CHEMISTRY
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STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
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Pre-Reading
The Structure of atom refers to how sub-atomic particles are arranged
Atoms are so small that can only be visualized with scanning tunneling
microscope
Atomic structure was formulated from a series of experiments during late part
of
nineteenth century and the beginning of twentieth century
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Pre-Reading
Bohr structure of atom nicely explains the arrangement of elements in
periodic table and periodicity of properties
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HISTORY
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Rutherford’s Experiment
In 1911, Rutherford performed an experiment in
order to know the arrangements of electrons and
protons in an atom
Rutherford bombarded a very thin gold foil of about
0.00004cm3 with alpha particle (obtained from
disintegration of polonium source)
Alpha particles are doubly positively(++) charged helium nuclei
Alpha particles are positively
charges particles that are made up
of 2 protons, 2 neutrons and zero
electrons
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Rutherford’s Experiment
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OBSERVATIONS
Most of the particles passed
straight through the foil
un-deflected
Few particles were slightly
deflected
One in million was deflected
an angle greater than 90⁰
from their straight path
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1. Since most of alpha particles passed through the foil
undeflected which means that most of the space occupied
by the atom must be empty
2. The deflection of particle greater than 90⁰ shows that these
particles are deflected by electrostatic repulsion between
alpha particle(+ charge & positive portion of nucleus)
3. Massive alpha particles are not deflected
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Planetary Model
On the basis of conclusions,
Rutherford gave an atomic model
similar to our solar system called
planetary model.
An atom is neutral particle. (+
Charge= - Charge)
Mass of an atom is present in a very
small densely charged region called
nucleus.
The electrons are revolving around
the nucleus in circles. These circles
are called orbits.
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Planetary Model
The centripetal force due to revolution of electron balances
electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus & electron
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DEFECTS OF
DEFECTS OF RUTHERFORD’S
RUTHERFORD’S
MODEL
• Classical physics suggests that electron being charged particles
will emit energy continuously while revolving around the nucleus.
Thus the orbit of revolving electron becomes smaller and smaller
and it would fall into the nucleus . This would collapse the atomic
structure ( not possible due to law of conservation od mass and
energy.
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Defects of Rutherford’s Model
• If revolving electron emit energy continuously it should form a
continuous spectrum for an atom but a line spectrum is obtained.
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RECAPITULATION
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• In 1913, Neil Bohr proposed a model for atom that was
consistent
• with Rutherford’s model.
• Bohr’s model explains the observed line spectrum for hydrogen
atom.
• Main Postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory are
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Bohr Model
1. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in one of the circular orbit. Each
orbit has a fixed energy so each orbit is called energy level
Maximum capacity of electrons in
No and Names of shells shells
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Bohr Model
2. The energy of electron in an orbit is proportional to its distance from the
nucleus. The farther the electron is from the nucleus, the more energy it has
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Bohr Model
3. The electron revolves only in those orbits for which the value of angular
momentum is integral multiple of h/2π where the value of h is 6.626x 10-34J.
s
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Bohr Model
4. Light is absorbed when electron jumps to higher energy orbit and
emitted when electron falls into a lower energy orbit. Electron present in
a particular orbit does not radiate energy.
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Bohr Model
5. The energy of light emitted is exactly equal to the difference between
the energies of orbits
E =E2-E1 (E =energy difference between the orbits)
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Is there any difference
between Rutherford &
Bohr atomic model?
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COMPARISON BETWEEN RUTHERFORD & BOHR MODEL
RUTHERFORD MODEL BOHR MODEL
Electron revolves around the Electron revolves around the
nucleus in circles. nucleus in orbits of fixed energy
Atom should produce continuous Atom should produce line spectrum.
spectrum.
Electrons continuously radiate Electron present in a particular orbit
energy while revolving around the does not emit energy. Energy is
nucleus. emitted or absorbed when electron
jumps from one orbit to another
orbit.
Atomic structure should collapse. Atomic structure is stable.
It was based on classical physics. It was based on Max Plank
Quantum theory of radiation.
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Self-Assessment 2.1
• Draw Bohr’s Model for the following atoms indicating the
location for electrons, protons and neutrons,
(a) Carbon (Atomic No. 6, Mass No. 12)
(b) Chlorine(Atomic No. 17, Mass No. 35)
distribution of electrons in shells
(KLM only) using 2n2 formula
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Exercise related Questions
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Past Papers Related Questions
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Self-Assessment 2.1
• a) Bohr Model for Carbon (Atomic No 6. Mass No. 12)
• Solution:
• Number of neutrons= Mass number –Atomic number
• = 12- 6
• = 6
b) Chlorine (Atomic No. 17 Mass No. 35)
• Do it yourself
Chemistry Teacher : Anila Abbasi
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Army Public School & College for Girls Westridg III Rwp
Science, Society and technology
Dalton’s atomic theory explained data from many experiments.
So it was widely accepted
Discovery of sub-atomic particles and isotopes proved that some of the Dalton’s
ideas about atoms were not correct
Scientists did not discard his theory. Instead, they revised the theory to take into
account new discoveries
This shows how prevailing theories bring about changes in them
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ISOTOPES
• Figure shows Bohr’s Model for two atoms A and B
• Can you identify three similarities and two differences in these atoms?
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ISOTOPES
• The word isotope was first used by Soddy
• It is a Greek word
“isos” means same and “tope” means place
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
Hydrogen
isotopes
Protium Deuterium Tritium
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PROTIUM
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DEUTERIUM
TRITIUM
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Comparison
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Heavy Water
Water that contain hydrogen–2 atoms in place of hydrogen–1 is called heavy
water (represented by D2O) Water that contains hydrogen-1 atom is called
ordinary water
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heavy water has a molecular weight of about 20 ordinary water has a molecular
(the sum of twice the atomic weight of deuterium, weight of about 18 (twice the
atomic weight of ordinary
which is 2, plus the atomic weight of oxygen,
hydrogen, which is 1, plus
which is 16 oxygen, which is 16)
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ISOTOPES OF CARBON
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PROPERTIES OF
PROPERTIES OF ISOTOPES
ISOTOPES
OF CARBON
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Forms of Carbon
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6 6 6
6 7 8
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ISOTOPES OF CHLORINE
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Isotopes of Chlorine
Chemistry Teacher : Anila Abbasi
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Army Public School & College for Girls Westridge III Rwp
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Isotopes of Uranium
Uranium has three isotopes U-234, U-235 & U-238.
Uranium-234 Uranium-235 Uranium-238
No of protons and neutrons
234U has 92 protons 142 neutrons. 235U has 92 protons & 143 neutrons. 238U has 92 protons & 146 neutrons.
92 92 92
Natural abundance
Natural abundance of U234 is 0.006%. Natural abundance of U235 is 0.72%. Natural abundance of U238 is 99.27%.
(Rare in nature)
Applications
- U 235 is used in nuclear reactors & U238 lacks the properties to be used in
atomic bombs. nuclear reactors & atomic bombs.
Fission Reaction
- The fission of uranium-235 yields When Uranium-235 decays into
smaller nuclei, neutron & energy. The Thorium-234, it emits alpha particles.
nuclear energy released by fission of
one kilogram of uranium-235 is 238U 234Th + 4He2
equivalent to chemical energy produced 92 90
by burning more than 17000kg of Coal.
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Isotopes of Uranium
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Activity 2.4
Chemical properties of an
element depend upon the number
of protons & electrons.
Neutrons do not take part in
ordinary chemical reactions.
Therefore, isotope of an element
have similar chemical properties.
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Uses of Isotopes
Stable & radioactive isotopes have many applications in science
& medicine
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1. Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine
Radioactive Isotope Iodine-131 is used as tracer in
diagnosing thyroid problem
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Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine
Na-24 is used to trace the flow of blood & to detect possible
constrictions and obstructions in circulatory system.
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Tracer for Diagnosis and Medicine
Iodine-123 is used to image the brain
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2. Radiotherapy (Treatment of Cancer)
Cobalt -60 is commonly used to irradiate cancer cells in hope of
killing and shrinking tumors
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3. Chemical Reaction
Carbon 14 is used to trace the path of carbon in photosynthesis.
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4. Chemical Reaction
Radioactive isotopes are used to study mechanism of chemical
reactions
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5. Structure Determination
Radioactive isotopes are used to determine molecular structures.
e.g. Sulphur -35 has been used in structure determination of
thiosulphate S2O3 ions.
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6. Archaeological and Geological Uses
• Radioactive isotopes are used to date rocks, soil, mummies
and archeological objects
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Carbon Dating
Carbon-14 is used to estimate the age of Carbon containing substances
Carbon atoms continuously circulate between ocean and living organisms at a rate
much faster than they decay
As a result the concentration of Carbon-14 in all living things keep on increasing . After
death, the organism no longer pick up C-14. By Comparing the activity of sample of
skull or jaw bone with the activity of living tissue, we can estimate how long it has
been since the organism died
This process is called Carbon dating
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Exercise related Questions
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Past Papers Related Questions
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Shell
• Circular orbits around the nucleus in which electrons revolve
are known as shells or orbits.
• Each Shell has fixed energy, so each shell is called energy
level.
• Each shell is described by n value. N can have values 1,2 ,3------
n=1, it is K shell
n=2, it is L shell
n=3, it is M shell
n=4, it is N shell
• As the value of n increases the distance between of electron from the nucleus and
energy of shell increases.
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Sub-Shell
• A shell or energy level is subdivided into sub-shells or sub energy levels.
• n value of a shell is placed before the symbol of a sub-shell.
n=1 K Shell (1s subshell)
n=2 L shell (2s, 2p subshell)
n=3 M (3s, 3p, 3d subshell)
n=4 N (4s, 4p, 4d, 4f subshell)
• No of electrons that can be accommodated in sub-shells are as follows.
S=2e-
p=6e-
d=10e-
f=14e-
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Difference between Shell & Sub-Shell
Shell Sub-Shell
Circular orbits around the nucleus in which A shell or energy level is subdivided into sub-shells or
electrons revolve are known as shells or orbits. sub energy levels.
There are four shells namely K, L , M & N. There are four subshells i.e. s, p, d & f.
Maximum number of electrons that can be No of electrons that can be accommodated in sub-
accommodated in a shell can be calculated through shells are as follows.
S=2e-
2n2 formula. p=6e-
e.g. n=1 , 2(1) 2 = 2e d=10e-
f=14e-
n=2 , 2 (2) 2 = 8e-
n=3, 2 (3) 2 = 18e-
n=4, 2 (4) 2 = 32e-
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Electronic Configuration
• The increasing order of energy of the sub-shells belonging to
different subshells is as follows.
Is<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d--------
• The arrangement of electrons in sub-shells is called as
electronic configuration.
• We can fill the electrons present in various elements by using
Auf Bau principle.
This means that electrons will fill 1s then 2s then 2p and so on.
Electronic configuration is the distribution of electrons
among the different subshells
of an atom.
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
• First determine how many electrons are in the atom
• Arrange the energy sublevels according to increasing energies :
• Fill each sub-shell with electrons until you have used all the
electrons in atom
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1 METHOD (THE DIAGONAL RULE)
ST
ST
K n =1 1s
L n =2 2s 2p
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s
M n =3
3s 3p 3d
N n =4 4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d 6f
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2 METHOD (MEMORY JOGGER)
ND
ND
1S 2S 2p 3 S 3p 4S 3d 4 p
• "School School, Public School,Public School, Divisional Public
5 S 4d 5 p 6 S d 4 f6 7 S 5 d p
School, Divisional Public School, Federal Divisional Public
School" and so on
So now you can easily remember... "1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s,
3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s".
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Electronic Configuration of First 18 Elements.
Elements [Link] No of electrons
Hydrogen (H) 1 1
Helium (He) 2 2
Lithium (Li) 3 3
Beryllium (Be) 4 4
Boron (B) 5 5
Carbon (C) 6 6
Nitrogen (N) 7 7
Oxygen (O) 8 8
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Elements [Link] No of electrons Electronic configuration
Fluorine 9 9 1s2 2s22p5
Neon 10 10 1s2 2s22p6
Sodium 11 11 1s2 2s22p63s1
Magnesium 12 12 1s2 2s22p63s2
Aluminum 13 13 1s2 2s22p63s23p1
Silicon 14 14 1s2 2s22p63s23p2
Phosphorus 15 15 1s2 2s22p63s23p3
Sulfur 16 16 1s2 2s22p63s23p4
Chlorine 17 17 1s2 2s22p63s23p5
Argon 18 18 1s2 2s22p63s23p6
Potassium 19 19 1s2 2s22p63s23p64s1
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1s2 2s22p63s23p64s2
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Atomic mass
Atomic no
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The electron shells for the first 20 elements
Below are the electron shells for the first 20 elements of thePeriodic Table.
The number of electrons increases by 1 each time. (It is the same as the proton number.) The shells fill according to the rules above.
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Exercise related Questions
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Exercise related Questions
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Exercise related Questions
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Exercise related Questions
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Exercise related Questions
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Past Papers Related Questions
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APSAC, Pothwar Complex, Girls, Islamabad
Home Work
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