribution to the Mughal
State.
Zamindari rights were a claim on the output of the soil
coexisting with the state’s demand for money from the land.
They were inheritable and divisible, allowing heirs to split
fiscal claims and perquisites in line with land law. Zamindars
earned their privileges due to historical precedent and
authority over the peasantry. In Gujarat, the Zamindari claim
was called banth or vanth, while in Northern India, it was
called malikana and distributed in cash. In the Deccan region,
it was called chauth, meaning “one-fourth,” representing
one-fourth of the income connected. Another fiscal claim,
Sardeshmukhi, was equal to ten per cent of the income. The

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 97
 cesses of chauth and sardeshmukhi were realised during the
rule of the Marathas, not as a legal claim based on a true
♦ Zamindari Zamindari right but as a direct result of the use of power in
Rights its purest form.

[Link] Mansabdars
The Mughal administration was led by a bureaucracy
consisting of military officers referred to as mansabdars. When
Akbar took the throne, the Mughal army was inadequate,
with Jagirs restricting the empire and amirs responsible for
a specific number of riders. The majority of troops that
the amirs kept were ineffective and unsuitable for military
duty. When there was a muster for review, the amirs would
come together, and Badauni describes what happened next:
“Numbers of artisans, weavers, cotton cleaners, carpenters,
and grocers, both Hindu and Muslim, would be mustered
♦ Military for review, and then they would disappear.” They did
reorganisation
not have the necessary equipment or discipline.” Akbar
recognised the need for changes to the military and in 1571,
when Shahabaz Khan was promoted to Mir Bakshi, he drew
out a plan for military reform. The mansabdari system was
used as the foundation for an extensive reorganisation of
the entire military force. According to Satish Chandra, “The
mansabdari system, as it developed under the Mughals,
was a peculiar and unique system which did not have any
similar system outside of India.”
Abul Fazl, in his Ain-i-Akbari, claims that there were
sixty-six grades or mansabs, but it seems that there were
not more than thirty-three classes in actual existence. It is
possible that there were even fewer grades than that. The
decimal system was used to organise the army; the smallest
♦ Ranks in
Mansabdari
unit of command was 10, and the greatest unit of command
System was ten thousand or more, whose leader was given the title
of Khan. Members of the royal family were the only people
allowed to achieve ranks of 5,000 and above. This highest
rank was increased to 50,000 during the rule of the later
Mughal dynasties.
In the final years of Akbar’s rule, he made changes to the
mansabdari system by introducing the ranks of zat and sawar.
The ranks of zat and sawar are unique from one another in
certain ways. The zat rank served as the mansabdar’s personal
rank inside the organisation. It denoted the number of
mounted infantrymen that a mansabdar was supposed
to retain in order to perform their duties for the state.
This position was expanded to accommodate numerous

98 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 additional horsemen, for which the mansabdar was granted
the authority to receive additional allowances. This position
was referred to as his sawar rank. The mansabdar was entitled
♦ The Zat and to an increase in compensation for each additional horseman.
Sawar ranks His zat pay was enhanced by two rupees for each additional
sawar that he was responsible for maintaining. Sawars were
paid a wage that was based on their nationality; for instance,
a Muslim sawar was paid a higher income than a Rajput or an
Indian Muslim sawar. The mansabdar was required to retain
twenty or twenty-two horses for every 10 warriors in his
troop. This allowed for the possibility of horse replacements
in the event of battle.
Because of this differentiation, the mansabdars, except for
those who possessed mansabs of 5000 or above, were divided
into the following three categories: If a mansabdar’s rank in
zat and sawar were equal, he was considered to belong to the
first category; if his sawar rank was half of his zat rank, he
was considered to belong to the second category; and if his
sawar rank was less than half of his zat rank or there were
no sawars at all, he was considered to belong to the third
category. Blochman, who had made a more in-depth study
into the military system of the Mughals, believes that the zat
♦ Categories of
rank indicated the number of soldiers the mansabdars were
mansabdars
expected to maintain, and the sawar rank indicated the number
of soldiers maintained by the mansabdar. His viewpoint does
not appear to be accurate. Later on in his reign, possibly
during Akbar’s wars in the Deccan or Salim’s uprising, Akbar
established the rank of sawar for his soldiers. The Mughals
desired to have a diverse force of soldiers comprised of Irani,
Turani, Indians, Afghans, Rajputs, and Mughal warriors.
This was done to prevent any one ethnicity from having a
monopoly on the military. During the reign of Akbar and his
successors, it was required of a commander to provide one-
third of his sawar rank in Northern India, one-quarter of his
sawar rank in the Deccan, and one-fifth of his sawar rank for
duty outside of India.
The mansabdar was required to take money out of his income
to cover his expenses. In addition to this, he was required to
have a specified number of horses, elephants, camels, mules,
and carts at his disposal. The mansabdar was given a very
generous salary. A mansabdar with the rank of 5,000 could
get a salary of 7,000 rupees per year. The mansabdar spent
around one-quarter of the cash from his pay on the upkeep
of his army. It was stated that the mansabdar of the Mughal
empire was the highest-paid official in the world at the time.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 99
 In some circumstances, rather than being compensated in
cash, the mansabdars were given a jagir instead. When there
was a lag in the payment of currency from the treasury,
the mansabdars favoured this alternative as well. The social
♦ Pay and Jagirs reputation of the nobility was further enhanced when they
were given a jagir or a piece of land in lieu of a wage. The
Department of Revenue maintained a registry that displayed
the jama, also known as the assessed income of the various
regions. The transactions were recorded using dams, and each
rupee was equivalent to forty dams. This record was referred
to as the jama-dami, which means “evaluated earnings based
on dams.”

[Link] The Jagirdars

When Akbar was in power, the government officials,
particularly the mansabdars, received their salaries in cash. On
the other hand, Akbar’s successors made certain adjustments
to this system. The Mughal officials who worked in the
imperial service were compensated not in cash but rather
with revenue-generating land that was personally allotted to
them. The role of the person responsible for the assignment
was known as the Jagirdar. The mansabdar’s standing and
rank determined whether or not he was awarded a jagir. He
supported himself financially thanks to his Jagir. The wizarat
carried out the evaluation of the assignments. Because of
♦ Relocation of
Jagirdars
their positions as state officials, Jagirdars carried the risk of
being relocated every few years. This was done to prevent
them from developing any vested interests in a specific area.
These Jagirdars did not make significant contributions to the
improvement of the lives of the people who lived on their Jagir.
The imperial authority did not exercise any kind of consistent
control over the Jagir at any point in time. The Jagirdari system
turned into a hereditary structure during the control of the
later Mughals. One of the causes of the fall of the Mughal
Empire was a crisis that occurred inside the Jagirdari system.

100 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Summarised Overview
In medieval India, various non-agricultural activities thrived in rural and
urban areas. These activities included textile production, metalworking, sugar
processing, mineral mining, papermaking, glassworks, and arms manufacturing.
Craft production was organised through systems like the Jajmani and Dadni
systems, while luxury goods were produced by the Imperial Karkhanas. The
caste system remained deeply rooted during this period, with minimal changes
in Hindu society. The social hierarchy consisted of four main castes - Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras - arranged in descending order of rank and status.
Discrimination against lower castes, particularly chandalas and “outcastes,”
persisted. The changing political and economic aspects led to the emergence of
new castes, such as the Kayasthas in the north and Chettiars in the south.
As for the status of women in Hindu society, little change occurred during
the medieval period. Traditional practices like early marriage, the duty of
service to husbands, restrictions on widow remarriage, and practices such as
Sati, Jauhar, purdah, female infanticide, and the dowry system continued. Despite
these circumstances, women made significant contributions in administration,
literature, and poetry during the medieval era.
During the Sultanate period, the Iqtadars, or Muqtis, were responsible for
tax collection, law enforcement, and military duty. During the Mughal period,
zamindars played a crucial role in the agricultural hierarchy, with primary,
secondary, and autonomous chiefs categorised based on their roles in tax
distribution and contribution to the state. Jagirdars, who were government officials,
received revenue-generating land as their salary, which later became hereditary.
The Mansabdars, part of the Mughal military bureaucracy, underwent reforms
during Akbar’s rule, introducing ranks like Zat and Sawar to regulate the number
of soldiers under their command.

Assignments
1.
1. Discuss the impact of non-agricultural activities in Medieval India.
Explain the craft production, technological advancements and
organisational structure during the period.
2. Analyse the influence of the caste system in the medieval period.
How did it impact the social relationships, particularly with the lower
castes?
3. Discuss the emergence of new castes along with the changes in the
socio-economic structure of medieval Indian society.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 101
 1.
4. Examine the status of women in medieval India. Explain the
traditional practices, attempts at reform, and the contributions of women
in various fields.
5. Examine the role of Iqtadars, Zamindars, Mansabdars, and Jagirdars in
medieval Indian society. How did these institutions function, and what
roles did they play in administration, taxation, and military organisation?

Suggested Reading
1.
1. Chandra, Satish, Essays on Medieval Indian History, Oxford University
Press, 2004.
2. Chattopadhyaya, B.D., The Making of Early Medieval India, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 1977.
3. Farooqui, Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India, Twelfth
to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, Pearson India Education Services, 2011.
4. Hasan, S. Nurul, Religion, State and Society in Medieval India, Oxford
University Press, 2005.
5. Hussain, Yusuf, Glimpses of Medieval Indian History and Culture,
Bombay, 1976.
6. Moosvi, Shireen, The Economy of the Mughal Empire, Oxford
University Press, 2015.

Reference
1.
1. Chandra, Satish, Social Change and Development in Medieval Indian
History, Har Anand Publications, 2008.
2. Jha, Dwijendra Narayan, The Feudal Order: State, Society, and Ideology
in Early Medieval India, Manohar Publishers, New Delhi, 2016.
3. Khan, Iqtidar Alam, Historical Dictionary of Medieval India, Lanham,
Scarecrow Press, Maryland, 2008.
4. Majumdar, R.C., et al., The Delhi Sultanate, History and Culture of
the Indian People, Vol.6, Bharatiya Vidhya Bhavan, Mumbai, 2006.

102 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 103
Urbanisation, Trade and
Commerce
BLOCK-03

104 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT Medieval Urbanisation
1
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ describe the significant urban centres of Medieval India
♦ explain various types of markets existed in Medieval India
♦ examine the economic, social and cultural dynamics of the Medieval
period

Background
Understanding the economic, social, and cultural intricacies of medieval India
begins with an understanding of urban areas and marketplaces throughout the
period. It sheds light on how India’s historical growth was impacted by urbanisation,
communication, and transportation, with the outside world profoundly shaping
the nation’s cultural legacy. Studies on urban centres and urbanisation throughout
the medieval era have mainly remained an untapped and understudied area of
research. All of these topics are crucial to examining the development of urban
centres and the process of urbanisation throughout the medieval period.

Keywords
Urbanisation, market regulations, Mandi, Sher-i-adl, Sarai, Quasba, Nagaram, Bandar

Discussion
3.1.1 Urbanisation in Medieval India
The process of urbanisation in medieval India, which
roughly runs from the sixth to the eighteenth century, was
intricate and multi-dimensional. In the medieval period,
urban areas had a profound impact on the subcontinent’s
economic, social, and cultural environment. Urbanisation
is the process of transforming a region into a city where
people may live, work, and have greater opportunities. In
the medieval period, cities grew as a result of increased

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 105
 international commerce and the development of local
kingdoms. Due to political circumstances, the rate of
urbanisation was relatively modest during the beginning of
the medieval period. Locations near rivers, rich land, and
important travel routes started to emerge in urban centres,
♦ Process of and as a result, trade and commerce increased. The places
Urbanization where goods like swords, carpets, perfumes, and so on were
manufactured become important commercial hubs, turning
them into cities. Trade and commerce were carried in port
cities and industrial towns. Visitors from all over the world
brought traders, which led to the town’s transformation
into an urban hub. In medieval India, trade, commerce, and
urbanisation all developed in this way.

3.1.2 Factors for the Formation of Urban Centres in

Medieval India
In medieval India, the development of urban centres was
a complicated and varied process that was influenced by a
number of variables, including economic, administrative,
cultural, and strategic concerns. During this time, urban
centres began to arise and expand as a result of certain
circumstances. Numerous kinds of urban centres existed
in the medieval period. Administrative towns or towns
that served as capital of the kingdom developed into urban
♦ Strategic centres. These cities were constructed to house the ruling
Locations of class, the government apparatus, and the armed forces. For
Administrative example, Delhi was the seat of several empires, such as
Centres the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals. To prevent invasions,
several urban centres were placed in defensive locations,
frequently on elevated land. These towns developed into
significant administrative and military centres. For instance,
Vijayanagara, a fortified city in South India, was built on
elevated terrain to enhance its defences.
Urban centres were formed as a result of the growth of
trade and commerce. Due to their importance in enabling
economic operations, cities situated along trade routes or
close to significant ports have prospered. For example,
♦ Craftsmanship Surat, a major port city on the western coast, was a bustling
♦ Commercial centre of trade during the medieval period. Urban areas
Hubs frequently attracted experienced craftsmen and artisans with
expertise in a variety of crafts, including textiles, jewellery,
and metalwork. These craftsmen’s presence contributed
to the economic and cultural development of these cities.
Jaipur, in Rajasthan is known for its skilled artisans and the
establishment of craft clusters.

106 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 There were frequently large numbers of tourists in the
temple towns, which led to the growth of trade in these towns
♦ Pilgrimage The pilgrimage hubs started to transform into settlements.
Hubs In temple towns, several non-agricultural professions were
developed. Ajmer in Rajasthan, known for its religious
coexistence, is an example of a temple town.
The emergence of urban centres in medieval India was the
consequence of a complicated interaction between a number
of different variables. During this period, these cities acted
♦ Role of cities as centres of political authority, trade and commerce, culture
and learning, and had a crucial role in establishing the social
dynamics, economic landscape, and cultural landscape of
the region.

3.1.3 Market Regulations in Medieval India

[Link] Market Regulations and Maintenance of
Law and Order
The Regulation of markets in medieval India was necessary
for the preservation of order, the promotion of commerce,
and the defence of the rights and interests of purchasers and
♦ Market Rules vendors alike. Several different governing entities, including
regional kings, administrators, and guilds, were responsible
for establishing and enforcing these norms. The following
are some of the most important characteristics of market
rules that existed in medieval India.

Weights and Measures

In order to combat fraud and guarantee the reliability
of business dealings, regulations mandated the use of
standardised units of measurement for weights and
♦ Standardisation measures. These measurements comprised the length as well
and Inspection as the weight and volume. The weights and measurements
that were used in the markets would undergo routine
inspections and checks by officials to ensure that they were
accurate and consistent.

Taxation
In medieval Indian markets, taxation was widespread.
The purchase and selling of products, as well as the transit
of goods and the renting of market stalls, were all subject to
♦ Tax Collection various forms of taxation. Taxation was an important source
of money for the authorities in power, and this cash was
used to support the provision of public goods and services.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 107
 Maintenance of Marketplace
The upkeep of market infrastructure, including roads,
bridges, and drainage systems, was frequently required by
♦ Infrastructure the regulations in order to guarantee that customers had easy
Facilities access to the markets. In order to stop the spread of infectious
diseases, several rules and regulations were imposed
♦ Market
Operating Hours in marketplaces, emphasising the importance of good
cleanliness and sanitation. The opening and closing times of
marketplaces were regulated by the local government and
adhered to certain working hours. This assisted in crowd
control and maintained order during market hours.
Various products, including textiles, metals, and food
items, were frequently subject to quality requirements
mandated by regulations. The enforcement of these criteria
♦ Quality Control was done with the intention of shielding customers from
products of a lower quality. Many of the time, artisan guilds
were responsible for establishing and enforcing quality
standards for the goods that their members produced.

3.1.4 Market Regulations and Dispute Resolution

The norms of the market created methods for the
settlement of disputes, such as the appointment of authorities
or arbitrators to settle disagreements between purchasers
and vendors. The judgments made by these systems were
♦ Mechanisms
legally binding, which made them extremely important
for preserving people’s faith in the market system. In
some circumstances, authorities impose price limits on
vital products in order to prevent price manipulation and
guarantee that the general public is able to purchase these
items at reasonable prices.
Price restrictions were monitored to prevent the activities
associated with black marketing and the stockpiling of
products. Many merchant guilds had their own set of internal
laws that governed trade, membership, and other aspects of
♦ Guild the guild’s operations. They were crucial in the process of
Regulations regulating commerce and mediating disagreements between
traders. The members of a guild were supposed to adhere to
a code of conduct, which was created to ensure that ethical
commercial practices were followed.

3.1.5 Market Regulations

Public marketplaces were frequently staffed with security
personnel such as guards or watchmen to deter criminal
activity such as shoplifting and vandalism. Sometimes the

108 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 regulations would include restrictions that were designed to
protect the property of both the purchasers and the sellers.
♦ Safeguarding In order to ensure that the markets continue to operate
Property normally and efficiently, checkpoints and toll booths were
established. These checkpoints and toll booths efficiently
monitor and regulate the flow of commodities, as well as
collect taxes and fees.
In the medieval Indian context, the market regulation
of Alauddin Khalji deserves special attention. Alauddin
Khalji’s market-control measures extended beyond rural
economies to urban markets. To control prices, he established
three separate markets for various commodities in Delhi.
The markets included the grain market (Mandi), the cloth
market (Sarai Adl), and the horse, slave, and cattle market.
He issued seven regulations, including fixed commodity
prices, appointed market controllers (Shahna-i mandi), Barid
(intelligence officers), and Munhiyan (secret spies), placed
♦ Market grain merchants under the Shahna-i mandi, demanded
Regulation of sureties, and received daily reports separately from these
Alauddin Khalji sources. Ihtikar (regrating) was prohibited. Despite strict
market controls, Khalji prioritized a steady supply of grains
and other essential commodities. His meticulous planning
and execution ensured the success of his market-control
measures. The Sultan established granaries in Delhi and
Chhain, Rajasthan. The land tax from the khalisa in the
Doah was paid in kind. The grain was delivered to the
state granaries. The Multanis, who were cloth merchants,
were given an advance loan of 20 lakh tankas to purchase
and bring cloth to market. The Sultan placed a high value
on control of horse price because the army’s efficiency
could not be guaranteed unless it had access to good horses
at a reasonable price. The horse market’s low prices were
ensured by prohibiting horse dealers and brokers (dalals)
from purchasing horses in the Delhi market. The Sultan was
successful in maintaining low prices and enough supply in
the market.

3.1.6 Road Networks and Trade

[Link] Establishment of Road Transportation
It is widely acknowledged that the development of
♦ Effective transport and communication was an essential component
communication
in the expansion and prosperity of the medieval economy.
systems
The degree to which a society has advanced in terms
of its transport and communication infrastructure is a

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 109
 reliable indication of the vitality of its economic activity.
Effective communication systems facilitate the movement of
commodities and goods both within and across regions.
Additionally, it encourages interactions between the
cultures of other areas and, over the longer term, the
interchange of thinking and ideas, which are two essential
♦ Effective components for the health and wellness of a community.
Transportation The rise of transportation is supported by the development
Systems
of communication systems as well; the two together
encourage travel. The degree to which communication and
transportation are dependent on one another is consistently
high. Both the society and the economy of medieval India
profited from the robust communication and transportation
system that existed during that period.
From a primarily rural setting, a monetary economy
emerged as a result of the new state’s policies and practices
regarding the extraction of agricultural surplus. The
expansion of the money economy occurred at a breakneck
speed, and its geographical reach was unparalleled. One of
the most significant results of this process was an increase
♦ Emergence of
in the amount of economic activity not just between distinct
Monetary
Economy areas but also between distinct locales within those regions.
Because of this, the communication network also saw a
boost, and in order to support the communication network, a
system of transportation was built, even if it was in its infancy
at the time. As time went on and the outlines of the monetary
economy grew clearer, more characteristics of the system of
communication and transportation also became apparent.

[Link] Sarais
Sarais were several types of buildings that provided
travellers in medieval India with a place to rest their heads.
Travellers of all social classes, but especially merchants and
pilgrims, required more frequent places of rest and shelter
than the widely spaced 73 towns and cities. The cities were
♦ Resting Places able to provide shelter because of the harsh conditions and
inhospitable countryside in most regions of the country. The
sarais that were positioned along with the main highways
provided a location for the people and their animals to spend
the night in safety, as well as a place where they could be
certain of having access to food and water.
It is believed that the Turks were the ones who first
brought the sarais. They are characterised by vast rectangular
enclosures accessible by wide gateways and an interior that

110 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 has a number of cells lined up along the walls. In order to
accommodate the needs of the travellers, the institutional
♦ Sher Shah’s structure and the physical representation of the sarais may
contributions to have undergone significant transformations. Around the
sarais middle of the thirteenth century, construction of sarais had
commenced in the bigger towns that the Delhi Sultanate
ruled. Sher Shah made the most substantial contributions
toward the creation of the sarais. The chronicles praise him
nearly uniformly for his efforts to erect sarais for the comfort
of travellers at regular intervals along every main road in the
empire.
The northern and northwestern routes each have a
sufficient number of sarais( resting facilities) for travellers to
take advantage of. According to the testimony of European
♦ Sarais in north
travellers who used this route, there were plenty of sarais
and north - west
located at regular intervals along the path. This allowed
travellers to safely store their things and stay sarais at the
end of a day.
The road that headed eastward was equipped with
sufficient travel assistance. The travellers describe the
frequent occurrence of sarais along this road, which were
♦ Assistance to typically equipped with conveniences such as the provision
travellers of prepared food and the availability of cooked foods. In
the larger cities, there were typically numerous sarais, and
some of these sarais had warehouse spaces for keeping foods
transported by the merchants, as well as by other types of
travellers.
It was a common practice to take a ferry across the
larger rivers because only the smaller rivers, which seldom
♦ Construction of exceeded a certain width, had permanent bridges built
Bridges across them. A bridge made of boats was created in order to
allow vehicles travelling from the east to visit the capital city
of Delhi. This bridge allowed for the passage of the Yamuna.
Both the European travellers and the Persian chroniclers
attest to the presence of an extensive network of sarais in
Mughal India. These sarais were strategically located both
along the major thoroughfares and inside the urban and
suburban areas of the empire. Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama (circa
♦ Evidences of
1595) refers to an order that was “given to the workmen”
sarais
towards the end of 1578 that “they should erect sarais in
the various quarters of the capital, and make them over to
benevolent and generous persons so that the poor and needy
of the world might have a home without having to look for

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 111
 it, or to endure the pain of waiting.” This order was made in
reference to the city of Agra.

[Link] Qasbas
According to the definition provided by Nizamuddin
Ahmad in his Tabaqat-i- Akbari, a Qasba is an administrative
centre that serves as the pargana headquarters. In Akbar’s
♦ Qasba as an
dominion, there were around 3,200 Qasbas and 120 cities
administrative
centre (Shahr), according to his estimations. Subsequently, in the
early 18th century (about 1720), the total number of Qasba
grew to 4716. However, it was not required that a pargana
contain only one Qasba. This was a flexible requirement.
At the beginning of the 18th century, there were twenty
Qasbas located in the Pargana Barsana region of western
Rajasthan. The Qasbas in western Rajasthan are often enclosed
by forts (Garhi) or fortifications (Garh) with town walls. In
the context of medieval times, a Qasba was essentially an
♦ Fortification extension of the surrounding hamlet. A sizable hamlet that
had a central marketplace had all the ingredients necessary
to become a Qasba. Harigarh, Kundi, and Kakurmi, which
were all stated to be villages in the 17th century and
upgraded to Qasbas in the early 18th century records, are
located in Barsana, which is located in western Rajasthan.
Sometimes, in order to take advantage of the protection that
a fort provided, settlements evolved into qasbas and became
linked to the fort.
A great number of Qasbas originated from the
development of market towns. Qasbas with the suffix ganj
were predominantly towns known as “markets,” and they
hosted both weekly markets (known as hats) and fairs
♦ Development (known as melas). These Qasbas, on the other hand, began
of Qasbas to appear more often beginning in the middle of the 18th
century. According to research conducted by B. L. Bhadani
and Sato on the development of Qasbas in western Rajasthan,
population expansion in market towns from villages and
other settlements proceeded uninterrupted throughout the
18th century.

[Link] Exclusiveness of a Town

The question that has to be answered here is what, exactly,
separates a town from a Qasba in the first place. According
to Satish Chandra, the significance of a Qasba changed from
one era to the next, as well as from one place to the next.
His account suggests that a Qasba was a settlement that
included a fort during the time of the Sultanate. By the time

112 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 the Mughal era rolled around, the people began to refer to it
♦ Nature of a as a community that had a market. Not only did these centres
Qasba function as markets for agricultural commodities, but they
also functioned as “centres” of production for various types
of handicrafts.
Throughout the 13th century, these locations did not
fulfil the function of “market” centres. Instead, they were
referred to as “fortified encampments,” and they were not
♦ Mandis always “connected” with a major city (Shahr). These Qasbas
were used for the disposal of various agricultural goods.
Around some sarais, Qasbas would occasionally form. Some
of the sarais, such as the Mughal sarai, and others like them
eventually developed into Qasbas or small towns. The nobles
made their contributions as well. In other instances, these
Mandis (markets) eventually evolved into Qasbas.

[Link] Nagaram
The Deccan can be compared to the nagaram of the south,
which was the market centre of South India. In each nadu,
there was evidence of the existence of at least one nagaram, also
known as market centre. The hinterlands were a significant
source of provision for the coastal communities. Villages
in the area might be connected to the Nagarams. Itinerant
merchants would “negotiate” the price of the local food in
exchange for cash or other goods that were not produced
♦ Development locally. In this instance, it is likely that local merchants
of Nagarams purchased items from itinerant merchants on a wholesale
level and subsequently distributed them locally on a retail
level. It’s interesting to note that administrative orders were
responsible for the development of nagarams at one point.
Sometimes Nagaram and Nadu worked together to transform
a nearby hamlet into a commercial centre. It functioned as
a centre for gathering and redistributing goods and was
the primary link between local merchants, producers and
itinerant merchants.

[Link] Bandars
Medieval Persian literature uses the terms balda/shahr (city)
and qasba (small town, township) to differentiate between
a large and a small town. Similarly, the larger ports were
referred to as bandar, while the smaller ones were referred
to as bara. Even in the south of India, such a hierarchy of
towns may be seen rather plainly. Pattinam were considered
to be “emporia,” whereas Valarpuram were thriving seaside
communities. In the spaces in between, there were nagarams

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 113
 that, while they were comparable to the qasbas of the
north and the Deccan, nevertheless retained their district
characteristics.
Protests and uprisings were occasionally the result of the
tribulations and frustrations experienced by the peasants
because of high land tax imposed on them. A major
♦ Condition of agricultural insurrection occurred in the region during the
Peasants time of the Sultanate because Muhammad bin Tughlaq
attempted to increase the taxes in the Doab region. This
effort was unsuccessful. When Emperor Aurangzeb was in
power, there were major rebellions on the part of the Jats,
Sikhs, Marathas, and Satanamis. One of the things that
contributed to these acts of defiance was dissatisfaction on
the agricultural front.

Summarised Overview
The complex economic, social, and cultural aspects of the time may be
comprehended in their entirety via the study of urban centres, marketplaces, and
commerce in Medieval India. The urban centres served as major economic hubs
that supported commerce, artisanal production, and economic specialisation, all
of which greatly contributed to the region’s overall development. The study of
urban centres, markets, and trade during the Medieval period in India reveals
a rich tapestry of economic, social, and cultural elements that are essential to
the understanding of the historical development of the region and its enduring
impact on India’s heritage.

Assignments
1. Define the urbanisation process in medieval India.
2. Explain the statement that urban centres were vital economic hubs that
facilitated trade.
3. Explain the role of transportation in the growth of a town.
4. Write a short note on the importance of ‘Sarais’.

114 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Suggested Reading
1. Chauhan, G.C., Economic History of Early Medieval Northern India,
Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2003.
2. Ray, A., Towns and Cities of Medieval India: A Brief Survey, Routledge,
London, 2017.
3. Bhushan, B., Medieval India, Maxford Books, New Delhi 2008.

Reference
1. 1. Chandra, Satish., Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals Part - II,
Har-Anand Publications, 2005.
2. ____________, Essays in Medieval Indian Economic History, Manoharlal
Publishers, New Delhi1987.
3. Puri, B.N., and Das, M.N., A Comprehensive History of India:
Comprehensive History of Medieval India, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
2003.

Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions

Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 115
116 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT
Trade in Medieval India
2

Learning Outcomes
On completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ list the commodities of import and export during medieval India
♦ know the pattern of local, regional and inter-regional trade in medieval
India
♦ have an idea about the pattern of India’s foreign trade in medieval India

Background
The first stage of commercialisation for agricultural goods was the land itself.
Similarly, business transactions of handcrafted goods first took place in the homes of
the artisans. All of this activity took place on a number of different levels, including
the local, regional, inter-regional, and international levels. In this section of the
course, inland and international trade patterns during the seventeenth century will
be the topic of discussion. Trading operations received a boost during this period
as a result of increased output as well as increased political stability. The amount
of goods exchanged skyrocketed to unprecedented heights. An additional element
of significance was the participation of a number of important European nations in
India’s commercial activity. By the beginning of the 16th century, the Portuguese
had already established colonies in the western areas of India. During the 17th
century, France, the Netherlands, and England were all active participants in large-
scale commercial activity. A growing number of specialised organisations that
are active in trade emerged along with the expansion of commercial endeavours.
During the same period, a number of fundamental business practices were also
developed.
This Unit focuses on the study of weights, measurements, coins, and transactions
in medieval India. It provides various outcomes and insights into the economic,
social, and cultural dynamics of the period. This view sheds light on how economic
systems, trade, and transactions shaped society as well as its interaction with the
rest of the world. In addition to that, this Unit goes into the long-distance coastal
and inland trade in India.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 117
 Keywords
Dadni, Hundi, Seer, Bigha, Raati, Mansabdar, sarrafs, Sub Continental Trade, Commerce,
Merchants, Production

Discussion
3.2.1 Medieval Coinage
The medieval Indian economy was divided into two
parts: a subsistence economy, characterised by socially
♦ Subsistence formed barter exchange networks in village communities,
and commercial
and a commercialised economy, characterised by market
economy
relations of exchange in both rural and urban centres, with
relatively low importance of money and limited commercial
opportunities.
India’s metropolitan centres and trading hubs were more
involved in market exchange due to their high population
density of administrative workers, soldiers, merchants, and
♦ Usage of artists. They required consistent food supplies, artisan items,
money and services. Cities collected taxes in cash for administrative
expenditures and consumption expenses of governing elites.
The money was used to pay for these expenses.
The trade involved seasonal supply of commodities for
export from rural areas to urban distribution hubs. Villages
produced and processed major exportable goods like textiles,
indigo, saltpetre, and sugar. These goods were then exported
via sea and land to markets in the Middle East, Africa, Europe,
♦ Foreign trade Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and the Philippines. Departing
♦ Money gained ships often brought uncoined gold or foreign currency to
importance initiate new trade cycles. Commercialised trade networks
required money at every level, spread across marketplaces,
shops, and offices. Money was used to represent prices,
wages, salaries, and taxes. The mint, a state-owned institution
controlled by administrative authorities, was responsible for
supplying money to the market, serving trained artisans and
supplying money to the market.
The first chapter of Abul Fazl’s Ain-i Akbari provides a
detailed account of mint operations in 16th century India.
Open coinage allowed providers to obtain coins from the
♦ Mint monetary authority in exchange for minting fees and taxes.
Mints were situated in major commercial and administrative
towns. The medieval Indian market’s structure shifted due
to population changes, technology, skill development, state

118 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 economic policies, and international markets. Businesses’
structures also adapted to these changes.
During the Delhi Sultanate, a new coinage method was
invented, with Delhi as the capital. Muhammad of Ghur
♦ Coinage under
Delhi Sultanate
minted gold coins imitating Hindu rulers of Kanauj, featuring
the goddess Lakshmi on the obverse. Copper and metal were
the primary components of money for the first four decades
of its existence.
Iltutmish produced various silver tankas, with the earliest
featuring a monarch mounted on a horse. The most recent
form is a diploma in investiture bestowed by Al Mustansir,
the Khalifa of Baghdad. Gold coin was produced by Masud,
♦ Different types Nasir-ud-din Mahmud, Balban, and Jalal-ud-din Khalji,
of coins but became widely used after Alauddin Khalji expanded
his coffers in South India. The weight and design of gold
coins are identical to silver counterparts, with the name of
the Caliph removed from the obverse and replaced with
Alauddin Khalji’s self-laudatory titles. Mubarak Shah’s gold,
silver, and Bullion coins use the traditional Indian square
design, making them some of the finest in the series.
The title of Ghazi, was first used by Ghiyas-uddin
Tughlaq, the first Sultan of Delhi. The majority of bullion
coins minted by these early Sultans were nearly identical
in size and weight. There are various types, including the
Indian variety known as delhiwala, which featured a humped
bull with the name of the sovereign written in Nagari and a
horseman called the Delhi Chauhan on the obverse. Another
type, with the horseman on one side and the Sultan’s name
♦ Other coins
and title written in Arabic, was in circulation until the reign
of Nasir-uddin Mahmud. Dates were originally included on
Aaluddin Khalji’s silver coins. Some coins and bullion pieces
contain the inscription adl, which may only signify cash in
its most basic form. Muhammad ibn Tughluq was referred
to as “the Prince of moneyers” due to his large output of
gold, numerous issues of all denominations, interest in
inscriptions, and experiments with coinage.
Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign saw the emergence of
gold and silver coins of similar types as his predecessors. In
the 14th century, India faced a silver shortage, leading the
♦ Token currency Sultan to issue copper coins instead. He introduced the Jittal
(copper coin) as an equivalent to the tanka. However, this
new token currency was difficult for traders and common
people to accept. The government failed to prevent people

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 119
 from forging new coins, leading to a flood of new coins in
the markets. People began minting token currency in their
houses, but common people failed to distinguish between
royal treasury and local-made coins. As a result, the Sultan
was forced to withdraw the token currency.
Six different varieties of Firoz Shah Tughlaq’s gold coins
were circulated, with the Caliph’s name on the front and
his own on the back. Coins were issued with both Firoz’s
♦ Copper coins name and his son, Fath Khan, beside each other. Gold and
silver coins from future rulers are scarce. Only three pieces
of silver currency belonging to Firoz have been found, but
copper coins are abundant. Despite the variety, most coins
were made of copper.
Throughout the entirety of the time, with just two notable
exceptions, only one mint name, Delhi, is mentioned.
The lengthy reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq appears to have
♦ Currency as a established his currency as a popular means of commerce,
popular means of and this is presumably what explains the protracted series
commerce
of his posthumous billion coins that has extended over forty
years at this point. Despite the fact that they used a different
standards, the coinage of the Lodi family is strikingly
similar to the currency used during the reign of the Sharqi
monarchs of Jaunpur.
Although the Mughal empire was created after the
destruction of the Delhi Sultanate, the currency system was
really established during the reign of Babur. This occurred
despite the fact that the Mughal kingdom was established
after the loss. The name “Shah Rukh” was given to the silver
coins that were produced under Babur’s reign. On one side
of the coin was the name of the monarch, along with his
title and the date. The other side included an image of the
coin. Initially, coins were spherical but were subsequently
♦ Mughal coins altered to take on a square configuration. In addition to
silver coinage, gold and copper coins were also brought
into circulation. During his reign, the name of Prince Salim
appeared on a number of coins issued in medieval India. On
one side of the coins that were minted during this period
was the word “Kalima,” while the other side of the coin
had the words “Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir Badshah
Ghazi” written on it.
On one side of the coins struck under the reign of Shah
Jahan was the word “Kalima’’ and the name of the mint,
while on the other side was his name and the title “Sahib-

120 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 qiran Sani Shihabuddin Muhammad Shah Jahan Badshah
Ghazi.” The names of the Caliph’s were written on the
other side of the margin from the titles that were written
♦ Coins of
on one side. On the obverse side of the currency that was in
Shah Jahan and
Aurangazeb
circulation at the time of Aurangzeb’s reign, his name and
title were written as “Abu-al-zafar Muiuddin Muhammad
Bahadur Shah Alamgir Aurangzeb Badshah Ghazi.” The size
of the coins that were minted at that time was lowered to that
of a “Dam” as a result of the rise in the price of metal at that
period. During the reign of Akbar and Jahangir, there were a
restricted number of locations that issued coins, but during
the reign of Aurangzeb, the number of locations increased.
The design of the Rajput currency, in its most basic form,
included the name of the Ruler on one side and an image of
Goddess Laxmi on the other. The Devnagiri script was used
♦ Rajput coins to write the inscriptions on the coins. These gold coins have
always weighed 4.5 Masha, which is the same as 3.6 gms and
has been the standard for centuries.
The coins that were used during the time of the
Vijayanagara Empire were exceedingly well-liked and even
served as a model for subsequent generations of coinage.
The Ruler’s likeness appeared on one side of the coin, while
his name appeared on the other. This design was used for
all of the coins. The Devanagiri script was utilised for the
♦ Coins of most part on these coins. Gold and copper were the two
Vijayanagara
most common metals used to strike coins in the kingdom of
Empire
Vijayanagara. The front of the majority of gold coins minted
in Vijayanagara had a religious picture, while the reverse
featured a regal legend. The important gold coins of the
Vijayanagara Empire were those that had the image of the
god of Tirupati, which Lord Venkatesvara depicted either
single or with his two consorts. These coins served as the
impetus for the Dutch, French, and English to design “Single
Swami” pagodas, while the English East India Company
created “Three Swami” pagodas.
The Vijayanagara Empire was responsible for the
production of a large quantity of gold coins, along with coins
made of pure silver and copper. On pagodas representing
♦ Features of higher denominations, there is an image of a runner with
coins
the insignia of a dagger. Earlier, Vijayanagara coins were
produced at a number of mints and were known by a variety
of names. Some examples of these names were Barkur
gadyanas and Bhatkal gadyanas. Inscriptions written in
Kannada and Sanskrit have been discovered. Among the

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 121
 pictures that were found were a bull, an elephant, a two-
headed eagle with an elephant held in each of its beaks and
claws, as well as numerous depictions of Hindu deities. On
one side of the gold varahan coin that was produced during
the reign of Krishna Deva Raya (1509–1529) was a sitting
Vishnu, while the other side included a three-line Sanskrit
inscription that read Shri Pratap Krishna Raya.

[Link] Various Types of Weights and Measures of

Medieval India
Before the metric system, Indian measuring systems were
divided into three periods: the era before Akbar’s reign, the
♦ Division of period of the Akbar system, and the period under British
Indian measuring colonial rule. The weights and measures varied depending
system on region, commodity, and rural or urban setting. Akbar
decided to standardise the system using barley grain, which
introduced a barley corn standard (Jau) for length and
weight determination. The width of a jau was used as the
standard, while the weight of a jau was used as the measure.
In the era of Shah Jahan, the Ilahi Gaz, spanning 840 to 860
millimetres, held crucial significance with one Gaz consisting
of sixteen Grehs, each equal to two pais. Standardised
♦ Standardized
measurements
measurements were pivotal for trade, commerce, and
administration in medieval India, showcasing variations
across regions and periods while maintaining common
themes. Ancient and medieval India utilised the yojana for
length, a measure reflecting a day’s walk.
For weight, the ratti, based on a carob seed’s weight
(around 0.121 grams), assessed pearls, while the tola (around
11.66 grams) gauged precious metals. The masha, weighing
approximately 0.972 grams, served various applications.
Volume saw the kudava, averagely 600 to 700 milliliters, in
♦ Weights
business and trade. The bigha quantified land area, varying
from a third to an acre. Grain measurement featured the
seer (roughly 933 milliliters) and the maund (about 37.3
liters) assessed bulk products. Varied values in medieval
India necessitated later efforts to standardise measurement
systems, eventually replaced by the metric system in modern
India.

3.2.2 Trade and Commerce

[Link] Development of Trade and Commerce
in Medieval India
During the medieval period, there was a significant

122 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 surge in the monetary gains derived from trade and
business activities on the Indian subcontinent. Numerous
non-agricultural industries flourished concurrently with
the expansion of urban centers, fostering an increase in
♦ Medieval trade international commerce. In the realm of business, the
boom predominant members of the middle class were merchants or
engaged in other non-agricultural professions such as Vaidya.
While a select few merchants focused on retail trading, the
majority of business owners concentrated on wholesale
transactions.
Merchants predominantly involved in wholesale dealings
were known as Seth, whereas those primarily engaged in retail
transactions were referred to as Banik. Individuals engaged
in commerce traversed various locations, utilising banjaras to
♦ Merchants’
transport goods, including food grains, salt, numerous oxen,
roles defined
and other everyday items. Transactions were often facilitated
through the exchange of hundis, representing an agreement
for payment at a specified future date. Over time, British
and Dutch invaders in India recognised the already well-
established trade and commerce system.
Metropolitan towns played a pivotal role as primary trading
hubs for international commerce during medieval India.
Numerous organisations dedicated to trade and commerce
♦ Metropolitan
emerged during this period. The arrival of English and
hubs vital for Dutch merchants in the early 17th century further propelled
trade India’s involvement in global trade. India actively welcomed
merchants from other countries, aiming to challenge the
Portuguese monopoly on maritime commerce. The Indian
market became increasingly integrated with global markets,
particularly the European market.

[Link] Inland Trade

During the medieval period, the land revenue was collected
in cash. Traditional grain traders, known as banjaras, handled
most transactions, which were then transported to other
cities and markets. According to Tavernier, a French traveller
♦ Buying and who visited India in the latter part of the 17th century, every
selling of goods hamlet had a market for various goods, including rice, wheat,
butter, milk, vegetables, sugar, and even goats, sheep, and
chickens. Every significant town or community had a sarraf or
money changer. Additionally, nearby cities had marketplaces
for buying and selling goods, frequented by both buyers and
sellers. There were also hat and penth marketplaces where
people from surrounding villages could sell or buy their daily
needs. These marketplaces took place on predetermined days

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 123
 throughout the week, with occasional caps for specific types
of merchandise.
Food grains, salt, rudimentary tools and equipment made
of wood and iron for agricultural and home purposes, and
coarse cotton fabrics were all possible to be purchased in
these neighbourhood markets. These kinds of marketplaces
may be found in every little municipality and the larger
community. In the 17th century, Banarsi Das described
♦ Mandis Jaunpur as having 52 parganas, marketplaces, and 52 mandis,
or wholesale markets. This suggests that every pargana had
both retail and wholesale markets. Economic operations
were managed by a network of large and minor markets,
such as hats, penths, and mandis, and individual merchants.
Tapan Raychaudhuri suggests that each village was part of
a limited trading circuit, including mandis, which mediated
the flow of goods.
Smaller business centers in an area were connected to
larger commercial centers in the region, such as the Mughal
provinces. These regions had larger commercial centers that
acted as nodal centers for all goods produced in different parts
of the suba. The administrative headquarters of the suba were
typically located in these significant towns. Examples of such
commercial hubs include Patna, Ahmedabad, Surat, Dacca,
Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Ajmer, Thatta, Burhampur,
♦ Commercial Masuliputnam, Bijapur, Hyderabad, and Calicut. These
centres locations were significant commercial hubs not only for their
local goods but also for acting as emporia for commerce
between regions and other countries. Ahmedabad, a town
in the 17th century, had access to 19 mandis and an estimated
income of 42,860 dams per annum from commercial taxes
levied in its market. This income was based on the size of
the market, as the income from commercial taxes was a
significant indicator of the town’s economic status. The area
around Ahmedabad was a hub for commerce.
Delhi, Agra, Dacca, and Lahore each had their own
unique market for specific items. J. Linschoten’s account of
Goa in the late 16th century describes daily auctions on the
city’s main thoroughfare, lined with stores offering various
fabrics. These cities had a large population of merchants,
brokers, and sarrafs, and numerous sarais, or rest houses,
for the convenience of traders and travellers. These cities
were known for their diverse offerings and bustling trade
scene. The goods produced in neighbouring cities, suburbs,
and villages eventually reached these centers, such as Patna,

124 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 which imported silk, cotton clothing, fruits, vegetables,
opium, and sugar from various regions of the subcontinent.
Some cities, such as Burhampur, Ahmedabad, Cambay,
♦ Imports and Surat-Sarkhej, and Agra, were known for their expertise in
exports trade, such as cotton mandi, cotton textiles, gems market, and
indigo. Each major commercial hub had a mint producing
silver, copper, and gold coins in specific locations.

[Link] Inter-Regional Trade

During the medieval period, India experienced advanced
commerce, with a massive trade of goods across regions.
The goods, manufactured in one location, were transported
over considerable distances, often covering hundreds or
♦ Trade of goods thousands of kilometers. Food grains, textiles, luxury goods,
across regions metals, and weapons were the primary items traded. Long-
distance commerce also involved luxury goods, metals, and
weapons. However, discussing the specifics of this trade in
various commodities is difficult due to the vast number of
them.
Bengal, located in the east of India, has strong commercial
ties with other regions. The cities of Hugli, Dacca,
Murshidabad, Malda, Satgaon, Tanda, Hijili, Sripur, and
Sonargaon are significant commercial hubs. Hugli is a
notable center of commerce, where items from Bihar, Orissa,
and other regions are brought in for sale. Food grains from
other parts of the country were also transported to Bengal.
Rice and sugar from Yatna were transported to the market.
♦ Commercial Bengal also offers a variety of textiles from Bihar, Benaras,
hubs in Bengal and Jaunpur, with Lakhawar textiles being purchased by
merchants from across India and abroad. Gujarat and Bihar’s
silk manufacturing relied heavily on raw silk from Bengal,
which was then exported to India and other countries.
The Bengali and Bihari marketplaces were abundant with
Kashmiri saffron, making it easily accessible to buyers.
Burhanpur was a key source of Bengal’s cotton chintz, which
was also used in the production process.
Bengal and northern cities like Agra and Banaras
established commercial connections, with textiles from
various regions being shipped to Ahmedabad and Surat.
♦ Textile and Gujarat made silk from raw silk from Bengal and distributed
spices it across the northern market. Pepper and spices were
supplied from the Malabar coast, and Multan and Lahore
received Gujarat-originating textiles. Gujarat also exported
Sarkhej indigo, a renowned quality indigo, from Bengal.
The towns of Gujarat, Konkan, and Malabar engaged in

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 125
 significant commercial activity, with textiles from Bengal
and Sarkhej indigo being exported throughout India.
Bengal’s finest silk was shipped to Agra, while regions
like Gujarat, Bengal, Patna, Lahore, and Multan received
rugs and textiles from the Awadh area. Saffron, wood
products, fruits, woollen shawls, and other goods were
exported from Kashmir to various markets in India. Ice
was exported from Kashmir to Lahore, Multan, Agra, and
Delhi. Paper from Shahzadpur was distributed across India,
while indigo from Bayana was shipped to southern cities.
Rajasthan’s marble was distributed to Agra and Delhi.
Foodgrains were transported from the north to Gujarat, with
♦ Imported items most business conducted along the shoreline. Masulipatam
was responsible for selling Bengal indigo, white pepper and
spices from the Malabar coast, which were transported to
Bijapur, Coromandel, and the Konkan coast. Tobacco grown
in Gujarat was transported from Masulipatam to Bengal.
Diamonds mined in the Golconda region were distributed
throughout India.
During Mughal Empire, India was a major producer
of minerals and metals, with salt primarily produced in
Rajasthan and Punjab being transported to all regions. Iron
was sourced from central India, Rajasthan, Punjab, and
Sindh, while high-quality steel was produced in Kutch,
♦ Minerals Gujarat, and other regions in Deccan and South India.
Rajasthan was the primary source of copper, and saltpetre
was sourced from Bihar, Sind, Rajasthan, and northern India.
Coastal areas were responsible for salt production through
seawater evaporation.

[Link] Coastal Trade

Due to the long distances and slow interregional
transportation, commerce was primarily carried out via the
sea route, involving numerous coastal communities. The
western shore was the hub of this trade, while the eastern
♦ Sea trade
shore saw significant commercial activity. Each shore had
distinct organisational differences, with the western shore
facing piracy issues, leading to convoy traffic. On the eastern
shore, small boats were in constant activity throughout the
year.
From May to September, commercial vessels undertook
two or three voyages connecting Goa to Cochin and Goa to
Cambay, ferrying a range of commodities such as wheat,
oil, legumes, sugar, and textiles. The Cambay convoy

126 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 typically included approximately 200-300 boats and ships,
while the Cochin-Goa route transported a diverse array of
♦ Trade during goods. Coastal boats from Bengal and the Coromandel coast
the monsoon rendezvoused with ships from Malacca and the east near
the coast of Ceylon, and the entire fleet received protection
through convoying on its journey to Cochin.
The Coromandel coast served as a prominent trade route
for the transportation of goods such as copper, zinc, tin,
tobacco, spices, and chintz from Vijaynagara and Golkonda.
Gujarat supplied spices to the Coromandel coast, while
♦ Coromandel Malabar provided additional spice trade. Coastal towns in
Trade routes Orissa were also connected with both the Coromandel and
Malabar coasts. The Coromandel route played a vital role in
transporting textiles, groceries, iron, steel, and various metals
from Vijayanagara and Golkonda. From the Bengal coast,
rice, textiles, and diverse goods embarked on their journey
to the western shore. Key coastal trade routes included Sind
to Cambay, Gujarat to Malabar, Bengal to Coromandel, and
Malabar to Coromandel.

[Link] Foreign Trade

India has maintained commercial links with a number of
different nations for many generations. Throughout the time,
there was a shift in the customary pattern of commerce and
commodity exchange. During the 16th and 17th centuries,
India enjoyed a prosperous commercial relationship with
♦ Expansion of a wide number of different nations around the world. The
foreign trade Europeans’ monopoly on corn was the most important factor
in the international trade that took place during this period.
This resulted in a significant expansion in India’s commerce
with other countries. The majority of this commerce consisted
of the export of Indian wares and products. The amount of
goods imported was quite low.

Exports and Imports

The majority of India’s exports consisted of textiles,
saltpetre, and indigo at one point in time. Sugar, opium,
spices, and other assorted goods were also among the key
♦ Textile exports products that were traded. During the 17th century, India’s
textile manufacturing reached unprecedented success due
to increasing exports. Prior to European arrival, Mughals,
Khorasanis, Iraqis, and Armenians were the primary
customers of Indian cotton textiles. These goods were
transported to Central Asia, Persia, and Turkey via the land
route through Lahore. The Dutch and English later focused

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 127
 on the textile industry in India, sourcing various types of
cotton fabrics such as Baftas, Samanis, Calico, Khairabadi
and Daryabadi, Amberty and Qaimkhani. Later, various
types of Eastern shore cotton fabrics were produced,
including chintz or printed cotton textiles, and carpets from
Gujarat, Jaunpur, and Bengal regions.
Silk fabric from Gujarat and Bengal was a significant
export in the 16th century, with demand for cotton and
silk yarn increasing. According to Moreland’s estimations,
the demand from the English Company alone was 200,000
pieces in the year 1625, 1,50,000 pieces in the year 1628, and
♦ Silk and Cotton
around 1,20,000 pieces in the year 1630. The supply was
trade
affected by Gujarat famines in the 1630s, but cargo from
Surat carried over 50,000 pieces annually from 1638 to 1641.
After 1650, exploration continued along the eastern coast,
with Madras providing almost one lakh pieces annually. The
Netherlands also had over 50,000 pieces. In 1661, Armenians
purchased cotton textiles worth around 10 lakh rupees to
send to Persia. Although these figures are approximations,
they offer insight into large-scale textile exports.
During the 17th century, saltpetre, a key component in
gunpowder production, was in high demand in Europe.
The Dutch and English began shipping saltpetre outside
♦ Saltpetre - the Coromandel region, exporting moderate quantities from
Gunpowder Coromandel, Gujarat, and Agra. Trade from Bihar to Orissa
production and Bengal ports began in the second half of the 17th century,
with Bihar becoming the most significant provider. By
1658, the English imported over 25,000 maunds of saltpetre
annually from Bengal ports.
Indigo, a key ingredient in blue dye production, was
primarily produced in the Punjab, Sind, and Gujarat regions
of northern India. The indigo from Sarkhej in Gujarat and
Bayana in the vicinity of Agra was in high demand on the
♦ Indigo - export market. Before reaching Europe, it was sent to the
Colonial cash Persian Gulf and distributed in Aleppo markets. In the
crops late 16th century, the Portuguese began trading with other
countries, leading to a high demand for dying woollen fabrics
in Europe. In the 17th century, the Dutch and English began
exporting the product, with merchants from Persia and
Armenians also purchasing significant quantities. The Dutch
and English managed to acquire between 25,009 and 30,000
maunds annually during the middle of the 17th century. The
demand for indigo continued to rise in subsequent years.

128 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Indian ports such as Chaul, Diu, Goa, Dabhol, Calicut,
and Bhatkal, as well as Arabian and Persian ports such as
Aden, Jeddah, Ormuz, and Esh-Shihr, participated in a
♦ Arabian Sea robust and lucrative trading network around the beginning
trade
of the fourteenth century. This commerce was known as the
Golden Age of Trade. Cloves, cardamoms, pepper, ginger,
saffron, sandalwood, indigo, and other spices make up the
good leaving Indian. In exchange, India was given a large
number of commodities, most notably Arabian horses.
Between the 16th and 19th centuries CE, the Mughal
Empire controlled South Asian territory. European trading
enterprises, participating in the Asia-Europe-intra Asian
trade market, increased foreign commerce in India, engaging
♦ Textiles with countries like Egypt, Arabia, Central Asia, China, Japan,
dominated Persia, Nepal, Holland, France, England, and Portugal.
Mughal exports India’s textile export market share reached 25% before the
17th century. European merchants exported muslin, silk,
and cotton textiles, with cotton fabric being a significant
export. Other goods like sugar, spices, opium, saltpetre, and
pepper from Malabar were also exported.
India’s importable goods during the 16th century CE
included velvet, equine products, firearms, wine, fragrances,
and fruit. Traders also brought horses and carpets from
Arabia and Persia. The Portuguese monopoly on India’s
international trade led to a shift in commercial exchanges by
the 17th century CE. The English established the East India
Company in the 17th century CE, relocating the Portuguese
♦ Imports
to Goa and the French to Pondicherry. The British ensured
low-cost manufactured items reached India’s marketplaces,
creating a captive market for their companies. India
transitioned from an exporter of high-end items to an
exporter of raw materials, particularly in the textile sector.
The British also influenced Indian farmers to plant crops
that met their needs, altering agricultural patterns due to the
shift in commerce.
During the medieval period, India had significant
commercial relationships with other nations. European
♦ Colonisation of merchants arrived, leading to the establishment of ports
India’s trade
in Goa, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut. India’s vast resources
attracted merchants from around the world, transforming
the commercial relationship between India and Europe.

3.2.3 Trade and Development of Towns

The thriving economy led to the establishment of new

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 129
 towns to promote economic growth. Ethnic groups like the
Banias, Marwaris, and Multanis relied on commerce as their
primary means of subsistence. The banjaras carried their
business via caravans, constantly moving between locations.
Delhi was the centre of entry and exit for goods from the
♦ Thriving trade East, Kanauj, Doab, and South. Luxury items like metalware,
economy ivory, jewellery, and cotton fabrics were also exported. Other
goods from East Africa, Arabia, and China are also sourced
from Delhi. Ibn Batuta described Delhi as a wonderful city
during his visit. The expansion of commerce increased the
use of money, leading to the introduction of the silver tanka
(coin), devised by Iltutmish. The system of weights used
during this time remained in use until the recent adoption of
the metric system.

3.2.4 The Decline of Trade and Commerce

The seventh to eleventh century saw a significant decline
in commercial activity and trade in India. Villages’ economic
independence led to a decrease in commerce, impacting
♦ Decline in town expansion. Arab geographers observed fewer cities
international and towns in India compared to China. Warfare between
trade neighbouring kingdoms also impeded trade. The fall of the
Western Roman Empire and the expansion of Islam, which
led to the downfall of ancient empires like the Sasanid
Empire in Iran, also impacted India’s international trade.
The favourable trade that had brought gold and silver back
into India was also hindered.
The opening of Central Asia to traders from the Persian
Gulf and West Asia led to a decline in North Indian overland
♦ Significance of commerce with China. Conflicts between Chinese, Tibetans,
maritime routes Turks, and Arabs made the land path to China dangerous.
As a result, the maritime route between India and China
became more significant. The Mongol conquests in the
thirteenth century ended India’s connection to Central Asia,
halting overland commerce.

3.2.5 Trade Routes and Means of Transport

[Link] Inland Trade Routes
The Mughal Emperors established a complex network of
trade routes linking the Empire’s economic centres by the
♦ State support 17th century. The state or chieftains maintained these roads,
for trade sometimes crossing rivers using fords or bridges. The state
or nobility also constructed fords and bridges. However,
the roads’ condition during monsoons was poor, with some
becoming impassable due to rain. The state built kos minar

130 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 towers to display distance and roadway alignment, but only
found them along more frequent paths. Sarais, marketplaces
on major roads, served as resting areas for travellers and
traders, providing living places and storage spaces for their
belongings. These Sarais were essential for the economy and
the lives of nomadic travellers.

[Link] Various Trade Routes

The historic trade routes from Agra encompassed diverse
paths, each weaving through significant regions. The Agra-
Delhi-Kabul route traversed Agra, Faridabad, Delhi, Sonepat,
Panipat, Kamal, Ambala, Ludhiana, Fatehpur, Lahore,
Rohtas Fort, Rawalpindi, Shamsabad, Peshawar, Fatehabad,
and finally reaching Kabul. Another route led from Agra to
Burhanpur and Surat, winding through Dholpur, Gwalior,
♦ Trade routes Narwar, Sironj, Handiya, Talner, Nandurbar, Kirka, and
from Agra concluding in Surat. The Surat-Ahmedabad-Agra route
ventured through Surat, Broach, Baroda, Ahmedabad,
Palampur, Jalore, Merta, Ludana, Hinduan, Fatehpur Sikri,
and returned to Agra. Lastly, the Agra-Patna-Rengal route
covered Firozabad, Etawa, Sarai Shahzada, Allahabad,
Banaras, Sahasram, Daud Nagar, Patna, Munger, Bhagalpur,
Rajmahal, Dampur, and Dacca. These routes played a pivotal
role in historical trade and cultural exchanges.

[Link] Routes for Foreign Trade

1. Overland Route: During the medieval period, the path
that was associated with the so-called “great silk road” was
the land route that was travelled the most. The so-called
“great silk road” started in Beijing and wound its way across
♦ Silk Road Central Asia, stopping in Kashigar, Samarqand, Balkh, and
Kabul along the way. Lahore served as a connection point
for territories further inland in India via this important route.
It went through Multan, Qandahar, Baghdad, and after
crossing the Euphrates, it arrived in Aleppo. The route began
in Afghanistan and ended in Syria. The goods were then
transported to Europe via ships after being unloaded there.
2. Overseas Route: Before the discovery of the Cape of Good
Hope, marine routes via the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
were popular in the north, transporting goods from regions
♦ Oceanic trade like Cambay, Surat, Thatta, Dabhor, Cochin, and Calicut to
Aden and Mocha. Alexandria was a hub for goods delivery
into European nations. Following the circumnavigation of
the Cape of Good Hope, European countries gained access
to previously unavailable opportunities and worked directly

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 131
 with India and South Asia. Indian traders conducted seaborne
commerce with China and the Indonesia Archipelago,
shipping goods to Achin, Batavia, and Malacca from Hugli,
Masulipatnam, and Pulicat. Historically, traders would
travel to Macau and Canton in China across the Straits of
Malacca.

[Link] Means of Transportation

Oxen were crucial for carrying loads and acting as pack
animals, with grain traders moving in caravans with 10,000-
20,000 pack animals. They were used for transportation by
various merchants, including banjaras. Oxen carts could
carry four maunds, while wagons could hold forty. Oxens
♦ Land Transport could travel for up to 30 days, covering 20-25 miles daily.
Camels were used for transporting commodities in the
western region, while mules and hill ponies were used in
high mountainous areas for large goods, with human labour
also used.
During the ancient period, a substantial number of rivers
created a system of waterways for transportation, with
Bengal and Sindh having the highest boat traffic. The boats
carrying goods from Agra to Bengal were consistent, with
♦ River transport hundreds travelling between Agra and Bengal. Around 2,000
boats were present at Rajmahal, and around 40,000 in Sindh.
♦ Transformations
in subcontinental Flatboats, known as ‘patella,’ could transport 130-200 tonnes
trade and commerce of cargo. They moved faster in the same direction as the river
and took less time than road travel. River transportation
was also more cost-effective, with products from Multan
to Thatta costing Rs. 314 per maund, compared to Rs. 2 per
maund for land transport.

[Link] Potentialities of Capitalist Development

Medieval Indian merchants held significant capital, as
evidenced by European records. In 1663, some merchants in
Surat had over 5-6 million rupees, while Mulla Abdul Ghafur
♦ Merchants held
of Surat owned property valued at 8 million rupees and
significant capital
owned twenty ships. English factors testified that his trading
transactions were similar to those of their organisation.
Virji Von, another businessman in Surat, owned an estate
worth 8 million rupees. Manrique (1630) was amazed by
the extraordinary wealth of merchants in Agra, observing
money stacked up in their homes like grain mounds.
Merchants and non-mercantile tribes, including Mughal
Emperors, royal women, princes, and nobles, contributed
to the commercial economy. Their investments were lower

132 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 than those of merchants, but their participation expanded
the size of the “money-market.” The Mughal Empire had a
well-developed financial infrastructure, including a robust
♦ Expanding banking and credit system. The Sarraf, a banker responsible
money market for money transfer and issuance of bills of exchange, played
a crucial role in expanding the “money-market.” Their
participation expanded the size of the “money-market” in its
own way.
The Sarraf reduced merchants’ hundi value, increasing trade
funds. A developed method of finance involved insurance
for products in transit. Commercial institutions resembling
bottomry and respondentia lent money and charged interest.
By the 17th and 18th centuries, fundamental monetary and
♦ Bottomry and economic institutions were operational, possibly leading the
Respondentia medieval economy towards capitalism. These developments
contributed to the development of the medieval economy.
During the medieval era, large-scale manufacturing of
commodities, particularly textiles, saltpetre, and indigo, was
conducted on a massive scale. The establishment of brokerage
simplified the procurement process for Indian and foreign
merchants, while well-established transportation methods
adapted to the limitations of the medieval era.
Capitalist relations only exist when capital dominates
and controls a significant portion of the production process.
Industrial and mercantile capital differ in their involvement
in the manufacturing process. Industrial capital is not directly
♦ Artisans ruined involved; rather, it involves works by self-sufficient artisans
by capitalism who own tools and raw materials to produce finished
products. This system, known as the Domestic Craft System,
was eradicated by capitalism, which transformed these
artisans into wage labourers. As a result, industrial capital
eventually gains control of the means of production and the
entire system.
The transition from merchant capitalism to industrial
capitalism in Medieval India was not sudden but rather a
gradual domination of labour and production by capital.
This transition was known as the putting-out system, which
was an established practice even before the 17th century.
The putting-out system allowed for the introduction of
commercial capital into the existing artisan-level mode of
♦ Sellers Market production. The putting-out system involved brokers, as
advances provided to primary producers by merchants were
executed via brokers. The Indian economy of the 17th century
was a sellers’ market, with high demand and a large number

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 133
 of customers eager to compete for purchases. Merchants,
particularly those involved in international trade, excluded
competitors and ensured timely delivery of goods at agreed
rates. The primary producers agreed to accept advance
payment to fulfil large orders.

Summarised Overview

In medieval India, the intricate web of coins, transactions, and standardised

weights and measures played a pivotal role in facilitating commerce, cultural
exchange, and maintaining market order. While the rural economy relied on barter
systems, urban centres thrived with markets and monetary trades, particularly in
the Mughal era, where Chettiars, Banias, and Bohras were notable social groups
in the open market.
A standardised multi-metallic monetary system initially spurred commerce.
However, during the 14th and 15th centuries, the Indian economy faced a setback
due to a global scarcity of silver. Southern India responded by creating a bi-metallic
coinage by mixing copper with gold. Robust partnerships and the prominence of
Sarrafs, influential money lenders, characterised the financial landscape. The term
“money transfer” referred to bills of exchange. At the local and regional levels,
commerce predominantly revolved around food grains, coarse cloth, salt, and
everyday commodities, with markets like hats or penths serving as hubs. Villages
supplied goods to towns, forming an economically interconnected network
through land and water routes. Coastal areas participated in commerce through
sea routes, with the West Coast as a central hub.
India maintained a strong trade surplus, exporting textiles, indigo, saltpetre,
and sugar to various Asian and European destinations. The arrival of the English
and Dutch bolstered international trade, particularly in indigo and saltpetre.
Import restrictions were imposed, with silver, woollen fabric, and luxury goods
being the primary items brought into the country. The Mughal administration
levied taxes and customs on traded goods, occasionally exempting certain
European enterprises. The commercial activities of high-ranking officials and
nobles occasionally complicated matters for merchants and European businesses.

134 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Assignments
1. Explain Inland and overseas trade in medieval period.
2. Discuss the decline of trade and commerce during the Medieval
period.
3. Critically explain the growth of coinage during the medieval period.
4. Explain standardized weights and measures used in the medieval
period.

Suggested Reading
1. Richards, D. S. (Ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia, Oxford, 1970.
2. Richards, John F. (Ed.), The Imperial Monetary System of Mughal India,
Delhi, 1987.
3. Singh, Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India. from the
Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson, Delhi, 2013.
4. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (Ed.), Money and the Market in India 1100-1700,
Delhi, 1994.
5. Tracy, James D. (Ed.), The Political Economy of Merchant Empires,State
Power and World Trade, 1350-1750, Cambridge University Press, 1991.

Reference
1. Chandra, Sathish, Essays in Medieval Indian Economic History,
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, New Delhi, 1987.
2. Chauhan, G.C., Economic History of Early Medieval Northern India,
Atlantic Publishers & Dist., New Delhi, 2003.
3. Krishna, B., Foreign Trade in Early Medieval India, Harman Publishing
House, New Delhi, 2000.
4. Raychaudhuri, Tapan (Ed.), Contributions to Indian Economic History,
Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay, Calcutta, 1960.
5. Raychaudhuri, Tapan and Habib, Irfan (Ed.), The Cambridge Economic
History of India c. 1200-c. 1750, Vol. I, Orient Longman, Delhi, 1982.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 135
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

136 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 New Varients of
Religious Systems
BLOCK-04

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 137
 UNIT Confluence of Ideas and
Practices
1
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ examine the origin of Bhakti Movement in Medieval India
♦ explain the factors that facilitated the emergence of the Bhakti Movement
♦ define the Saguna and Nirguna Schools of Bhakti cult
♦ explore the main preachers of Bhakti Movement in medieval India

Background
A silent social revolution led by a wide range of socio-religious reformers, the
Bhakti movement played a significant role in the cultural history of medieval India.
It alludes to the theistic devotional movement, eventually transforming medieval
Indian society. The Bhakti movement promoted the growth of regional literature
and offered individuals at the bottom of Indian society greater clout. In Kerala and
Tamil Nadu, the Bhakti movement began in the seventh and eighth centuries. In
the 15th century, it made its way to North India via Karnataka and Maharashtra.
In the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Bhakti movement reached its peak.
The Alvars and Nayanars initiated the Bhakti Movement in South India. The
followers of Lord Shiva are known as Nayanars, and the followers of Lord Vishnu
are known as Alvars. Singing praises to their gods, these believers travelled from
one location to another. Several temples constructed during this period are now
revered as sites of worship. In this unit we will discuss the Bhakti movement in
Medival India and its important preachers.

Keywords
Bhakti, Saguna and Nirguna, Kabirpanthis, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ramanuja, Namdev,
Ramananda

138 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Discussion
4.1.1 Medieval Culture and Religion
[Link] Life and Culture of Medieval India
The Indian languages, folk art, and religious developments
during the Medieval period have played significant roles in
the development of the country’s composite culture. New
religious movements like the Bhakti movement, Sufism and
♦ New Religious
Trends Sikhism aided this trend. You may observe how Islam has
influenced many facets of Indian culture by just looking
around. You may have noticed India’s most well-known
monuments. These structures serve as representations of the
hybrid character of India’s Indo-Islamic culture.
Additionally, you may observe the ways in which India’s
diverse religions—Islam included—have impacted one
♦ Influence on another. Furthermore, folk art of one kind or another is
Indian Culture renowned to have originated in all parts of India. Another
important facet of Indian culture is the growth of folk arts,
which allow the common people to express their creativity.
The fascinating history of the several regional languages that
we speak now also developed during this time.
Upon their arrival, the Muslim invaders chose to settle in
♦ Advent of India. They married Indian women and adopted an Indian
Arabs way of life. Ideas and customs were exchanged with each
other. The two had a huge impact on one another’s manners,
attire, speaking patterns, and philosophical perspectives.

4.1.2 The Bhakti Movement in Medieval

India
[Link]. The Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti saints were well-liked religious teachers in the
era besides the Sufis. Though they had been teaching for
a longer period, their teachings were comparable to those
of the Sufis. The businessmen, artists, and craftsmen all
♦ Become One
with God
regarded them favourably. The villagers gathered around
to hear them as well. The saints of Bhakti and Sufis shared
similar beliefs and customs. Their central conviction was that
they had to become ‘one ‘ with God. They emphasised that
the foundation of a connection with God is love or devotion.
The Bhakti saints criticised religious dogma and the objects
of devotion. They welcomed women to participate in their
religious events and disregarded caste. The Bhakti saints

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 139
 imparted their knowledge entirely on vernacular language,
ensuring that even the most basic brains could understand it.
Though they came from a variety of backgrounds, the Bhakti
♦ Disregard saints were mostly from lower castes. Many were from the
Caste system
less affluent class of peasants, or they were artisans. They
emphasised the need for religious tolerance. The Alwars and
Nayanars of the Tamil Bhakti Cult established the practice of
teaching Bhakti through songs and tales.

[Link] Origin of the Bhakti Movement

The Bhakti movement originated in south India, mostly in
Tamil Nadu, between the seventh and the twelfth century.
It had progressively moved to the north by the end of the
fifteenth century. The two prominent Bhakti saint groups in
South India, the Nayanars (Shiva Devotees) and the Alvars
♦ Originated in (Vishnu Devotees), rejected Buddhist and Jain austerities in
the South favour of teaching devotion to God as a method of salvation.
Most of their poetry dealt with the holy relationship between
the worshiper and the Almighty.
The Bhakti saints wrote and spoke in vernacular languages
like Tamil and Telugu so that the common people could read
and repeat them. The Bhakti tradition did not necessitate the
♦ Meaning of presence of a priest. As a consequence, the movement gained
Bhakti more popularity. The word ‘Bhakti’, which denotes a devotee,
comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Bhaj’, which means ‘to share’,
‘participate in’, or ‘be a part of’. The Bhakti is a spiritual term
meaning ‘total devotion’.

Reasons for the Origin of Bhakti Movement

1. Political Reasons
There were many factors that led to the emergence of
the Bhakti movement in medieval India. The rise of
Turkish political hegemony and the spread of Islam
reduced the Brahmins’ authority and stature. As a
result, the groundwork for non-conformist movements
♦ The Rise of with anti-Brahmanical and anti-caste ideologies was
Turks laid. The Brahmins had duped the people into thinking
that the idols and pictures in the temples were real
gods with divine power and the ability to affect people,
rather than just representations of God. The Brahmins
lost their temple wealth and official support when the
victorious Turks took over. As a result, the Brahmins
experienced material and intellectual suffering.

140 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 2. Socio-economic Reasons
The growing urban classes especially artisans were not
satisfied with the traditional Brahmanical hierarchy,
attracted towards the Bhakti movement because of
♦ Role of artisans
its egalitarian ideas. The development of cities, urban
crafts production and the opening of new markets were
also facilitated the growth of Bhakti movement.

3. Complexity in Religion
The teachings of the Upanishads and Vedas were
difficult for the common man to follow. Hinduism had
also become extremely ceremonial, and the caste system
had taken roots. Both Buddhism and Jainism lacked
adherents and encouraged severe austerity. Conversely,
♦ Rituals in
the Sufi movement was growing in popularity due to its
Hinduism egalitarian beliefs and simple prayer style. The People
were looking for ways to satisfy their spiritual and
emotional demands. These elements contributed to the
growth and dissemination of the Bhakti tradition. The
Bhakti saints opposed conventional religious practices
and advocated for certain changes. Many rituals and
complex religious practices were being followed across
the country. Nonetheless, there remained a desire to
adhere to more direct worship of god, other spiritual
practices, and social conventions. There was more
clarity in the presentation of the Bhakti Marga.

4. Role of Religious Reformers

Many Bhakti saints have had a lasting impact on
common people. The saints like Ramanuja, Shri
♦ Bhakti saints
Chaitanya, Namdev, Ramananda, Mirabai, Shankara,
Kabir, Nanak, Surdas, Nimbarka, Tukaram, Tulsidas,
Chandidas and Vallabhacharya influenced them a lot.

[Link] and Nirguna Cults of Bhakti Movement

There were two streams of Nirguna and Saguna Bhakti in
♦ Two streams northern India. The two schools of Bhakti saints were divided
by their respective conceptions of God.

Saguna Cult
The Saguna School of thought held that the God has a
distinct form and attributes. The Saguna School believed that
God takes human form and attributes good deeds, such as
Rama and Krishna. The Saguna School stood for saints who

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 141
 composed poetry extolling a God according to the attributes
or structure. The saints like Tulsidas, Chaitanya, Surdas,
and Meera belonged to the Saguna School. The Saguna
♦ Belief in school upheld the caste system and supported the Brahmin
Incarnations dominance. They encouraged the worship of idols and
advocated a religion of subordination and uncomplicated
faith in a personal God. They acknowledged the Vedas’
spiritual value and the necessity of a human teacher serving
as a conduit between the divine and his followers.

Nirguna Cult
The poetic-saints who glorified God beyond all attributes
or forms were symbolised by the Nirguna. Another name
for them is monotheistic Bhakti saints. The two biggest
supporters of Nirguna were Nanak and Kabir. The Nirguna
saints denounced idolatry, caste-based customs, and the
♦ Belief in
Monotheism Brahmin authority in general. Although they referred to their
God by a variety of names and titles, they prized intimate
relationships with the divine. They believed that their God
was formless, eternal, non-incarnate, and indescribable. Their
perspectives seemed to combine three traditions: Sufism, the
Nathpanthi movement, and the Vaishnava notion of Bhakti.

4.1.4 Important Preachers of the Bhakti Movement

During the Middle Ages, caste-based Brahminism gained
popularity. However, there was also resistance to the same.
People sought solace in the teachings of the Buddha or
Mahavira. Some were drawn to the idea of a ‘Supreme God’
♦ Idea of who, if approached with dedication, might free them from
Supreme God such servitude or Bhakti. The Bhagavad Gita’s advocacy of this
concept gained traction in the early Common Era. The legacy
of the Sufi and Bhakti traditions that have developed since
the eighth century is an intense love or devotion to God.
The concept of Bhakti gained so much popularity that the
Buddhists and Jains also embraced it.

Kabir (1440 CE- 1518 CE)

Kabir was the disciple of Swamy Ramananda, the
Vaishnava saint. Similar to Nanak, he advocated for Hindu-
Muslim unity. While criticising the current societal structure,
♦ Oneness of
Kabir vehemently objected to the worship of idols and the
God
performance of formal religious rituals like the Namaz,
pilgrimages, and ritual bathing. His goal was to spread a
universally accepted religion that would bring all religions
together. He emphasised the ‘oneness of God’. He referred

142 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 to Him(God) as Allah, Gobinda, Hari, and Rama. You have
probably read his Hindi “Dohas,” or “couplets.” His views
were revealed through an extensive collection of lyrics
known as Sakhis and pads, which are performed by itinerant
Bhajan singers and purportedly penned by him.
The core of Kabir’s teachings was a total rejection of the
caste system and major religious traditions. He held that
♦ Devotion to devotion, or Bhakti, was the sole road to salvation and that
God there was only one formless Supreme God. His poetry was
written in a simple style that was even understandable to the
common people. He attracted both Muslims and Hindus as
followers.

Kabir Panthis
The people who follow the great saint Kabir and his
teachings are known as Kabirpanthis. Kabir made an effort
to bridge the gaps in the religious landscape of north India
♦ Followers of
and increase understanding between Islam, Hinduism, and
Kabir
other non-Hindu religious faiths. His eclectic spirituality
was centred on devotion to God, or Bhakti.
Kabir was a master of what is known as “inner religion,”
which is the loving submission to the heart’s dwelling
God. Sabda, the word, is the central doctrine of Kabir.
Instructions of Kabir Das were given verbally; nothing was
recorded in written form. The Kabir Vani, or Kabir’s words,
were composed after his death. The earliest known written
♦ Kabir Vani
account dates to around 1604 CE., and it may be found in
the Sikh Guru Granth. Two more updated versions of the
Kabirvanis exist: the Bijak, which was popularised, though
not assembled, by the Kabirpanthis of Bihar, and the Kabir
Granthavali, which was put together by the Dadupanthis of
Rajasthan about 1600 A.D
Kabir himself belonged to the lowest caste, the sudras,
and many of his followers were women. Kabir disapproved
of the extraneous aspects of religion, including Hindu
♦ Criticise pilgrimages, image worship and the Hajj. Even though Kabir
religious evils opposed sectarianism, his pupils and followers eventually
established a sect after his death. The Kabirpanthis of today
are identified as the Hindus. Today, its doctrine and practices
have deviated from the original teacher’s goals, as is the case
with all religious movements.
The Kabirpanthis hold that Kabir was a miraculously born
incarnation. They have followed ritualism, although they

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 143
 still adhere to monotheism and reject image worship. Even
though Kabir disapproved of caste, they still engage in some
♦ Practices of exclusivity today. The Kabir Chaura Math is located where
Kabirpanthis Kabir used to lecture his followers customarily. The Gaddi,
Kabir’s pillow, and the Khanraon, a pair of wooden sandals
that symbolise the man’s feet, are both kept at the math or
monastery. Images of Mahants, Kabir, and Ramananda adorn
the walls of the math.
There were 843,171 Kabirpanthis in the 1901 Census.
There are still a lot of Kabirpanthis that exist today, mostly
centred in Benares and stretching to Bihar in the east and
♦ Spread of Gujarat in the west. The majority of members are Hindus
Kabirpantis from lower castes, with merchant class having a significant
influence, particularly among the Dharmadasis. The Bhajans,
or devotional songs, are a major source of influence for the
Sant tradition and are immensely popular in India and among
the Hindu populations abroad.

Tulsidas(1511 CE - 623 CE)

Tulsidas, was a renowned poet who gave Bhakti religion a
literary expression. His lyrics helped to popularise the Rama
cult. By honouring Lord Rama as the divine embodiment in
human form, he elevated the ethical standards of Hinduism.
Through his writings, Tulsidas popularised the heavenly
♦ Rama Cult tale of Lord Rama. Tulsidas composed his writings in the
regional vernacular of Avadhi, a subset of Hindi, the primary
language spoken in the central regions of India. Because it
was the language of the people, Tulsidas’ writings were
immediately comprehensible, accessible, and beloved by the
general public.
He wrote in a literary style that skillfully combined Indian
traditional music with classical music’s many Raagas (tones,
and notes) to tell the glorious story of Lord Rama. The people
♦ Practices of instantly accepted this over speeches that were too dry and
Rama Cult monotonous for the general public or the staccato chanting
of hymns. Through his writings, he disseminated the idea
that the simplest and most practical way to find Mukti
(liberation and deliverance), Shanti (peace and tranquillity),
Sukha (happiness and joy), and Anand (bliss) is to have
love, devotion, faith, and submission for Lord Rama, who
is none other than the incarnate Supreme Being known as
Parmeshwar, the Supreme God and the Lord God.

Guru Nanak (1469 CE - 1539 CE)

Guru Nanak was born to a Khatri family from Talwandi,

144 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 a hamlet now known as ‘Namlama’.. Guru Nanak enjoyed
the companionship of saints and Sufis. He departed from
his home to join the pirs and saints. He wrote hymns and
performed them with the use of a musical instrument called
“Rabab.” His songs are still popular, and he placed a strong
focus on love and adoration for God alone. He vehemently
disapproved the use of idolatry, pilgrimages, sacrifices, and
ceremonies to approach God. He stated that the prerequisite
♦ Approach to to approaching God was to be pure in both behaviour and
God character. He believed that everyone may attain a spiritual
life while carrying out their home tasks, and he founded a
centre named ‘Dera Baba Nanak’ on the bank of river Ravi in
Kartarpur. Dharamshala is the name given to the hallowed
area that Guru Nanak so established.
Guru Angad, was chosen by Guru Nanak as his heir before
he died. The writings of Guru Nanak were collected by Guru
Angad, who also contributed his own works to a brand-new
character called Gurmukhi. The writings of Guru Angad’s
♦ Compilation successors, who also wrote under the pen name “Nanak,”
of Guru Granth were collected in 1604 by Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru
Sahib who was executed Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Guru Gobind
Singh verified the authenticity of this collection in 1706. We
now refer to it as the Guru Granth Sahib.
The town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) sprang up around the
main Gurdwara, Harmandir Sahib, in the early 17th century
(Golden Temple). It was known as “a state inside the state”
and was essentially self-governing. This enraged Mughal
Emperor Jahangir, which resulted in Guru Arjan’s execution
in 1606. The 17th century saw the politicisation of the Sikh
movement, which culminated in Guru Gobind Singh’s
♦ Establishment establishment of the Khalsa in 1699—the organisation known
of Khalsa as the Khalsa Panth. Since Guru Nanak believed that freedom
was the pursuit of an active life with a strong sense of social
obligation rather than a state of inactive joy, his concept of
equality had social and political ramifications.

Ramanuja(1017 CE - 1137 CE)

Ramanuja, also called Ramanujacharya, was a prominent
member of Sri Vaishnavism and a philosopher, theologian,
and social reformer. The Bhakti movement benefited from his
devotionalism-based philosophy. The three most significant
♦ Vedantic Vedantic philosophies of the second millennium were
Philosophies Madhavacharya’s Dvaita philosophy (theistic dualism),
Adi Shankara’s Advaita (non-dualism), and Ramanuja’s
Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism).

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 145
 As a way of achieving spiritual emancipation,
Ramanujacharya highlighted the epistemic and soteriological
relevance of Bhakti, or devotion to a personal God—in
Ramanuja’s case, God Vishnu. His beliefs uphold ‘unity’,
while claiming plurality and differentiation between the
Atman (soul) and Brahman (metaphysical, ultimate reality).
♦ Vishishta
He holds that the creative process, which includes all that is
Advaita
created, is real and not illusory as Shankaracharya believed,
and that God is Saguna Brahman. Ramanuja, therefore, holds
that the matter, God, and the soul all are real. On the other
side, God is the core essence, and the remaining elements are
his attributes.
In Vishishtadvaita, the Brahman and the cosmos are seen as
two equally real entities, much like in dualism. But rather than
existing independently of Brahman, the cosmos is created from
it. It is believed that the Brahman is an omniscient, personal
♦ The Brahman god who created the cosmos out of himself. Consequently,
and the Cosmos the universe carries the relationship of a part to the whole
or the relationship of a “qualified consequence” to Brahman’s
basis. According to the well-known analogy, Brahman is the
sea and things, living and non-living, are the waves upon
this sea.
Ramanuja claims that Brahman is a totally individualised
God who is believed to be Vishnu or one of his Avatars. He
thought that Vishnu presided over the cosmos at all times and
that he created it out of his love for humans. Additionally, he
thought that Vishnu had all the qualities of a personal deity,
including omniscience and omnipotence. The statement
“mankind has a superior rank and is closer to God than
in pure dualistic devotion” distinguishes Vishishtadvaita
♦ Individualized from dualism. In Vishishtadvaita, the cosmos and Brahman
God are seen as equally existing; unlike in dualism, they are not
seen as two distinct realities. Ramanuja advocated for giving
oneself up to God. He also preached the restoration of Bhakti
and welcomed Vaishnavism to those from disadvantaged
backgrounds. Among his writings are Sribhashya, Vedanta
Dipa, Gita Bhasya, and Vedantasara.

Vishishtadvaita
Among the Vedanta schools of Hindu philosophy,
Vishishtadvaita is one of the most well-known. The Sanskrit term
meaning “End of the Vedas” is called ‘Vedanta.’Vishishtadvaita
is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is a school
of Vedanta philosophy that holds that there is an underlying
unity that subsumes all varieties. Four key concepts form the

146 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 foundation of Visishtadvaita:.
Tattva: Tattva refers to three distinct entities: Jiva,who
are sentient living souls; Ajiva, who are non-sentient;
and Ishvara, who are the same (Vishnu-Narayana, also
known as Parahbrahman; the ultimate self, the source
♦ Non-dualism of all manifestations, and the residing grace-giver;
dependent on karma).
Hita: Hita can be attained by practises like Bhakti
(devotion) and Prapatti (self-surrender).
Vivishta: The most exclusive (apart from the rest)
Purushartha: The desired outcome, such as moksha
(freedom from enslavement).
Namdev (1270 CE -1350 CE)
Within the Varkari school of Hinduism, Namdev,
also known as Namdeo, and Namadeva, was a Marathi
Vaishnava saint from Narsi (Maharashtra). He was a
♦ Varkari Pandharpur-based devotee of Lord Vitthal(a form of God
Tradition Vishnu). He is recognised as the originator of the Varkari
tradition. Vaishnavism had an impact on Namdev, who rose
to fame in India with his musically structured devotional
songs (Bhajan-kirtans). His theory has monistic themes and
features of both Saguna and Nirguna Brahman. In North
Indian traditions of the Dadu Panthis, Kabir Panthis, and the
Sikhs, he is also acknowledged.
Renowned saint Namdev was a follower of the Vithoba
religion. His real name would have been Namdeo Relekar.
His seventh-generation descendant, Yadusheth, adhered to
♦ Devotion to the Bhagavata-Dharma. Soon after his conception, his family
Vitthal moved to Pandharpur, a holy place of the Lord Vitthal, also
known as Vithoba.
According to legend, Namdev is a manifestation of
Uddhava, one of Lord Krishna’s closest friends and most
devoted followers. The eleventh Skanda of Srimad Bhagavatam,
which is known as the Uddhava-Gita, has 24 portions in
♦ Records of which the Lord speaks with Uddhava. Scholars claim that
Namdev texts written decades after Saint Namdev’s passing include
numerous miracles and specifics about his life. For instance,
Mahipati’s Bhakta Vijay, which was composed in 1762, is
the first source to mention the birth theory of Namdev.
Furthermore, with time, Namdev biographies written after
reveal fresh biographical details and other marvels.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 147
 Namdev placed a strong emphasis on a persistent,
sincere devotion to having a direct, profound relationship
♦ Abhangas with Brahman. Namdev left a vast amount of Abhanga(short
devotional poems). However, he did not produce any
notable treatises. About 4,000 Abhangas are left, although
most have been lost.

Ramananda (1400 CE - 1470 CE)

Ramananda was born in Allahabad, and received
education at Varanasi. He delivered sermons in different
parts of the region. His goal was to purge the Hindu faith
♦ Belief in of its immoral traditions. He wished people understood that
Equality there was no such thing as a high birth and that all individuals
were created equal in God’s sight. His supporters came from
a variety of backgrounds. Sena was a barber, Kabir was a
weaver, Sadhana was a butcher, and Ravidas was a cobbler.
Ramananda worshiped Lord Rama. He believed that
in order to fully devote oneself to Lord Rama, one must
♦ Devotion to give up social standing and caste affiliation. According to
Lord Rama Ramananda, “Let no one ask a man’s race with whom he
feasts.” A guy becomes Hari’s slave if he dedicates himself
to Hari (God Vishnu). Adherents of Saint Ramananda hail
from diverse backgrounds. Ramananda was a gifted and
charismatic speaker who drew sizable audiences everywhere
he went, but his verses have almost completely perished.
With the help of the impoverished, especially members of
♦ Ramanandi lower castes, he created a radical philosophy. With the aid
Cult of women and members of lower castes, the Ramanandi cult
led a socialist revolution on the Gangetic plain following the
death of Ramananda. Moreover, the growing acceptance of
Lord Rama’s worship may be attributed to Saint Ramananda.
Today t he most important Vaishnava monastic order
in Northern India today is the Saint Ramananda tradition
of religious instruction. There are Ramanandi temples
♦ Spread of spread over several states, including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Ramanandi cult Delhi, Bengal, Bihar, Rajasthan, Odisha, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Rajasthan, Gurgaon, Punjab and Karnataka (Shri Hathiramji
Temple at Mathura and Visakhapatnam). Ramananda was
well-known for taking followers from all castes and for
speaking i n a colloquial Hindi accent.

148 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Summarised Overview
The Bhakti movement disapproved of sacrifices and rituals as a form of
worship, placing more stress on devotion, humanism, and purity of heart and
mind as the surest ways to realise God. Fundamentally monotheistic, the Bhakti
movement worshipped a single personal God who may be formless(Nirguna)
or have a form (Saguna). Adherents of Nirguna Bhakti disapproved against idol
worship. They asserted that God resides in man’s heart and is all-pervasive. The
philosophy of Advaita was followed by both the Saguna and the Nirguna schools,
with minor modifications offered by different Bhakti saints. The Bhakti saints of
both North and South India acknowledged knowledge (Njana) as a component
of Bhakti. Acquiring true knowledge from a Guru was highly valued in the Bhakti
movement since it could be acquired through a teacher or Guru. For numerous
centuries, the whole Indian subcontinent was consumed in the Bhakti tradition,
which was a massive movement. Slowly, it became a popular movement. Its core
beliefs in love and devotion to a personal God and the concepts of the oneness of
the Godhead served as the foundation of the Bhakti movement.

Assignments
1. Mention the factors that facilitated the emergence of the Bhakti
Movement.
2. Explain the Bhakti movement and its significance in medieval Indian
society.
3. Discuss the features of the Saguna and Nirguna schools of Bhakti cults.

Suggested Reading
1.
1. Goswami, B. K, The Bhakti Cult in Ancient India, Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series Office, 1924.
2. Sadarangani, N. M, Bhakti Poetry in Medieval India, Sarup & Sons,2004.
3. Shima. [Link].(ed.), The Historical Development of the Bhakti Movement in
India, Theory & Practice, Manohar Publishers & Distributors, New
Delhi, 2011.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 149
 Reference
1.
1. Chandra, S., Historiography, Religion, and State in Medieval India,
Har-Anand Publications, 1996.
2. Hasan, SN & Chandra, S., Religion, State, and Society in Medieval
India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2008.
3. Sharma, K, Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement, Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers, 1987.

Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions

Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

150 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 151
 UNIT
Sufism
2

Learning Outcomes

After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ describe the emergence of Sufism in medieval Indian Society
♦ discuss the causes that led to the spread of Sufi Movement
♦ explain the important Silsilas of Sufism and its main preachers

Background
In the seventh century, Arab traders from Saudi Arabia brought Islam to India
with their commerce. Following that, in north India, the faith spread to Multan
and Sindh, when Muhammad Bin Qasim conquered those areas in the eighth
century CE. However, under the patronage of sultans of the Delhi Sultanate in
the tenth and eleventh centuries, Sufism rose to prominence. Sufism in India
absorbed many indigenous ideas, including dance, music, and yoga practices.
Sufism has followers in both Hinduism and Islam. Islam refers to mysticism as
sufism, or tasawwuf. Sufis are those who follow Sufism, which is a philosophy and
set of activities that seeks direct communication between God and humanity. The
emergence of sufism and its principles are examined in this unit. It also analyse
the contributions and impact of sufism.

Keywords
Sufism, Silsilas, Chishti, Suharvadi, Nakshabandi, Kanqas

152 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Discussion
4.2.1 Emergence of Sufism
[Link] Social Change and New Identities
Mostly as traders, Muslims initially arrived in India in the
seventh century CE. They chose to settle in India because
they were enthralled with the socio-cultural landscape of the
nation. Traces of Indian knowledge and culture were brought
back to India by traders from Central and West Asia. They
therefore spread this knowledge throughout the Islamic
♦ Advent of Islam world and then to Europe, serving as cultural ambassadors
for India. Additionally, the Muslim immigrants learnt how
to coexist peacefully with the locals by forming marriage
relations with them. Ideas and customs were shared with one
another. Muslims and Hindus had an equal impact on one
another’s speech, etiquette, attire, traditions, and intellectual
interests. Islam, which the Muslims brought with them, has
had a significant influence on Indian society and culture.
In this Unit, let’s learn more about the Prophet Muhammad
and Islam. In the seventh century CE, the prophet Muhammad
spread Islam throughout Arabia. He was born in the Quraysh
tribe of Arabia in the year 571 C.E. When he moved from
Mecca to Madina in 622 CE, the Hijira Era officially began.
Muslims believe that the Quran is the word that Allah gave
to Muhammad through Gabriel, the archangel. The first
of Islam’s five guiding principles is Tauhid (belief in Allah)
♦ Principles of (2)Namaz (prayers, five times a day), (3) Roza (fasting in
Islam
the month of Ramzan), (4) Zakat (giving of alms)(5) Hajj
(pilgrimage to Mecca). The collection of sayings attributed to
Prophet Mohammed is known as the Hadith. The Caliphate
was created upon his demise. Islam preached about the
oneness of God, equality, and fraternity. Its introduction had
a particularly significant effect on Indian society’s customary
patterns.
In this sense, the growth of the Sufi and Bhakti movement
was quite significant. The Bhakti and Sufi traditions had the
same beliefs: God is almighty, all people are created equal,
and salvation can only be attained with devotion to God.
♦ Similarity of
Islamic mysticism is commonly referred to as Sufism. The
Bhakti and Sufi
religious perspectives of the Sufis were quite liberal. They
ideas
held that all faiths are fundamentally the same. Through their
music and teachings that proclaimed oneness with God, they
propagated spirituality. Originating in Iran, Sufism found a
friendly home in India during the Turkish era. Many Hindus,

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 153
 mainly from lower social groups, were drawn to Islam by its
feeling of devotion, tolerance, empathy, egalitarianism, and
amiable demeanour. The Sufi saints advocated, nearly the
same things as the followers of the Nïrgun Bhakti movement:
the oneness of God and self-surrender unto Him. Everyone
is drawn to music, regardless of language. Such music
gradually drew Hindus, who began pouring into the dargahs
in droves. The influence of Hinduism on Sufism was also
evident in siddhas and yoga poses.

[Link] Origin of Sufism

Within Islam, Sufism was a liberal reform movement. In
the eleventh century, it originated in Persia and moved to
India. The majority of Sufis, or mystics, were people of great
♦ Origin of
devotion who disapproved of the ostentation of wealth and
Sufism
the moral decay that followed the fall of the Islamic empire.
They emphasised love as the connection that exists between
God and each person’s soul. The Sufis held that service to
mankind was equivalent to the service to God since they
loved God and loved humanity.
In Sufism, self-control was seen as a necessary prerequisite
for developing a sense of awareness in order to understand
God. The Sufis place more emphasis on inner cleanliness
♦ Beliefs of
than on outward behaviour. While the Sufis considered love
Sufism
and devotion as the sole paths to salvation, but orthodox
Muslims believe in mindless adherence to rituals. Sufism
also placed a strong emphasis on ascetic activities such as
meditation, fasting, charity, repentance for sins, prayers,
pilgrimages, fasting, and restraining passions.

[Link].Divisions in Sufism
The Sufis were divided into 12 orders or Silsilahs, or
religious orders in the 12th century. These Silsilahs, which
♦ Silsilahs included Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadri, and Naqshbandis,
were named after their founders. Abul Fazl, states that there
were as many as fourteen Silsilahs in India in the sixteenth
century. Typically, well-known mystics who resided in a
Khanqah, functioned as a refuge for impoverished people
and Sufi saints before evolving into a centre of scholarship.
Ancient Indian Sufi saints like Moinuddin Chisti,
Nizamuddin Auliya, and Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar are still
revered, adored, and honoured even today. The Sufi system
relied heavily on the relationship between the instructor, also
known as the Pir or Murshid, and his students, also known

154 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 as the Murids. Each Pir designated a Wali or successor to
♦ Pir -Muridi continue his duties. The Sufi cities of Ajmer, Nagaur and
Tradition Ajodhan, also known as Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan),
sprang to prominence. These also initiated the Pir-muridi
tradition (teacher - disciple). The Sufis listened to poetry and
music (Sama), first written in Persian, but later translated
into Hindawi or Hindustani in order to achieve a state of
spiritual bliss.
The Khanqahs became significant preaching and learning
hubs for these students. In their Khanqahs, many Sufis
♦ Establishment delighted in the Sama, or musical assemblage. Indeed, it was
of Khanqahs around this time that Qawwali (a Style of Sufi devotional
music) emerged. With the establishment of Khanqahs, or
“abode of Sufis” the sufis became popular in north India.

[Link].Teachings of Sufism
The “oneness of being,” or Wahdat-al-Wujud, is the core
tenet of Sufism. This clearly derives from the Islamic Shahada,
which is considered to mean both “there is no Reality save
♦ Wahdat-al-Wu- Reality” and “there is no God but God.” It is true that one
jud of God’s names is al-Haqq, which translates to “Reality” or
“Truth.” According to Sufis, the finite has no existence other
than the infinite, and the relative has no reality other than
the absolute.
The Sufi traditions hold that the heart, not the head, is
where God is present. The Intellect or Spirit (ar-Ruh), which
permeates reality and transcends mental forms, resides in
the heart, not feelings. It is thought that human awareness is
trapped in a dreamlike, forgetful condition known as Ghafla.
Due to this, man has to be “reminded” of the things he has
♦ Dhikr forgotten. This is the rationale for Dhikr, which Sufis practise
in a wide range of methods. Dhikr basically incorporates the
ideas of invocation, awareness, concentration, and memory
into itself. Poetry and the visual arts are two other areas
where Sufism finds expression outside of the mind. The
primary reason for its widespread popularity among its
adherents is its ability to freely communicate with both the
general public and more erudite believers.

[Link].Principles of Sufism
One of the greatest Sufi saints of the Naqshbandi
order, Abdul Khaliq al Ghujdawani, compiled a list of
Sufi principles. These tenets basically sum up the several
fundamental demands and goals of Sufism as well as the

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 155
 most effective approach to adhere to them. Muhammad
♦ Compilation of Bahauddin Shah Naqshband later added three additional
Sufi principles principles to the list that he had created. One of the greatest
Sufi saints of the Naqshbandi Order of Sufis, Abdul Khaliq
al Ghujdawani, articulated the fundamental ideas of Sufism.
The Sufis practised loud Dhikr(remembering God), also
known as Jikr, Japa. This involved them reciting the name of
the Almighty aloud. The practice of Dhikr was first established
♦ Practice of and advanced by Shaikh Gujdawani. He was regarded as
Dhikr the maestro of Dhikr as he was the first Sufi order member
to employ it. Shaikh Muhammad Parsa, a biographer and
associate of Shah Naqshband, said in his book Faslul Khitab
that all forty Tariqats (Sufi Orders) accepted and extolled the
teachings of Shaikh Khwaja Abdul Khaliq al Ghujdawani.
The tenets of Sufism that he established are as follows:
Hosh dar Dam (Conscious Breathing): A sincere seeker
must always be aware that every breath he takes is infused
with God’s memory. Every breath he takes must be spent in
♦ Practice of God’s presence. Every breath that is intentionally taken is
Breathing alive, and every breath that is recklessly taken is lost. Every
breath should be used to make sure that one is not committing
a sin or an injustice. To truly understand the essence of the
Creator, one must remain in the presence of the Almighty at
all times. Seekers find it hard to protect themselves against
carelessness, though. As a result, they need to protect it by
asking for forgiveness, which will sanctify and cleanse it and
get them ready for the true appearance of God everywhere.
Nazar bar Kadam (Walking Consciously): Every action
made should be done so mindfully; in other words, one
should avoid doing anything that might hinder or derail
♦ Practice of their spiritual development. It also implies that since the
walking mind creates impressions by sight, one should refrain from
idly glancing here and there. For this reason, Sufi saints
advise their disciples to walk while simultaneously staring
at their feet. From a spiritual perspective, it might imply that
one must always have their goal in sight and that if they do,
they will undoubtedly arrive at their destination.
Safar dar Watan (Journey Homeward): This implies that
♦ Journey to the in order to reach the realm of the Creator, the seeker must
kingdom of God leave the world of creation. ‘Safar dar Watan’ is the process
of eschewing human frailties and worldly cravings in favour
of holy virtues. Two sections make up this voyage according
to the Naqshbandi Sufi Order. The first is external, when

156 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 the seeker looks for the Master out of desire. The Master’s
blessings and kindness usher in the interior journey. His
heart becomes pure as a result of the internal journey, which
also qualifies him to receive the divine gift.
Khilawat dar Anjuman (Solitude in the Crowd): “Khilawat”
refers to both internal and exterior isolation. In order to
practise external seclusion, a person must withdraw from
society, live alone, and dedicate his time to remembering
♦ Being alone God. This facilitates achieving the condition of interior
solitude and regaining control over sensuous impressions.
Internal solitude involves keeping one’s eyes fixed on God
at all times, whether one is walking, standing in a crowd, or
engaged in any other activity.
Yad Kard (Essential Remembrance): “Yad” signifies
memory, while “Kard” denotes the substance of memory.
♦ Remembering The crucial memory is to consistently practise repeating the
experiences “Japa,” or internal exercise as instructed by the Master, in a
way that causes the seeker to begin sensing the Almighty or
the Master’s presence in his heart.
Baj Gasht (Returning): “Baj Gasht” literally means “to
return to the beginning.” However, in its real sense, it refers
♦ Practice of to advancements made during the internal practice phase,
returning during which the seeker may have various experiences
like seeing lights, activating the mystique centres, gaining
miraculous powers, and so on. But since they might prick
the ego, these encounters frequently lead to the seeker’s
demise.
Nigah Dasht( Attentiveness): This implies that the seeker
♦ Practice of constantly keeps on remembering the Almighty. He should
Thought
always check his thoughts and protect his mind from ill
thoughts.
Yad Dasht (Recollection): It denotes ongoing memory.
♦ Recollecting Yad Dasht is the state in which the practitioner remembers
memory to the point that it naturally occurs in the heart via practice.

[Link] of Sufi Movement

[Link]. Rituals
The practice of paying respects at the graves and tombs
of revered Sufi figures is among the religion’s most well-
attended rites. These places have been transformed into Sufi
shrines and are now an important part of India’s cultural
and religious landscape. Ziyarat is the term used to describe

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 157
♦ Practice of
the practice of paying a visit to a significant location; the
Ziyarat most frequent example of this would be paying a visit to the
Masjid Nabawi. A saint’s tomb is a location of great devotion
since it is believed that the departed holy person’s blessings,
also known as Baraka, continue to reach the tomb after death
and are believed by some to assist followers and pilgrims
who visit the tomb.
To demonstrate their respect for the Sufi saints, monarchs
and nobles made substantial payments, known as waqf,
to the cause of preserving the tombs and renovating
their architectural design. Donations, rituals, and yearly
♦ Distribution of celebrations have, over time, evolved into a complex system
waqf of generally acknowledged standards. Many adherents of
orthodoxy or Islamic puritanism frown upon the practice
of visiting graves, particularly when it is done with the
anticipation of getting blessings from revered saints. Despite
this, these traditions have been passed down through the
centuries and show little sign of disappearing any time soon.

[Link]. Musical Influence

All Indian faiths have a rich legacy that has always
included music as an important component. People have
been attracted to music for many centuries since it is an
influential medium that can transmit ideas. The audience
♦ Practice of in India was already accustomed to the hymns that were
Sa’ma performed in the regional tongue. As a result, Sufi devotional
music became an instant hit among the populace. The Sufi
ideas were effortlessly imparted via music. In Sufism, the
word for music is “sa’ma,” which literally translates to
“literary audition.” Poetry would be chanted here to the
accompaniment of instrumental music, and this practice
would frequently send Sufis into a state of mystical rapture.
When you hear the word “sa’ma,” your mind probably
immediately conjures up an image of whirling dervishes
draped in white robes. Poetry and music were considered
an important aspect of education in many Sufi cultures. The
♦ Popular teachings of Sufism were packaged in popular songs, which
Music allowed them to reach a large audience. This contributed
to the religion’s widespread dissemination. Women were
particularly impacted, and Sufi melodies were frequently
sung throughout the day and at other times when women
got together.
Qawwali is the modern name given to meetings of Sufis.
Amir Khusro was a significant figure in the Sufi musical

158 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 heritage and one of its most important contributors. Amir
♦ Role of Amir Khusro was widely regarded as the most skilled musical
Khusro poet who lived during the early period of the Muslim rule in
India. He was renowned as a pupil of Nizamuddin Chishti.
It is generally agreed that he was the one who initiated the
Indo-Muslim devotional music traditions. Amir Khusro,
sometimes known as the “Parrot of India,” contributed
significantly to the Chishti affiliation by fostering the
development of Sufi culture in India.

4.2.3 Silsilas of Sufism

There are several different Sufi orders, and they are
♦ Sufi Orders referred to as Silsilas. Abul Fazl enumerated a total of
fourteen of these different directives. Some of them are
mentioned below.

[Link] The Chisti Silsila

Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti, who was also known by the
name ‘Gharib Nawaz’, is credited with founding the Chisti
order in India in 1192 CE. After living in Lahore and Delhi,
he moved on to Ajmer, which was a significant political
centre and already had a substantial Muslim community
♦ Formation of when he arrived there. He passed away in the year 1235 CE
Chisti order and the Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq paid a visit to his grave.
Subsequently, in the 15th century, Mahmud Khalji of Malwa
built a mosque on the site, which included a dome above
the prayer area. The patronage of the dargah reached new
heights after receiving backing from the Mughal Emperor
Akbar, who was known for his generosity.
Farid-ud-din Ganj-i-Shakar (about 1175–1265 CE),
commonly known as Baba Farid, was a Chisti saint. Hansi and
Ajodhan (in modern Haryana and the Punjab, respectively)
♦ Major centres
of Chisti order were the only major centres of the Chisti order. Because of
the Muin- ud-din Chisti’s perspective was so inclusive and
humanitarian, some of his poems were subsequently found
to be referenced in the Adi Granth, which is the holy book of
the Sikhs.
The Chistis lived a life that was austere and simple, and
they communicated with the people around them using
Hindawi, their native tongue. They were not at all engaged in
bringing about conversions; yet, in subsequent years, many
families and groups credited their conversions to the “well
intentions” of these saints despite the fact that they had little
interest in bringing about conversions. These Sufi saints

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 159
 rose to prominence after they began performing musical
♦ Chisti practices recitations known as Sama, which were intended to evoke
a sense of being close to God. As a result of Nizamuddin
Auliya’s dedication to yogic breathing practices, other yogis
referred to him as a Sidh, which literally means “perfect.”
The Chistis tried to keep their distance from state politics and
avoided associating with aristocrats and others in positions
of power.

[Link] The Suhrawardi Silsila

The Suhrawardi order’s influence was mostly limited
to Punjab and Multan. This Silsila was initially formed in
Baghdad by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi, whereas Bahauddin
Zakariya was responsible for its foundation in India. In
♦ Suhrawardi contrast to the Chishtis, the Suhrawardi actively participated
Order in political affairs while accepting maintenance funds from
the Sultans. According to the Suhrawardi school of thought,
a Sufi should have three qualities, which are property,
knowledge, and hal (mystical enlightenment). However,
they were not in favour of imposing extreme austerities and
engaging in self-mortification. They advocated combining
ilm (religious study) with mysticism in their teachings.

[Link] The Naqshbandi Silsila

Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi is the one who initially
developed this Silsila in India. Later on, his successors,
Shiekh Baqi Billah and Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1563–1624),
♦ Silent Sufis continued to spread the doctrine. Because they engaged in
the heart meditation in silence, people referred to them as
“silent Sufis.” In contrast to the Chistis, who felt that the
relationship between man and God was more like that of a
lover and their beloved, the Sufis of this Silsila held the belief
that the relationship between man and God was more akin
to that of a slave and his master.
The Sufis were required to uphold the Sharia (Islamic
law) in its most pristine form and were adamant in their
rejection of all biddats (innovations in religion). They were
opposed to the liberal policies that the Mughal emperor
♦ Distinctive Sect Akbar implemented, such as providing high status to a large
of Sufis
number of non-Muslims, doing away with the jizya tax, and
prohibiting the slaughter of cows. They were also opposed
to the practice of Sama, which is a means of meditating on
God through listening to music, singing and chanting. After
Sirhindi’s passing, the Order continued to be guided by two
significant mystics, each of whom had a distinct approach to

160 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 their work. Both a conservative and a liberal approach were
taken under the leadership of Shah Waliullah and Mirza
Mazhar Jan-i-Jahan, respectively.

[Link] The Qadri Silsila

During the time when the Mughals ruled Punjab, Sheikh
Abdul Qadir and his sons, Sheikh Niamatullah, Mukhdum
Muhammad Jilani, and Miyan Mir, founded the Qadri
Silsila. This religious order spread its branches throughout
Punjab. Shah Badakhshani was yet another well-known
♦ Doctrines of saint who belonged to this order. This Silsila had among
Qadri Order its students the Mughal princess Jahanara as well as her
brother Dara. The Wahdat-al-Wajood doctrine, also known as
the “Unity of Existence” or “Unity of Being,” was central to
the Qadri order. This doctrine holds the view that God and
his creation are essentially the same thing. The saints of this
Silsila disregarded aspects of conventional religion.

4.2.4 Impact of Sufism

The Shattari, Raushaniyah, and Mahdhawi were the
other three mystic groups that emerged during this period.
They took their cues from the dominant school of thought
♦ Sufism as a in Islamic philosophy at the time, emphasising the essence
religion of religion rather than its outward manifestations. In this
sense, Sufism was really a religion, or more specifically, an
intellectual and emotional reserve for thinkers, writers, and
mystics that was free from discrimination.
The school of Sufism is primarily an extension of the
Vedanta philosophy, the Hindu practice, and it saw a period
of fast expansion during Akbar’s reign. In a nutshell, the
Sufi concept had a tendency to bring people closer together.
♦ Sufis as The Sufis were considered to be heretics because of their
Heretics adherence to such beliefs, which were condemned by more
traditional adherents of Islam. Because of this, they started
keeping to themselves, became withdrawn, and ultimately
chose to live in isolation. Their language evolved into
something that was deeply symbolic and mysterious.
As a kind of protest against what they saw as a
misunderstanding of the Quran on the part of the Ulema,
the Sufis in India distanced themselves from the established
centres of orthodoxy. They held the belief that the latter,
in that they combined religion with political policy and
cooperated with the Sultanate, were departing from the
original democratic and egalitarian values that were

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 161
 outlined in the Quran. The Ulema condemned the Sufis for
♦ Confrontation their progressive beliefs, while the Sufis accused the Ulema
with the Ulema of giving into worldly temptations. The Ulema also attacked
the Sufis for their liberal principles. The Islamic insistence
on equality was observed more thoroughly by the Sufis
than it was by the Ulema, and this resulted in the mystic
groups coming in touch with the artisans and cultivators.
As a result, the Sufis rose to prominence as more effective
religious leaders among the peasantry than the more remote
Ulemas.

4.2.5 The Contributions of Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement has been quite active across India,
which may help to explain the widespread geographical
presence of Islam in the country. In South Asia, the practice
of Sufism had a pervasive influence on the region’s religious,
cultural, and social life. The Sufi saints are credited with
♦ Development the development of the mystical branch of Islam. The Sufi
of Mysticism intellectuals from all across continental Asia contributed
significantly to the social, economic, and philosophical
development of India. In addition to preaching in large
towns and other centres of intellectual thought, the Sufis also
went out to impoverished rural populations. They preached
in local languages such as Urdu, Sindhi, and Punjabi as
opposed to Persian, Turkish, and Arabic. It was other
religious traditions, such as Hinduism, that had a significant
impact on the development of Sufism as it evolved as a
“moral and complete socio-religious force.”
All kinds of individuals were drawn to their customs of
practising spiritual rituals and living a simple life. Even in
modern times, mystical stories and traditional melodies
continue to accompany their lessons on mankind, as well as
♦ Attitude of Sufis
their love for God and the Prophet. The Sufis were adamant
about avoiding conflicts of any kind, especially those of a
religious or communal nature, and they worked hard to
be a peaceful part of civil society. In addition, the attitude
of adaptability, flexibility, piety, and charisma is what
continues to enable Sufism to endure as a cornerstone of
mystical Islam in India.

4.2.6 Significance of Sufism

The Sufi movement was extremely important to the
development of Indian society. In the same way that the
Bhakti saints were working to break down the boundaries
within Hinduism, the Sufis were working to introduce a

162 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 new liberal viewpoint into Islam. The dialogue that took
place between early Sufi and Bhakti concepts created the
groundwork for more liberal movements in the fifteenth
♦ Liberal Views century. You will see that Kabir and Guru Nanak preached
a religion that was not sectarian and was built on love for all
living beings.
Ibn-i-Arabi is credited with popularising the idea of
“Wahdat-ul-Wajud,” also known as “Unity of Being,” which
was adopted by the Sufis (l165-1240). In his opinion, all
living things may be reduced to a single entity. There was
no difference between the various religions. This philosophy
became widely accepted across India. The Indian Yogis and
♦ Translation of the Sufis had a lot of conversations and shared a lot of ideas.
Hatha Yoga The Hatha-Yoga text was translated into both Arabic and
Persian. This is one of the most noteworthy contributions that
the Sufis made to Indian society. The Sufi saints kept a strong
relationship with the common people, in contrast to the
Sultan and the Ulema, who frequently maintained a distance
from the day-to-day issues that plagued the populace.
Nizamuddin Auliya was noted for his generosity towards
those in need, regardless of their faith or caste. It is believed that
he did not stop speaking until he had listened to each person
♦ Selflessness who came to the Khanqah. Serving one’s fellow humans was
considered by the Sufis to be the most selfless and devoted
form of worship of God. They did not differentiate in their
treatment of Muslims and Hindus.
Amir Khusrau (l252-1325), a disciple of Nizamuddin
Auliya, is considered to be the most significant writer to
come out of this period. Khusrau was extremely proud of
his Indian heritage and considered the history and culture
of Hindustan to be an integral part of his own customs and
practices. He composed lines in Hindi (sometimes spelt
♦ Development
Hindawi) and used the metre of Persian poetry in his Hindi
of Hindi
writings. He was the one who developed the new poetic
form known as Sabaq-i-Hindi. By the fifteenth century, Hindi
had already started to take on a defined form, and the Bhakti
saints like Kabir made great use of the language at this time.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 163
Summarised Overview
The Bhakti saints of medieval India were profoundly influenced by more
progressive and unconventional aspects. In subsequent periods, the theological
viewpoint of the rulers was affected by the concepts of Sufism, and these beliefs
also served to remind the rulers of their moral responsibility. For instance, both
the religious viewpoint and the religious policies of the Mughal Emperor Akbar
were heavily influenced by Sufism. Sufism had a profound effect on the masses
in terms of their political beliefs, social and cultural practices. It became popular
in both rural and urban areas. The attainment of spirituality took precedence
over all other goals, and the populace was given the opportunity to speak out
against all varieties of religious dogmatism, hypocrisy, and orthodoxy. The Sufis
endeavoured to bring about peace and harmony in a world that was ripped apart
by violence and conflict.
The most significant contribution that Sufism has made is that it has assisted
in the formation of a link of solidarity and fraternity between the communities of
Hindus and Muslims. The tombs of the Sufi saints are respected not just by the
Muslims but also by a sizable number of Hindus, and this has led to the tombs
becoming a regular location of pilgrimage for both of these religious groups.

Assignments
1. Examine the origin of Sufism in India.
2. Explain the social and political role of the Sufi saints in medieval India.
3. Analyse the impact of sufism on Medieval Indian Society.
4. Explain Silsila. Discuss various orders of Sufism.

Suggested Reading
1. Hussain, MF, Sufism in India: Harmonising socio-cultural Worldview,
Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2017.
2. Iraqi, S 2009, Bhakti Movement in Medieval India: Social and Political
Perspectives, Manohar Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2009.
3. Trimingham, JS, The Sufi Orders in Islam, Oxford University Press, 1998.

164 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Reference
1.
1. Arberry, An Introduction to the History of Sufism, Islamic Book Trust,
2015.
2. Bakshi, SR, Advanced History of Medieval India, Anmol
Publications, New Delhi, 2003.
3. Mahajan, V.D. and Bhatnagar, History of Medieval India:
Muslim Rule in India: Sultanate Period & Mughal Period, S. Chand
& Company, New Delhi, 2018.
4. Taneja, A, Sufi Cults and the Evolution of Medieval Indian Culture,
Northern Book Centre, 2018.

Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions

Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 165
166 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 UNIT Religion under Akbar
3
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ explain the religious policy of the Mughal Emperor Akbar
♦ describe the influence of Abul Fazl on Akbar
♦ discuss the significance of Ibadat Khana
♦ explain the principle of Din-i-Ilahi

Background
Akbar was not only a great military conqueror and an effective administrator, but
also a tolerant and liberal statesman who tried to bring harmony among the various
religious sections that existed in India. This is evidenced by Akbar’s establishment
of the Din-i-Ilahi, which shows that he tried to bring this harmony. Din-i-Ilahi was
the product of his interaction with adherents of different faiths throughout the
course of his life. Akbar made an effort to develop a national religion that was
universal to all by bringing together the high concepts and goals of the several
religions that existed at the time. Din-i-Ilahi, on the other hand, did not survive
after Akbar. Reviewing the fanaticism that existed at the time of Akbar’s accession,
as well as the elements that were responsible for shaping his religious policy, is
necessary in order to comprehend and value the liberalism and religious tolerance
that he practised.

Keywords

Monotheistic Movements, Ibadatkhana, Din- I- Ilahi, Mahzarnama

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 167
 Discussion
4.3.1 Akbar’s Idea of Religion
[Link] Religious Outlook of Akbar
The Mughal Emperor, Akbar was born, raised, and
lived, was distinguished by a fresh awakening of broad-
mindedness. It was natural that Akbar to be inspired by the
concepts and ideals that were prevalent throughout his time.
Akbar desired to break away from the dogmatism that was
prevalent among the Muslim priesthood elites. Despite the
♦ Mahzarnama fact that Sufi profoundly impacted his thoughts, he was not
fond of the political intervention that the Mullahs and Qazis
carried out. In 1579, he published the Mahzarnama, which
was a proclamation of unwavering authority, in which he
said that he was the most authoritative figure in all subjects
pertaining to religion. The ulemas and qazis in the community
did not approve of these actions.
Akbar was certain that without the support of the
Hindus, who made up the bulk of his people, he would not
be able to construct a powerful kingdom. In 1575, he laid the
foundations for what would later become known as Ibadat
Khana, a place where he would meet with religious thinkers
of a variety of faiths and engage in conversation with them.
♦ Ibadat Khana This is when his idea of Sulh-i-Kul received a boost, which
allowed it to develop further. Even though he was forced to
close it down a few years later, the conversations that took
place in the Ibadat Khana had a profound impact on him.
Akbar was known to conduct experiments in many fields,
from theology to metallurgy.

[Link]. Factors that Influenced Akbar’s Religious

Policy
There were several factors that contributed to Akbar’s
personality development, which, at the end, led him to form
a new religion known as Din-i Ilahi. The first factor was
the effect of inherited characteristics. His mother, Hamida
Banu Begum, was of the Shia faith of Iran, despite the fact
♦ Influence of
inheritance
that his father, Humayun, was a Sunni. She ingrained in his
head the significance of having an open mind. He was born
in the palace of the Rana of Amarkot, a powerful Hindu
leader. Bairam Khan, his most devoted protector and regent,
was also a member of the Shia. His marriage to the Rajput
princesses, as well as his interaction with the Hindus and the

168 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 cross-currents of the various reform groups, had a significant
impact on the development of his thinking.
The most influential of Akbar’s teachers, Abdul Latif,
instilled in him the importance of liberal values and
principles. He instructed him on the Sulh-i-kul guiding
principle (universal brotherhood). Shaikh Mubarak Nagori,
together with his sons Abul Fazl and Abdul Faizi, were three
♦ Influence of
renowned liberal-minded academics who had a significant
Academics
impact on Akbar’s religious orientation. His friendship with
these academics weaned him away from the path of Islamic
orthodoxy and compelled him to strive actively to gain
the happiness of direct touch with divine truth. Therefore,
Akbar’s religious policy moved in the direction of liberalism
as a result of a combination of hereditary traits and other
factors.

[Link] Influence of Abul Fazl

Despite being Akbar’s loyal courtier, Abul Fazl truly
admired and respected the emperor. He attributed his strong
conviction in religious tolerance to his early years, during
♦ Belief in which he and his family went through the worst of being
Secularism persecuted by the traditional Ulema. It turned out that this
was the beginning of a long friendship with Akbar. His
religious ideas were grounded in secularism, which valued
religious brotherhood, Sulh i-Kul (Peace with all), and the
equality of all religions.
Abul Fazl was regarded as a scholar and a thinker who
valued the virtues found in all faiths. He admired creativity
and reason in all spheres of life. Orthodox, conventional, and
customary values did not appeal to him. He mentioned that
religious and legal reforms ought to happen gradually over
♦ Akbar and time. The thoughts of Akbar, who declined to be a conservative
Abul Fazl himself and instituted novel policies and practices during his
reign, mirrored his modernity and religious logic. It makes
sense that Abul Fazl saw in Akbar the traits of a hero, king
and philosopher. Because of his official role and his personal
political and religious beliefs, Abul Fazl was obliged to
support, legitimise, and exalt Akbar and his actions.

[Link]. Contact with Other Religious

Exponents
Akbar was influenced by the practices of Hinduism from
the caste Brahmins like Purushottam and Devi. He remained
steadfast in his conviction in the doctrines of rebirth and the
reincarnation of the soul. Hira Vijay Suri, Vijaya Sen Suri,

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 169
 and Bhanuchandra Upadhyaya were among the Jain teachers
who had a significant impact on Akbar. Hira Vijaya Suri was
successful in persuading the emperor to liberate captives and
♦ Interest in birds that had been confined to cages, as well as to forbid the
Hinduism and killing of animals on particular days. Akbar was influenced
Jainism by Dastur Meherjee Rana, the religious head of the Parsis
in Navsari in Gujarat. Under his guidance, Akbar accepted
several rituals of the Zoroastrians, such as worshipping the
sun and fire, amongst other things. In addition to that, he
instituted the Persian holiday known as Nauroz.
Akbar showed a serious interest in the teachings of
Christianity and he sent an invitation to the Christian clergy
of Goa. The first Jesuit Mission to come to Fatehpur Sikri was
from Goa, and it arrived in February 1580. It was made up of
a Persian convert named Francis Henriquez, an Italian priest
named Father Rudolf Aquvaviva, and a Spaniard named
Antony de Monserrate. Francis Henriquez served as the
♦ Interest in translator. When the priests gave Akbar a copy of the Bible,
Christianity he responded with immense awe and devotion to the sacred
text. It was at this time that he entrusted Abul Fazl with the
task of translating the Gospel, and it was also at this time
that he requested that Monserrate instruct Prince Murad in
Christianity. In addition, Akbar constructed a modest chapel
in the palace for the use of the Jesuit priests and engaged in
lengthy conversations with them. Agra and Lahore both had
new churches at this time.
The Adi Granth, the holy book of the Sikhs, was considered
by Akbar to be a volume “deserving of veneration” by the
Mughal emperor. As a result, we see that Akbar attempted to
appease his religious curiosity by establishing relationships
with the adherents of a variety of faiths. Because of the
depth to which he engaged with each religion, various
♦ Interest in Sikh individuals had valid reasons for presuming that he was
faith either a Zoroastrian, a Hindu, a Jain, or a Christian. He went
to such lengths with respect to each faith. On the other hand,
he did not become a follower of any of them. It is a fact that
his disillusionment with Islam led to him studying various
faiths through the methods of conversations and arguments,
which ultimately culminated in his “eclecticism.”

[Link] The Infallibility Decree

Akbar was not a fan of the power that was held by the
ulema, since it served as a check on the total political control
he had over India. Akbar agreed with Shaikh Mubarak’s
assessment that he had the potential to be the highest authority

170 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 in the realm of religion as well. Therefore, on Friday, June
26, 1579, in order to emulate the Caliphs and his famous
ancestor Timur, Akbar ascended the pulpit of the mosque
at Fatehpur Sikri and read the Qutba penned by Faizi in his
own name. In order to emphasise his position as a supreme
head of religious affairs, a document was drafted that
would later become known as the Infallibility Decree. This
♦ Akbar as document was created in order to emphasise his position.
Imam -i- Adil
The top ulema handed over their power in spiritual issues
to Akbar as a result of this proclamation, which said that it
was “for the glory of God and the promotion of Islam.” With
the passing of the Infallibility Decree, Akbar was elevated
to the position of Imam-i-Adil, which is the highest spiritual
authority.

[Link] and Ibadat Khana

[Link]. Decoding Akbar’s Ibadat Khana
Ibadat Khna, also known as the House of Worship, was
a meeting house constructed in 1575 CE by the Mughal
Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) at Fatehpur Sikri. Its purpose
♦ Establishment was to bring together spiritual leaders of various religious
of Ibadat Khana grounds for the purpose of conducting a discussion on the
teachings of the respective religious leaders. He did this
because he was interested in learning many religions of the
world.
At this location, Akbar hosted gatherings for a limited
group of mystics, philosophers, and theologians, during
which they discussed many aspects of religious and spiritual
life. He welcomed religious and philosophical thinkers from
a wide range of traditions, including Hinduism, Islam,
♦ Akbar’s
Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and even some atheists. He
conversations engaged these individuals in discussions about various
religions. They went to Ibadat Khana, where they had a
conversation with Akbar about their religious beliefs. The
conclusion that all religions ultimately point to the same
destination was reached as a direct result of the conversations
that took place in the Hall of Prayer (Ibadat Khana).
Ibadat Khana was primarily intended to serve the purpose
of mediating disagreements between members of different
communities. The Dīn-i-Ilāhī known during its time as
Tawhīd-i-Ilāhī (“Divine Monotheism”, lit. ‘Oneness of God’)
or Divine Faith, was a new syncretic religion or spiritual
leadership program propounded by the Mughal emperor
Akbar in 1582, intending to merge some of the elements of

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 171
 the various religions practised by his subjects and create
a new religion for his empire, and thereby reconcile the
differences that divided his subjects. According to Alam
Khan, it was founded on the Timurid notion of Yasa-i Changezi
(Code of Genghis Khan), which states that all sects should
be considered to be the same. The primary sources for the
♦ Purpose of components were Hinduism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism,
Ibadat Khana but Christianity, Jainism, and Buddhism were also used for
parts of the elements. The Mughal Emperor Akbar, along
with several of his closest officials, abandoned Islam and
became followers of the new faith of Din-i-Ilahi.

[Link]. Sulh-i Kul

Sulh-i Kul is an Arabic phrase that derives from a Sufi
spiritual principle. Its exact translation is “peace with
everyone,” “universal peace,” or “perfect peace,” and it
refers to a state of tranquillity. When utilised by Akbar, it
represented a connection that was peaceful and cordial
♦ Peace with all among the people who practised other religions. Akbar
suggested Sulh-i-Kul, which translates to “unity and
harmony among all human beings,” as part of his efforts to
integrate his subjects who lived within his domain. The idea
encompasses not just a willingness to accept differences as
they are, but also the kind of equilibrium, politeness, respect,
and compromise that are necessary to preserve peace among
members of a varied society.
Sulh-i-Kul was the result of a synergistic effect brought
about by the Bhakti and Sufism that existed during that
♦ Purpose of period. It was a liberal ideology, which literally meant peace
Sulh-i-Kul
for all people everywhere. According to Irfan Habib, the
purpose of it was to educate all people with the primary
spiritual truth.

4.3.3 Towards New Religion

[Link] Din-I-Ilahi
At the Ibadat Khana, Akbar realised that the core beliefs of
all universal faiths may be summed up in a single statement.
He sought to promote harmony and understanding among
his subjects with whom he came into contact. With all of this
in mind, he brought together all other religions and created
♦ New Religion
a new religion that is now known as Din-i-Ilahi. In addition
to these names, it is sometimes referred to as Tauhid-i -Ilahi
or Sulh-i Kul. This is due to the fact that some critics assert
that the Din-i-Ilahi did, in fact, demonstrate that despite

172 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 social, political, and religious differences, the people can
come together on a common platform and unite for god and
the king.
Additionally, Akbar was responsible for establishing a
number of doctrines within this faith, which holds God to be
the supreme authority. It emphasises the betterment of the
general populace. In addition to this, Akbar requested that
the hint be followed all the way into Din-i-Ilahi. Therefore,
Din-i-Ilahi presents to the people the model that they can use
to generate the forces of national integration by overcoming
their respective religious pride and prejudices as well as any
♦ Din- i-Ilahi
other separatist or diverse tendencies they may have. This is
done in light of the fact that the model is presented to them
by Din-i-Ilahi. Akbar was able to offer not only political but
also moral and spiritual leadership to the people of India
throughout his time; hence, he is deserving of a position
of honour and pride in the annals of Indian history for all
future generations.
After conducting an in-depth and penetrating analysis of
the various theological issues that Akbar raised throughout
his time, we are in a position to assert that he had faith in the
beneficence of all world faiths. At the same time, he detested
the hypocritical behaviours that individuals engaged
in under the guise of their religious affiliation. It would
be incorrect to state that his imperialist mindset entirely
influenced his religious policy because it was helpful to him
in gaining the support of Hindus and Rajputs. His religious
♦ Purpose of policy may be praised in the sense that it helped him a lot
Din-i-Ilahi to obtain the support of Hindus and Rajputs. Even though
he was a devout adherent of Din-I-Ilahi and several other
religious philosophies, he never tried to force the people to
adhere to the same beliefs. It is possible to say that as an
emperor, he was quite liberal when it came to the idea of
religion, and the primary goal that he sought to achieve was
to try to please the adherents of all religions to a significant
degree.

[Link] Nature of Din-I-Ilahi

It is challenging to define the Din-i-Ilahi due to the fact
that Akbar, the religion’s creator, did not describe it. It was
neither the result of any revelation, nor was it founded on
any clear-cut philosophical or theological principles. It was a
religion that did not have any priests or holy books associated
with it. It was a form of moral rationalism that was supposed
to lead to the goal of mystically uniting one’s soul with the

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 173
 Divine. According to the Jesuit priest Bartoli, Din-i-Ilahi
was a new religion that was “composed out of numerous
♦ A New Religion
components, taken partly from the Quran, partially from the
scriptures of the Brahmins, and to some measure, as far as
suited his purpose, from the Gospel of Christ.”
The Din-i-Ilahi was an ingenious synthesis of the essential
tenets of all world faiths. Akbar was of the opinion that the
many religions were simply alternative routes that ultimately
led to the same destination. The Din-i-Ilahi enjoined such
♦ Synthesis of ethical and social reforms as recommending giving alms and
Worldly faith sparing of animal life, permitting re-marriage of widows,
prohibiting child marriage and marriage among close
relations as well as forced sati, recommending monogamy,
enforcing chastity, and controlling gambling and drinking
by restricting the sale of drink.

[Link]. Membership
In the book Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl gives details about the
Din-i-Ilahi. A unique ritual was utilised in order to inaugurate
a new member into the Din-i-Ilahi. The initiation of a new
member was scheduled to take place on all Sundays. Abul
Fazl, who served in the capacity of the “high priest,” was
the one who initiated the process that a person needed to
♦ Practice of go through in order to become a member of the Din-i-Ilahi.
Sijda The new member, holding his turban in his hands, bowed
his head to the feet of the emperor, known as the Sijda. The
emperor then raised him by touching his shoulders, replaced
the turban on the new member’s head, and gave him the
Shast, which was his own portrait and bore the inscription
“Allah is Great ‘’ (God is Great).

[Link]. Practices of Din-i-Ilahi

The members of the Din-i-Ilahi were obligated to follow
specific rituals and customs. They welcomed one another
by saying Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle Jalal Hu respectively. One
of the members chose to celebrate his birthday by hosting
a meal for the other members of the group. In addition,
throughout the course of his life, one of the members hosted
a banquet in his honour, in which he celebrated the fact that
♦ Customs of his passing would finally free him from the constraints of
Din-i-Ilahi this materialistic world. The members of the Din-i-Ilahi
attempted to avoid eating meat as much as possible, and
they did not eat with or use the utensils of those who made
their living from hunting animals, fishing, or gathering birds.
They undertook charitable work and did not marry elderly

174 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 ladies or girls under the age of 18.
There were four different levels of devotion to Akbar
among the followers of the Din-i-Ilahi, who regarded him
as their spiritual teacher. These were, in order of increasing
significance, religion (Mas), one’s life (Jan), one’s honour
(Namus), and one’s property (Masdin). One level of devotion
was possessed by a person who committed to sacrificing
only one of these things for his spiritual guide; two levels
♦ Devotion to of devotion were possessed by someone who committed
Akbar to sacrificing two things; and so on. Akbar was a staunch
believer in the idea of universal toleration, and he did not
make any attempt to push the Din-i-Ilahi on other people
with the zeal of a fanatic during his reign. There were only
eighteen members in Din-i-Ilahi, with Abul Fazl, his brother
Faizi, their father Shaikh Mubarak, and Raja Birbal being
the most significant members.

[Link]. An Assessment of the Din-I- Ilahi

Some contemporary authors argue that Din-i-Ilahi was
not an entirely new religion but rather a reformation of
Islam. Din-i-Ilahi was criticised by the well-known British
♦ Views of
historian Vincent Smith, who stated that “The Divine faith
Vincent Smith was a monument of Akbar’s stupidity, not of his wisdom.”
In order to arrive at their conclusions, the European authors
relied on an analysis of the writings of Badauni as well as
the stories provided by Jesuit missionaries.
After the death of Akbar, the Din-i-Ilahi ceased to exist as
a distinct faith. Akbar had the ambition to form a religion at
the same time as he established an empire. After establishing
the fundamental tenets of the Din-i-Ilahi, he went on to
♦ Failure of develop and organise the specifics of the religion. However,
Din-i-Ilahi it is essential to emphasise that despite the fact that Din-
i-Ilahi as a religion was a failure, Akbar’s motivation in
founding this new religion should be respected. It was the
physical embodiment of Akbar’s strong desire to bring
together and comprehend the people who belonged to a
variety of religions and civilisations. Akbar’s goal in doing
so was to construct a state in India that was really national,
secular, and welfare-oriented.

[Link] Akbar and Other Religions

Mughal emperors followed Islam and the bulk of the
Indian subjects who served under the empire adhered to
the Hindu religion. Akbar made it a habit to pay his respects
to the grave of a famous Sufi saint who had established the

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 175
 Chishti order in India at the tail end of the thirteenth century.
♦ Relation with
Chisti Order Sheikh Salim Chishti was a Sufi saint, who was residing in a
hermitage near Sikri at the time, and Akbar paid him a visit
in 1569. He sent orders for a new capital to be constructed in
the nearby little hamlet of Sikri, where Sufi saint Salim had
been living. Between 1571 and 1584, he made Fatehpur Sikri
his primary seat of government.
Between 1571 and 1584, he initiated a programme in which
he invited religious scholars from other religious traditions,
including Christians, Jains, Parsis (who are followers of
♦ Confluence of Zoroaster), and Hindus, to discuss theological concerns
religions with one another. The Jesuit missionaries who were present
at these talks ventured to have the hope that they would
be able to convert the emperor since he was so open and
tolerant during these discussions.
In addition, Akbar introduced a variety of changes with
the goal of appeasing the Hindu people who were under
his rule and making them more loyal to him. In order to
demonstrate his tolerance, he gave permission to Salim’s
♦ Relation with mother to worship a sacred tulsi tree that she had planted in
Hindus the middle of the courtyard of her home in Fatehpur Sikri.
In addition to that, she hung pictures of numerous Hindu
deities on the walls of her courtyard. Even though most of
Akbar’s marriages had been arranged for political reasons,
the impact that his Hindu women must have had on him is
likely to have been significant. A number of Akbar’s wives
were Hindus.
In 1562, Akbar put an end to the practice of forcing
prisoners of war and their families to convert to Islam
and banned the enslavement of prisoners of war and their
♦ Banned force-
ful conversions families. In 1563, he got rid of the levy that pilgrims had to
pay. The next year, he abolished the degrading tax that was
levied on non-Muslims, levelling the playing field between
Muslims and Hindus.
Akbar also formed a translation department and instructed
academics to translate the Hindu epics into Persian so that
♦ Translation of those who were not Hindu might read them and have an
Epics appreciation for them. This let non-Hindus comprehend
and appreciate the Hindu epics. In addition to Urdu and
Persian, he promoted the adoption of Hindi as an official
court language.
He switched to a diet that was mostly vegetarian, eating
meat for only a few months out of the year. He commanded

176 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 that steak and all other forms of red meat be avoided in
the diet. If a person who was raised as a Hindu was later
converted to Islam as a kid, they had the opportunity to go
back to the Hindu faith if that was the person’s choice. He
♦ Nomination was a staunch opponent of child marriage but supported the
of Hindus as institution of free and equal marriages between Hindus and
Mansabdars Muslims. He gave employment opportunites to those who
had served him well and had demonstrated a high level of
talent, and he also nominated Hindus to important positions.
14 out of the 137 high officials (Mansabdars) were members of
the Hindu religion.

Summarised Overview
Despite the fact that his detractors said that he disbelieved in the Prophet and
the Quran, Akbar remained a devout Muslim throughout his life. Akbar never
said that he was a Prophet of God. His sole goal was to bring peace to the empire
that was always at war. It is unacceptable for someone to be persecuted because of
the religious beliefs that they have. Badauni states that Akbar renounced his faith
in Islam at some point in his life. The intention behind the Infallibility Decree was
solely to deny theologians the authority to discriminate against individuals on the
basis of their religious beliefs.
Tolerance for all religions and ideologies was a principle that Akbar was
deeply committed to. The period he lived in may not be ready for his ideas to
be implemented. The fact that there were only eighteen people who followed
the Din-i-Ilahi is evidence of his policy of toleration. “The Din-i-Ilahi was the
culminating manifestation of the Emperor’s national idealism,” says S.R.
Sharma’s interpretation of the historical record. Badauni’s idea that Akbar became
an apostate from Islam is not shared by historians writing in the modern era.
According to Satish Chandra, there is very little evidence to support the claim
that Akbar planned to or actually did establish a new religion. The term “Divine
Monotheism ‘’ was the one that Abul Fazl and Badauni used to refer to the so-
called new route. Tauhid-i Ilahi is an Arabic phrase that literally translates to “New
Path”. It was not until 80 years later that the name Din, which also means trust,
was attached to it. In reality, the Tauhid-i-Ilahi was a Sufi order of some kind.
Those individuals who were willing to join, as well as those individuals who had
the approval of the Emperor, were granted membership.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 177
Assignments
1.
1. Discuss the factors that influenced Akbar in framing his religious
attitude.
2. Discuss the practices of Din- I- Ilahi.
3. Analyse Akbar’s attitude towards other religions.
4. Explain the Sulh-i- Kul policy of Akbar.

Suggested Reading
1.
1. Ambashthya, B. P, Contributions on Akbar and the Parsees,
Janaki Prakashan, Patna, 1976.
2. Khaliq, A. N, Akbar & Religion, Idarah-I Adabiyat-I, Delhi, 2009.
3. Nizami, K.A, Religion and Politics in India During the Thirteenth Century,
Oxford, 2002.

Reference
1.
1. Choudhury, R, The Din-I-Ilahi, or, the Religion of Akbar, Munshiram
Manoharlal, New Delhi,1997.
2. Eraly. A, Emperors of the Peacock Throne: the Saga of the Great Mughals,
Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000
3. Moosri, Shireen, Episodes in the Life of Akbar, National book Trust,
India, 2015.

178 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions
Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 179
 UNIT Promotion of Indian Legacies under
Mughal Court
4
Learning Outcomes
After the successful completion of the unit, the learner will be able to:
♦ describe the promotion of Sanskrit in the medieval period
♦ analyse the development of Sanskrit literature under the Mughals
♦ identify the role of Dara Shikoh in medieval literature

Background
The Mughal period produced significant advancements in the fields of learning
and education. Pathshalas, Vidyapeeths, Makatabs, and Madrasas were all kinds of
educational institutions that the Mughal emperors established. These emperors
had a deep affection for education and made significant contributions to the area
of education. Akbar supported several educational organisations by providing
financial aid. Near the Jama Masjid, he established a new educational institution.
At that time, education was not a subject that was taught in public schools. In
most cases, places of worship like temples and mosques served as the primary
educational institutions. They were reliant on the charitable contributions made
by kings, wealthy men, and other philanthropists. At that time the languages like
Sanskrit and Persian were taught in religious institutions.
The Mughals paid repeated attention to Sanskrit texts, intellectuals, and
knowledge systems for approximately one hundred years, beginning in 1560
and continuing almost all the way until 1660. This allowed them to cultivate an
imperial image that was thoroughly multicultural and multilingual. In a variety
of ways, monarchs and communities outside of the governing class reacted to
this process of self-fashioning, and the Mughals were undoubtedly encouraged
by these responses to continue engaging in these sorts of dynamic contacts. The
Mughals did not pursue this series of transactions for the good of their populace;
rather, they did it primarily for their own advantage. They were interested in
learning just what it took to become the ruler of India.

Keywords
Dara Shikoh, Majma-ul-Bahrain, Padmavat, Krishna Lila

180 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Discussion
4.4.1 Dara Shikoh and Majma -ul-Bahrain
[Link]. Dara Shikoh
Son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and brother of the
Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Dara Shikoh, was born on 20th
March 1615. At the Taragarh Fort in Ajmer, Dara Shukoh
♦ Early Life of was born to Prince Khurram, who would eventually become
Dara Shikhov Emperor Shah Jahan, and Mumtaz Mahal, who was his wife.
He was promoted to the rank of military commander at an
early age, just like every other royal Mughal prince was. In
1652, he was appointed as Governor of Kabul and Multan.
It’s possible that he didn’t have as much success in the
military as he had as a philosopher and poeitic diviner.
Reading about faiths that were different from his own
was something that piqued Dara Shikoh’s curiosity. He was
educated in both Hinduism and Christianity by the pandits
and the Christian priests, respectively. He became fluent in
the ancient language of Sanskrit. He translated the Upanishads
♦ Translation of
into Persian because he was so moved by the philosophy
Upanishads
contained inside them. In addition to being a mystic and a
poet, he was also an enthusiastic disciple of Sufism and a role
model of tolerance. Dara Shikhov developed cordial relations
with the seventh Sikh Guru, Guru Har Rai. Because of all of
this, he gained popularity among the general populace but
lost favour with the religious establishment.

[Link] Majma-ul- Bahrain

The book ‘Majma-ul-Bahrain’ (The Confluence of The Two
Seas) written by Dara Shikoh is arguably the most well-known
♦ Majma -ul of all of his works. It is a comparative study of Vedanta and
Bahrain Sufism, and its name literally translates to “The confluence
of the two oceans.” He founded a library in Delhi, which
is still working and is run by the Archaeological Survey of
India. In addition to it, he commissioned a great number of
artworks and architectural marvels.
Dara has attempted to identify the similarities between
Sufi and Vedic conceptions of the Ultimate Truth in this book.
♦ Content He aims to prove that the Islamic and Hindu conceptions of
of Majma-ul- the ‘Unity of God’ are essentially comparable. Jibrail, Mikail,
Bahrain
and Israfil are three significant angels that he associates with
Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwara (Shiv). “Dara identifies the
angels with Devata once more, the Absolute and Necessary

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 181
 Being with Nirgun and Nirankar, Allah with Om, Huma (he)
with “sab” and “Mazhar-i-Atam” with Awatara (incarnation),
and he believes that incarnation is the source from which His
Power (Qudrat) forms.”
Dara presented himself as a ‘fakir’ possessing esoteric
knowledge (Ilm-i-Batin), with which he hoped to be familiar
with the principles of Indian monotheism. Through learning
♦ As a Fakir about Tawhid (monotheism) and Irfan (divine wisdom),
Dara was able to investigate and comprehend Upanishadic
monotheism. After translating “Jug Bashist” into Persian, he
proceeded to transcribe the Upanishads into Persian prose,
known as Sirr-i-Akbar.
The fact that Shah Jahan favoured him more than any of
his other sons contributed to the rivalry that existed between
♦ Battle of
Dara and his brother Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was a more
Samugarh effective military leader than his father. The power battle for
the throne between Shah Jahan’s sons started after their father
got an illness. In the battle of Samugarh (1658), Aurangzeb
maid a decisive victory over Dara.
Later Aurangzeb overthrew his father and took control
of the empire. At Deorai, Aurangzeb and Dara engaged
in combat once more, and Dara suffered another loss at
♦ Rivalries with
the hands of Aurangzeb. After suffering such a setback,
Aurangzeb he travelled to Sindh and sought asylum with an Afghan
chieftain there. Dara’s misfortune was compounded when
the chieftain acted treacherously against him and turned his
handover to Aurangzeb’s troops. On August 30th, 1659, he
was executed.

[Link] Productions under Mughals

[Link]. Persian and Arabic Literature
During the time when the Mughals ruled, the Persian,
Sanskrit, and regional languages all evolved. In the
administrative system of the Mughal Empire, Persian was the
language of choice. The establishment of Urdu as a common
language of communication for the people whose native
♦ Indo- Persian languages were distinct from each other was the Mughals’
Culture
most important contribution to the area of literature. As a
result of India’s wealth, including gold, natural resources,
human resources, ores, and others, it has been the target
of several invasions. In addition to this, it has always had
a significant amount of cultural variety due to the large
number of different religions, dialects, and celebrations. A
great number of foreign powers conquered India and were

182 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 controlled for the greatest length of time by the Mughals
during the medieval period and then by the British after that.
These conquerors brought their own way of life to India and
attempted to blend it into the indigenous culture. Because of
this, there is now a greater variety of Indian cultural practices.
The Mughals dominated India for about two centuries.
At the beginning of their reign, they attempted to exert
such a high level of control over the Indian people that they
♦ Introducing attempted to convert their religion and force them to use
Persian language the Mughal language. The Mughal dynasty is responsible
for introducing the Persian language to India, where it was
eventually included in the country’s official educational
system. Because of this, a significant number of literate
Indians were fluent in the Persian language.
The language known as Persian, which also goes by the
name Farsi, has its roots in the south-western region of
Iran and has many grammatical features with European
languages. Babur established Persian as the official language
of government in his empire. Sanskrit was the most well-
♦ Sanskrit re- known language spoken in India before the Mughals came
placed Persian to power. However, due to the fact that Persian was the
language that was utilised the most in business, Sanskrit
was replaced by Persian. A number of Indian languages,
including Bengali, Marathi, and Gujarati, among others, have
adopted some of its vocabulary. Sukhandan-e-Fars found that
the origins of Sanskrit and Persian were connected to one
another.
The Mughal period was most fruitful for the development
of the Persian language. Even throughout the Turko-Afghan
era, the language continued to enjoy some measures of
success. The Turko-Afghan kings encouraged Iranian
intellectuals, including academics, journalists, authors,
♦ Development and rationalists, to produce outstanding works with their
of Persian
backing. The Hindus and Muslims, whose primary language
was not Persian, competed with one another to actualise
this language of culture throughout the Archaic period. As
a result of this competition, India produced Persian writings
in all of its branches, which contrasted well with the writings
of Persia.
There is a massive archive of Arabic and Persian writings
that dates back to the time of the Mughal emperors. The
majority of the world’s religious texts were written in Arabic.
Following the arrival of the Turks, Persian was established

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 183
 as the language used at the royal court and among the most
♦ Indo-Persian learned and affluent members of society. The sixteenth and
Literature seventeenth centuries saw a significant influx of intellectuals
from Central Asia into India. As a direct consequence of this,
Indo-Persian literature came into being.
Babur, Humayun, and Akbar were all known to support
the intellectual community. During the Mughal period,
chronicles, histories, letters, biographies, autobiographies,
and works on mathematics, science, philosophy, and poetry
were written. In addition to the original works, many
♦ Translation of literary works that are now considered to be classics were
Arabic and Per- also translated into Sanskrit and other Indian languages.
sian
Sanskrit became less important in the north as a result of the
rise of Persian as the dominant language. Sanskrit was given
a place of prominence in the royal courts of the Vijayanagara
Dynasty. Poetry, plays set in historical times, and dramas
were all written in Sanskrit.
Abdul Rahim Khan -i- Khana’s Baburnama was a Persian
translation of Tuzuk- i -Baburi that was written in Turkish
language by Babur. Both the Akbarnama and the Ain-i-Akbari
were written by Abul Fazl. A great number of the literature
♦ Abul Fazl and
that was originally written in Sanskrit were subsequently
Abul Faizi
translated into Persian. Abul Faizi, a court poet of Akbar
who was also the brother of Abul Fazl, was in charge of
providing interpretations of the Mahabharata. Badauni was
considered to be Akbar’s most authoritative commentator.
He translated the Mahabharata into Persian, and the
translation was given the name Razmnama.
The most significant piece of writing produced during
this period was the Shahnama by Mansur Ibu Hasan, which
♦ Shahnama was known as Firdausi. Firdausi, in his magnificent book,
chronicled the myths and stories that were prevalent in Iran
before the advent of Islam.

[Link]. Sanskrit Literature

The monarchs of Vijayanagara Empire were known to
support academic endeavours. They did not discriminate on
the basis of caste or faith when they promoted or rewarded
♦ Sayanacharya scholars of any creed or caste. Every scholar who contributed
was honoured with a prize, whether they were from the Jain
religion or any other religion. Studies of Sanskrit were given
a significant boost by the patronage of the kings and queens
who ruled the Vijayanagara empire. Commentaries, or
Bhasyas, were written by the eminent scholar Sayanacharya

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 during the 14th century on the Rig Veda Samhita, the Kanva
Samhita, the Taittiriya Brahmana, the Satapatha Brahmana,
and the Aitareya-Aranyaka. His understanding of the Vedic
literature will ensure Sayana’s place in the history books for
generations to come.
Vyasaraya was another famous Sanskrit scholar who
flourished under the patronage of Krishnadeva Raya. The
majority of his works were centred on the Dvaita philosophical
tradition. A Jain scholar named Bhatta Akalankadeva penned
♦ Vyasaraya and a grammar of Kannada written in Sanskrit along with a
Vedanta Desika commentary on the work. Vedanta Desika was a talented
scholar who lived from 1268 to 1369 CE. and published a
variety of works in the Sanskrit language. The most significant
of them is the epic poem known as Yadavabhyudaya, which is
about the life of Lord Krishna, and the Hamsa Sandesha, which
is based on the Meghaduta written by Kalidasa.
Madhavacharya was a renowned Sanskrit scholar who
had close ties to the Vijayanagara royal family. He is credited
with establishing a number of Sanskrit schools. In addition to
♦ Madhavacharya that, he served as a minister in the court of Vijayanagara ruler
Bukka I. Irugappa Dandanatha, who served as a minister of
Harihara II, was a respected scholar. It is commonly known
that he compiled the Nanartha Ratnamala (dictionary).
Gangadevi, was a prominent figure of this period.
Her renowned work, Madura Vijaya(The Victory of
Madurai) is written in Mahakavya form, and deals with her
husband’s conquest of Madura. The text known as Saluva
Narasimha wrote Ramabhyudayam. During the time of King
♦ Gangadevi
Achyutaraya, Rajanatha Dindima held the position of a
court poet. Mohanangi is credited with writing a love song
Marchhiparinayam. Tatacharya was widely regarded as the
most significant scholar to serve in the court of Venkata I, the
subsequent monarch of Vijayanagara. The Lakshmi Niyudam
and the Satvika Brahma Vidya Vilasa were two of his most
well-known works.

4.4.3. Literature in Regional Languages

Hindi Literature
The Hindi language saw a golden period around the
middle of the sixteenth century. Malik Mohammad Jayasi
wrote the Padmavat. It is an allegorical story written in rhyme
about Padmavati, the queen of Chittor, and it is about her life.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 185
 Birbal, who was Akbar’s most famous courtier, was given the
title of Kavi Priya by Akbar. Other notable figures who served
♦ Scholars of in Akbar’s court include Tulsidas, Surdas, and Abdur Rahim
Akbar’s Court Khan-i-Khanan. Tulsidas, a renowned poet, is credited with
writing the Ramcharitamanas, more often referred to as the
Ramayana. Surdas composed Sur-Sagar, Sur-Saravali and
Sahitya Lahari. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, one of Akbar’s
most important generals, penned many Dohas. It is known as
Rahim Dohavali.
A lovely poem titled “Prem Vatika” was written by
Raskhan about Lord Krishna and his time in Vrindavan.
Because he was a follower of Lord Krishna. The authors
Nand Das, Vithal Nath, and Parmananda Das all wrote about
Lord Krishna. Brajbhasha was the language of devotional
♦ Devotional songs that were composed by the mystic poet Dadu Dayal
Songs (1544–1604). In honour of the Goddess Kali, Mirza Hussein
Ali penned songs in Bengali. Both Emperor Jahangir and
Emperor Shah Jahan were known to be patrons of arts and
literature. Under Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, there was a
fall in Hindi literary activity since there was no support. The
eighteenth century saw the composition of several important
works written in Hindi.

Telugu Literature
Harivamsamu was written by Nachana Somanatha in honour
of Lord Krishna. The music of Tallapaka Annamacharya, a
saint and musician, which is considered to be devotional,
holds a special and distinctive position. Srinatha is credited
with writing Kasikhandamu and Vidhmatakam and translating
Sri Harsha’s Naisadhiya Charita. Jakkanna and Pinna
Veerabhadra are two of the most celebrated poets who
♦ Development of worked in the court of Devaraya. Sarada, a talented poetess,
Telugu Literature penned a total of 18 plays. The marriage of Ranganatha and
Goda Devi serves as the central motif of Krishnadeva Raya’s
celebrated work Amuktamalyada. Allasani Peddanna, Pingali
Suranna, and Tenali Ramakrishna were three of the most
famous poets from Ashta Diggajas, which consists of eight
outstanding poets. Vasucharitram and Harishchandra were
both written by Ramaraja Bhushana.

Kannada Literature
Even though Persian was the official language of the
Mughal court, some of the most beautiful works of the
period were written in regional languages. Lyrical poetry
and devotional hymns about Lord Rama were written in

186 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
 Bengali, Oriya, Hindi, Rajasthani, and Gujarati. Both the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata have been translated into a
♦ Literature in
Kannada
number of other regional languages. Under the patronage of
the Vijayanagara monarchs, the Kannada literary tradition
thrived in the south of the country. Kannada was also used
as a literary language by Jain academics.
Bhima Kavi was responsible for translating the Basava
Purana into Kannada. Harihara II promoted Kannada
education. The book, known as Ekkottara Satsthala, was
written by Mahalingadeva. Bharata was written by Kumara
Vyasa and Chamarasa. The latter is also credited with the
authorship of Prabhulinga Bilas, according to tradition.
While Bommarasa was responsible for writing the Sundara
♦ Promotion of Purana, Tontade Siddhesvara was the one who assembled
Kannada Educa- the Satsithalajna-masaramrta. Timmana Kavi is credited with
tion writing the final chapters of the Bharata. Harishchandra,
which is the Kannada translation of the Ramayana, was
written by Kumara Valmiki. A treatise on the medicine
known as Vaidyamrita was finished by Sridharadeva. The
Channa Basava Purana was written by Virupaksa Pandita.
Karnatakasabdanusasana, which was written by Bhattakalam
Kedeva, is regarded as one of the most important works on
grammar ever written.

Marathi Literature
The contributions that Ekanth and Tukaram made
to Marathi literature are largely responsible for the
development of the Marathi language. In 1563, Eknath
finished composing of his monumental commentary on the
eleventh chapter of the Bhagavad Gita. In addition to that, he
♦ Marathi was the author of the Rukmini Swayamvara and the Bhavartha
Literature Ramayana. The work of translating the Mahabharata was
finished by Mukteshwar. A commentary on Bhagavad Gita
was written by Vaman Pandit. The general populace now
regularly listens to religious lyrics written by Tukaram. The
saint who lived during Shivaji’s time, Ramdas Swami, was
also a prolific writer.

Punjabi Literature
It was with Guru Nanak that Punjabi literature reached
its current high grade and gained a boost in terms of
momentum. The Adi Granth is a collection of his works,
including his compositions. They have a high level of both
quality and substance. In addition to that, he was a poet who
wrote Shabdas, which are lyrical poetry. In 1604, Guru Arjun

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 187
 Dev was responsible for composing the Adi Granth. It is a
collection of the works of 287 India’s most revered religious
♦ Development
of Punjabi
figures from the medieval period, including Kabir, Farid,
Namdev, Surdas, Mirabai, and Ravidas. There are a number
of poems that illustrate the conflict that occurred between the
Mughals and the Sikhs. In Punjabi, these military ballads are
referred to as vars. The Dasam Granth contains many of the
texts that were penned by Guru Gobind Singh.

Urdu Literature
Urdu was a language that was highly favoured by the
kings of the Deccan kingdoms. In the north, Urdu continued
to be used as a spoken language, but in the south, it began to
take on a literary form. In 1599, Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur
♦ Urdu Literature wrote the book known as Nauras. This work is considered as
one of the important works on Indian music. Muhammad
Quli Qutb Shah is credited with writing a large number of
couplets. Urdu continued to thrive even after the Mughals
had established their control over the Deccan region.

Tamil Literature
Following Kampana’s conquest of the Tamil region,
there was a period of relative calm and prosperity in that
region. The Tamil intellectuals benefited from Krishnadeva
Raya’s patronage. Both Tirumalainatha and Paranjotiyar,
Tirumalainatha’s son, were well-known intellectuals
throughout their period. The Bhagavata Purana was given a
Tamil translation during this period. Irusamaya Vilakkam,
a work on Vaishnavism, was written by Vadamalavi
♦ Tamil Annagalayyam. Manjarippa and Kachchi Kelambakkam were
Intellectuals
both written by Jnanaprakasa Desikar, who was known as
an author. Other poets such as Virakavirasar, Vadamalayan,
and Perumal Kaviraya also existed during this time.
Tirunjananasambanadar was a renowned Tamil scholar who
authored a variety of works in the language. A dictionary
known as Akarathi Nikandu was compiled by Revanasiddhar,
who lived during the latter part of the 16th century. The
famous Tamil poet Tayumanavar, who wrote several Tamil
hymns.

188 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
Summarised Overview
The Mughals’ histories were written almost entirely in Persian, with very few
exceptions. These works provide crucial means of accessing a significant portion of
history; nonetheless, they are skillfully produced political narratives that reflect the
Mughal imperium and courtly activities in a highly selective manner. The Mughal
histories, which follow the footsteps of Indo-Persian antecedents, only sporadically
acknowledge the existence of languages and civilisations from outside the Indo-
Persian domain at the imperial court. They also convey an idealistic picture of
strong, unshakable imperial authority, which is purposefully obfuscated by the
fact that the Mughal power was ever-shifting and was constantly under danger.
In a nutshell, court chronicles need to be studied with the understanding that
they are limited and politically charged materials. These kinds of works help to
dissect the Mughal imperial image, and for this purpose, we depend primarily on
histories written in Persian languages. However, in order to build a picture that
is more historically realistic of the diverse structure of the Mughal court culture
and political power, they are best combined with elements from other traditions.

Assignments
1.
1. Explain how Mughals promoted Sanskrit language.
2. Explain the development of regional languages during medieval
India.
3. Briefly explain the contributions of Dara Shukoh.

Suggested Reading
1. Chandra S, Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan, Vikas
Pub, 1993.
2. Marshall, DN, Mughals in India, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.
Ltd.,1985.
3. Mukherjee, S, A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850, Orient
Blackswan, 1998.

SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 189
Reference
1.
1. Agrawal, A, Studies in Mughal History, Motilal Banarsidass Pub, 1983.
2. Mukhia, H , The Mughals of India, John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
3. Singh Upinder, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, from the
Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson, Noida, India, 2019.
4. Truschke, A, Culture of Encounters Sanskrit at the Mughal Court,
Columbia University Press, 2016.

Space for Learner Engagement for Objective Questions

Learners are encouraged to develop objective questions based on the content in the
paragraph as a sign of their comprehension of the content. The Learners may reflect on the
recap bullets and relate their understanding with the narrative in order to frame objective
questions from the given text. The University expects that 1 - 2 questions are developed for
each paragraph. The space given below can be used for listing the questions.

190 SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE)
SGOU - SLM - Society and Culture In Indian History (1200 CE - 1800 CE) 191
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