In Metals:

 Electrons are responsible for electricity.

 Metals have a "sea of electrons," which means free electrons can

move throughout the metal.

 When a voltage is applied, these free electrons flow, creating an

electric current.

 This is why we often associate electricity with the flow of electrons.

In Ionic Compounds (like salts):

 Ionic compounds consist of positively charged ions (cations) and

negatively charged ions (anions).

 In the solid state, ions are locked in a lattice structure and can't
move, so solid ionic compounds don't conduct electricity.

 However, when ionic compounds are dissolved in water or melted:

o The lattice breaks apart.

o The ions become free to move.

o Ions, not electrons, carry the current.

o Positive ions move toward the negative electrode (cathode),

and negative ions move toward the positive electrode (anode).

Key Point:

 Electrons are the charge carriers in metals.

 Ions are the charge carriers in ionic compounds (in solution

or molten state).

Why Both Seem Confusing:

The term "electricity" refers to the movement of charges. In metals, it's

the movement of electrons. In ionic solutions, it's the movement of ions.
Both types of movement generate electric current, but the nature of the
charge carriers differs.
The key difference between ions and electrons lies in their
nature, structure, and behavior. Here's a detailed comparison:

1. Definition:

 Electrons:
Fundamental subatomic particles with a negative charge (-1) and
almost negligible mass compared to protons and neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom in specific energy levels or
shells.

 Ions:
Atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons,
resulting in a net positive or negative charge.

o Cation: A positively charged ion (e.g., Na+, Ca2+) formed by

losing electrons.

o Anion: A negatively charged ion (e.g., Cl−, SO42−) formed by

gaining electrons.

2. Charge:

 Electrons: Always have a fixed negative charge (−1.602×10−19

coulombs).

 Ions: Can have either a positive charge (cations) or a negative

charge (anions), depending on whether they lost or gained
electrons.

3. Role in Electrical Conductivity:

 Electrons:

o Move freely in conductive materials like metals, creating

electric current.

o In semiconductors and circuits, electron flow (current) powers

devices.

 Ions:

o Act as charge carriers in solutions (electrolytes) or molten

ionic compounds.
 o Movement of ions is responsible for conduction in ionic
substances when dissolved or melted.

4. Formation:

 Electrons: Are not "formed"; they are intrinsic parts of an atom and
fundamental particles.

o They can move between atoms during chemical reactions

(e.g., ionic bonding or metallic bonding).

 Ions: Formed when atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a stable

electronic configuration (e.g., the octet rule).

o Sodium (Na) loses an electron to form Na+

o Chlorine (Cl) gains an electron to form Cl−

5. Size and Mass:

 Electrons:

o Very small mass (9.109×10-31) kg, almost 1/1836th the mass

of a proton).

o Size is not directly measurable since electrons are considered

point particles in quantum physics.

 Ions:

o Much larger than electrons because they include the entire

atom or molecule.

o The size depends on the element and charge (e.g., Na + is

smaller than Na because it lost an electron).

Electrons are subatomic particles that enable electricity in

conductors, while ions are charged atoms/molecules that carry
electricity in ionic solutions.

Formation of ions

 An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed

by the loss or gain of electrons

 This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain

a full outer shell of electrons
  The electronic structure of ions of elements in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, 6
and 7 will be the same as that of a noble gas - such as helium, neon,
and argon

 Negative ions are called anions and form when

atoms gain electrons, meaning they have more electrons than
protons

 Positive ions are called cations and form when

atoms lose electrons, meaning they have more protons than
electrons

 All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively

charged ions

 All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become

negatively charged ions

Formation of cations
Formation of anions
The number of electrons that an atom gains or loses is the same as the
charge.

For example, if a magnesium atom loses 2 electrons, then the charge will
be 2+, if a bromine atom gains 1 electron then the charge will be 1-.

Common ions

How to deduce the charge of an ion

 Find the number of electrons in the outer electron shell

 Find out if it is easier for the atom to gain electron or to donate

electron (in most cases atoms that have fewer than four electrons,
donate electrons and atoms that have more than 4 electrons,
receive electrons)

 Atoms that gain electrons become negative ions and atoms that
donate electron forms positive ion

 You also need to learn the formula of compound ions, that is, ions
made from more than one element

Common ions with a positive charge

Ion Charge / formula

Group 1 metals 1+ (E.g. Na+)

Group 2 metals 2+ (E.g. Mg2+)

Group 3 metals 3+ (E.g. Al3+)

Silver Ag+

Copper(II) Cu2+

Iron(II) Fe2+

Iron(III) Fe3+

Lead(II) Pb2+

Zinc(II) Zn2+

Hydrogen H+

Ammonium NH4+
Common ions with a negative charge

Ion Charge / formula

Group 5 non- metals 3- (E.g. N3-)

Group 6 non- metals 2- (E.g. O2-)

Group 7 non- metals 1- (E.g. Cl-)

Hydroxide OH-

Carbonate CO32-

Nitrate NO3-

Sulfate SO42-

Formulae for ionic compounds

 Ionic compounds typically have no overall charge

o This means that the size of any positively charged ion is

cancelled by the size of any negatively charged ion

o Careful: This should not be confused with an atom having no

overall charge

 The formulae of simple ionic compounds can be determined if you

know the charge on the ions

Direct comparison

 The formula of an ionic compound can be determined by directly

comparing the charges of the ions:

o For example, iron(II) sulfate

 The iron(II) ion is Fe2+, which means that it has a 2+ or

+2 charge

 The sulfate ion is SO42–, which means that it has a 2– or –

2 charge

 The charges cancel each other out

 Mathematically, (+2) + (–2) = 0

 This means that one SO42– ion is needed to cancel the

+2 charge on Fe2+

 Therefore, the formula of iron(II) sulfate is FeSO4

The swap-and-drop method

 When the ions in the ionic compound have different charges, it

can be easier to use the swap-and-drop method

o Careful: If you use this method with ions that have the same
charge, then you must give the simplest whole number ratio
to get the correct answer

 For example, copper(II) chloride:

o The copper(II) ion is Cu2+, which means that it has a 2+ or +2

charge

o The chloride ion is Cl–, which means that it has a 1– or –1

charge

o The size of the charge on the copper(II) ion indicates the

number of chloride ions needed, and the size of the charge on
the chloride ion indicates the number of copper(II) ions
needed

Determining the formula of copper(II) chloride

The charges swap from element to element and drop down. The
positive and negative signs are removed and there is no need for
the number 1.

 This gives the overall formula of copper(II) chloride as CuCl2

Worked Example

The compound produced in the reaction between iron wool and chlorine
contains the ions Fe3+ and Cl–.

a) Give the formula of this compound.

b) State the name of this compound.

Answers:
Part a)

 Direct comparison method:

o The iron ion is Fe3+, which means that it has a 3+ or +3

charge

o The chloride ion is Cl–, which means that it has a 1– or –1

charge

o The charges do not cancel each other out

 Mathematically, (+3) + (–1) ≠ 0

o Three Cl– ions are needed to cancel the +3 charge on Fe 3+

o Therefore, the formula is FeCl3

 Swap-and-drop method

 The formula is FeCl3

Part b)

 The metal is iron and the chlorine will change to chloride

 Therefore the name is iron chloride

If you are determining the formula of a compound containing a complex

ion, such as carbonate, hydroxide or sulfate ions, don't forget to include
brackets if needed.

For example, when determining the ionic formula of magnesium

hydroxide:

 Magnesium forms ions with a 2+ charge, and hydroxide ions have a

1- charge.

 The formula of magnesium hydroxide is therefore Mg(OH) 2.

Dot and cross diagrams for ionic compounds

  Ionic bonds can be represented diagrammatically using dot-and-
cross diagrams

o The electrons from each atom should be represented by using

solid dots and crosses

o If there are more than two atoms, then hollow circles or other
symbols / colours may be used to make it clear

o The large square brackets should encompass each atom and

the charge should be in superscript and on the right-hand
side, outside the brackets

Sodium chloride dot and cross diagram

 Sodium is a Group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another

atom to gain a full outer shell of electrons

 A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is formed

 Chlorine is a Group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to

have a full outer shell of electrons

 One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium
atom to the outer shell of the chlorine atom

 A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged

chloride ion with a charge of 1-

 The formula of sodium chloride is NaCl

Dot and cross diagram for sodium
chloride

Ionic bonding

 An ionic compounds consists of

a regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions in
which the ions are tightly packed together

 Between positive and negative ions are strong electrostatic

forces of attraction which act in all directions

 These are what hold the ionic compound together

Electrostatic forces of attraction exist between the oppositely
charged ions

Ionic lattices

 Thousands of positive and negative ions in an ionic compound form

a giant lattice structure

 Compounds with giant ionic lattice have high melting points

Giant ionic lattice of sodium chloride

Strong electrostatic forces act in all directions in an ionic solid
such as sodium chloride

 Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because:

o They have giant ionic lattices

o There are strong electrostatic forces of attraction between

oppositely charged ions in all directions

o The forces need lots of energy to overcome them

 The greater the charge on the ions, the stronger the electrostatic
forces and the higher the melting point will be

o For example, magnesium oxide consists of Mg2+ and O2- so will

have a higher melting point than sodium chloride which
contains the ions, Na+ and Cl-

Conductivity of ionic compounds

 For electrical current to flow there must be freely moving charged

particles such as electrons or ions present

 Ionic compounds are poor conductors in the solid state

o The ions are in fixed positions in the lattice

o They are therefore unable to move and carry a charge

 Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in

the molten state or in solution

o When the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the

ions are able to move and carry a charge
Molten or aqueous particles move and conduct electricity but
cannot in the solid state

A common mistake students make in exams is to say that ionic

compounds conduct electricity because 'electrons' move and carry a
charge, when they should say the ions can move and carry a charge.
Don't make that mistake!

Formation of covalent bonds

 Non-metal atoms can share electrons with other non-metal atoms

to obtain a full outer shell of electrons

 When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds

 Covalent bonds between atoms are very strong

 Covalently bonded substances may be simple molecular

structures or giant covalent structures

o Simple molecular structures include oxygen and water

o Giant covalent structures include diamond and graphite

 Shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs

 Electrons on the outer shell which are not involved in the covalent
bond(s) are called non-bonding electrons
When non-metals react together both atoms need to gain electrons to
obtain a full shell of electrons.

The atoms are held together by shared pairs of electrons.

The shared pair of electrons is a covalent bond.

Methane is formed from one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.

Each carbon has four outer electrons and each hydrogen atom has 1 outer
electron.

Sharing gives both types of atom full outer shells.

Covalent bonding

Two chlorine atoms share one electron each to form a covalent

bond with a shared pair of electrons

Examiner Tips and Tricks

A key difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds is that in

covalent bonds the electrons are shared between the atoms, they are not
transferred (donated or gained) and no ions are formed.

Electrostatic attractions

 There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the shared pair of

electrons and the nuclei of the atoms involved, since the electrons
are negatively charged and the nuclei are positively charged
The attraction between the shared pair of electrons and the
nuclei of the atoms involved in a covalent bond

 In a normal covalent bond, each atom provides one of the electrons

in the bond

 A covalent bond is represented by a short straight line between the

two atoms, H-H

 Covalent bonds should not be regarded as shared electron pairs in a

fixed position; the electrons are in a state of constant motion and
are best regarded as charge clouds

 Sharing electrons in the covalent bond allows each of the 2 atoms to

achieve an electron configuration similar to a noble gas

o This makes each atom more stable

Dot and cross diagrams for covalent compounds

 Covalent substances tend to have simple molecular structures, such

as Cl2, H2O or CO2

 These small molecules are known as simple molecules

 Small covalent molecules can be represented by dot and cross

diagrams

 You need to be able to describe and draw the structures of the

molecules below:

Diatomic Molecules
Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of chlorine

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of oxygen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of nitrogen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen chloride

Inorganic Molecules

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of water

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ammonia

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of carbon dioxide

Organic Molecules
Dot & cross representation of a molecule of methane

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethane

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of ethene

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Each covalent bond represents one shared pair of electrons.

For example, there are two covalent bonds between the two oxygen
atoms in O2 so four electrons are shared.

Simple molecular structures

 Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds joining the atoms

together, but intermolecular forces that act between neighbouring
molecules are weak

 They have relatively low melting and boiling points because:

o There are weak intermolecular forces between the molecules

o These forces require little energy to overcome

 Most simple molecular structures are either gases or liquids at room

temperature
  They can be solids with low melting and boiling points but this is
less common

 As the molecules increase in size, the melting and boiling points

generally increase because the strength of these intermolecular
forces increases and so more energy is needed to break them

Covalent bonds are strong but intermolecular forces are weak

C60 fullerene

 Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of

molecules that form hollow tubes or spheres

 Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around

the target molecule and capturing it, making them useful for
targeted drug delivery systems

 They also have a huge surface area and are useful for
trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces making them easily
accessible to reactants, so catalysis can take place

 Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be used

in many industrial processes

 The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene which

is affectionately referred to as a “buckyball”

 In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20

hexagons and 12 pentagons which produce a hollow sphere that is
the exact shape of a soccer ball

 C60 is a simple molecular structure

o C60 can not conduct electricity

 Although the fourth electron in C60 is not bonded, the

electrons are only freely moving within the buckyballs
 and cannot migrate from one buckyball to another, so
C60 does not conduct electricity

o There are weak intermolecular forces between individual

buckyballs

o Little energy is needed to overcome these forces

o Substances consisting of buckyballs are slippery and have

relatively low melting points

C60 fullerene

The structure and bonding in C60 fullerene - the football shaped

molecule

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember: When explaining the low melting and boiling point of simple
molecular structures, it is not the covalent bonds between the atoms
which are broken, but the weak intermolecular forces.

Melting and boiling point patterns

 As the relative molecular mass of a substance increases, the melting

and boiling point will increase as well

 An increase in the relative molecular mass of a substance means

that there are more electrons in the structure, so there are more
intermolecular forces of attraction that need to be overcome when a
substance changes state

 So larger amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these

forces, causing the compound to have a higher melting and boiling
point
  The family of organic molecules called alkanes show a clear increase
in boiling point as the size of the molecule increases

The relationship between molecular mass and boiling point

As the molecular mass increases, so does the boiling point

Conductivity of simple molecular structures

Simple molecular structures are poor conductors of electricity (even

when molten) because:

 There are no free ions or electrons to move and carry the charge.

 Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state

and are thus insulators

 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household

electrical wiring, rubber and wood
The plastic coating around electrical wires is made from covalent
substances that do not allow a flow of charge

Giant covalent structures

 Giant covalent structures are solids with high melting points

 They have a huge number of non-metal atoms bonded to other non-

metal atoms via strong covalent bonds

 These structures can also be called giant lattices and have a fixed
ratio of atoms in the overall structure

 Three examples include diamond, graphite and C 60 fullerene

 All giant covalent structures have high melting points because:

o There are strong covalent bonds between atoms

o These require lots of energy to overcome

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Giant covalent structures can also be called macromolecules.

The stark difference in the boiling points of buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀)
and diamond arises from their vastly different structures and bonding
characteristics.

1. Structure and Bonding

 Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀):

o Composed of 60 carbon atoms arranged in a spherical

structure (a truncated icosahedron, resembling a soccer ball).
 o It is a molecular solid, with discrete C₆₀ molecules held
together by weak van der Waals forces in the solid state.

o These intermolecular forces are relatively easy to overcome

with thermal energy, leading to a much lower boiling point.

 Diamond:

o Composed of a three-dimensional network of carbon atoms,

where each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other
carbon atoms in a tetrahedral geometry.

o The covalent bonds form a rigid, continuous network, making

it extremely difficult to break these bonds. A significant
amount of energy is required to break the lattice and vaporize
diamond, contributing to its much higher boiling point.

2. Type of Interactions

 Buckminsterfullerene: Only weak van der Waals forces exist

between molecules. These forces are much weaker than covalent
bonds, so less energy is needed for phase transitions.

 Diamond: The entire structure is held together by strong covalent

bonds throughout the lattice, requiring extremely high temperatures
to disrupt.

3. Mobility and Aggregation

 In buckminsterfullerene, the spherical molecules are more mobile

and can separate from one another relatively easily when heated.

 In diamond, the fixed network structure ensures that individual

atoms cannot move or separate without breaking strong covalent
bonds.

4. Boiling Point Comparison

 Buckminsterfullerene boils at around 800-1100 K, depending on

conditions.

 Diamond doesn't have a typical boiling point; it sublimes

(transforms directly from solid to gas) at extremely high
temperatures (around ~3900 K) because breaking the covalent
bonds to form individual carbon atoms requires immense energy.

In summary, the lower boiling point of buckminsterfullerene is due to its

discrete molecular nature and weak van der Waals interactions, whereas
diamond's high boiling/sublimation temperature is due to its robust
covalent network structure.
Covalent bonding leads to the formation of substances with different types
of structures, for example:
small molecules, which contain a fixed number of atoms joined by
covalent bonds
giant covalent substances, which contain many atoms joined by covalent
bonds

An example - Silicon dioxide

Silicon dioxide (often called silica) is the main compound found in sand. It
is an example of a substance with a giant covalent structure. It contains
many silicon and oxygen atoms. All the atoms in its structure are linked to
each other by strong covalent bonds. The atoms are joined to each other
in a regular arrangement, forming a giant covalent structure. There is no
set number of atoms joined together in this type of structure.

Silica has a giant covalent structure containing silicon atoms (grey) and oxygen atoms (red)
High melting points and boiling points

Substances with giant covalent structures are solids at room temperature.

They have very high melting points and boiling points. This is because
large amounts of energy are needed to overcome their strong covalent
bonds to make them melt or boil.

Conduction of electricity

Most substances with giant covalent structures have no charged particles

that are free to move. This means that most cannot conduct electricity.
Graphite, a form of carbon which can conduct electricity, is an exception.

Question
State three properties that are typical of substances with giant covalent
structures.

They have high boiling points, high melting points and they cannot
conduct electricity.

Diamond and graphite

Diamond and graphite are different forms of the element carbon. They
both have giant structures of carbon atoms, joined together by covalent
bonds. However, their structures are different so some of
their properties are different.

Diamond

Structure and bonding

Diamond is a giant covalent structure in which:

 each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms by strong

covalent bonds

 the carbon atoms form a regular tetrahedral network structure

 there are no free electrons

Carbon atoms in diamond form a tetrahedral arrangement

Properties and uses

The rigid network of carbon atoms, held together by strong covalent

bonds, makes diamond very hard. This makes it useful for cutting tools,
such as diamond-tipped glass cutters and oil rig drills.

Like silica, diamond has a very high melting point and it does not conduct
electricity.

Graphite

Structure and bonding

Graphite has a giant covalent structure in which:

 each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms

 the carbon atoms form layers of hexagonal rings

 there are no covalent bonds between the layers

 there is one non-bonded - or delocalised - electron from each atom

Dotted lines represent the weak forces between the layers in graphite

Properties and uses

Graphite has delocalised electrons, just like metals. These electrons are
free to move between the layers in graphite, so graphite
can conduct electricity. This makes graphite useful for electrodes in
batteries and for electrolysis.

The forces between the layers in graphite are weak. This means that the
layers can slide over each other. This makes graphite slippery, so it is
useful as a lubricant.

Question

Explain why diamond does not conduct electricity and why graphite does
conduct electricity.
Diamond does not conduct electricity because it has no charged particles
that are free to move. Graphite does conduct electricity because it has
delocalised electrons which move between the layers.

Graphene and fullerenes

Graphene and fullerenes are forms of carbon. Their structures are

different from those of diamond and graphite, which are also forms of
carbon.

Graphene

Graphene is a single layer of graphite. The strong covalent bonds between

the carbon atoms mean that graphene:

 has a very high melting point

 is very strong

Like graphite, graphene conducts electricity well because it

has delocalised electrons that are free to move across its surface.

These properties make graphene useful in electronics and for

making composites.

Key fact

Graphene has a giant covalent structure, but fullerenes have large

molecules.

Fullerenes

Fullerenes are molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes. Their

structures are based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms joined by
covalent bonds. Some fullerenes include rings with five or seven carbon
atoms. Two examples of fullerenes
are buckminsterfullerene and nanotubes.

Buckminsterfullerene

Buckminsterfullerene was the first fullerene to be discovered. Its

molecules are made up of 60 carbon atoms joined together by strong
covalent bonds. Molecules of C60 are spherical.

There are weak intermolecular forces between molecules of

buckminsterfullerene. These need little energy to overcome, so
buckminsterfullerene is slippery and has a low melting point.
Buckminsterfullerene has sixty carbon atoms joined by covalent bonds

Nanotubes

A nanotube is like a layer of graphene, rolled into a cylinder. The length of

a nanotube is very long compared to its width, so nanotubes have high
length to diameter ratios.

Nanotubes have high tensile strength, so they are strong in tension and
resist being stretched. Like graphene, nanotubes are strong and conduct
electricity because they have delocalised electrons.

These properties make nanotubes useful for nanotechnology, electronics

and specialised materials.

Nanotubes can be several millimetres long but only a few nanometres

wide

Fullerenes are simple molecular substances because they have a fixed

formula.

BCl3 is described as an electron deficient compound because the boron

only has 6 valence electrons but needs 2 more.