MODULE 1 If one wants to understand
INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY biotechnology thoroughly, one should
also know the history of its development.
INTRODUCTION
The term biotechnology was used
before the twentieth century for HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
traditional activities, but it is more BIOTECHNOLOGY
than just that in the modern sense.
Biotechnology can be called classical or The word biotechnology, first used in
traditional biotechnology, and 1917, refers to a large-scale
modern biotechnology. Though both fermentation process for the production
types of biotechnology utilize or includes of various types of industrial chemicals.
processes that utilizes living organism,
But the roots of biotechnology can be
the techniques in doing so greatly varies.
traced back to pre-historical civilizations,
The introduction of a large number
such as Egyptian and Indus Valley
of techniques has changed the face of
civilization.
classical biotechnology forever.
These modern techniques make it PREHISTORIC TIMES
possible to take advantage of the
biological process in a very precise way. Primitive man became domesticated enough
According to the United States to breed plants and animals:
National Science Academy o gather and process herbs for
biotechnology is the “controlled use of medicine;
biological agents like cells or o make bread, wine and beer, and
cellular components for beneficial create many fermented food
use”. products;
“The use of living organisms, cells o create septic systems to deal with
or cellular components for the digestive and excretory waste
production of compounds or precise products;
genetic improvement of living o Create vaccines to immunize
things for the benefit of man”. themselves against diseases
Technological explosion of the Archaeologist keep discovering earlier
20thcentury on the following fields of examples of the uses of microorganisms:
science revolutionized the o Ancient Indus people prepared and
development of life sciences which used various types of fermented
resulted to the evolution of modern food, beverages, and medicine.
biotechnology o The ancient Egyptians and Sumerians
o Physics used yeasts to brew wine and bake
o Chemistry bread as early as 4000 BC.
o Engineering o People in Mesopotamia used bacteria
o Computer Application to convert wine into vinegar.
o Information Technology o Many ancient civilizations exploited
Supported by an array of techniques, life tiny organisms that live in the earth
science was able to develop useful by rotating crops in the field to
products for the benefit of man. increase crop yield.
New tools and techniques to extend the o The Greeks used crop rotation to
studies on genomics and proteomics, maximize crop yield.
not only of man but other organisms o They also practiced various methods
were also developed. of food preservation such as drying,
Genetically-altered crops plants smoking, curing, salting, etc.
which can resist stress of pests,
diseases, and environmental extremes USE OF GENETIC RESOURCES
were developed. The ancient people were also aware of the
The involvement of information role of natural genetic resources.
technology and internet in o Rulers during those time used to
biotechnology has given birth to
send plant collectors to gather
bioinformatics and computational
prized exotic species of plants that
biology.
produced valuable medicine and
The skills of biotechnology, like any other
spices.
modern science, are founded on previous
knowledge acquired through the ages.
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o Colonial powers mounted huge plant o They used bacteria that convert
collecting expeditions across Latin corn or molasses into acetone for
America, Asia, and Africa, installing making explosive cordite.
their findings in botanic gardens. o Sir Alexander Fleming’s discovery
o These early “gene banks” helped of penicillin, the first antibiotic,
the colonial powers to establish proved highly successful in treating
agricultural monocultures around the wounded soldiers.
globe. Norway (Svalbard)
THE GENESIS OF GENETICS
MICROORGANISM AND FERMENTATION
In 1906, Gregor Johann Mendel’s work
Clues to understanding fermentation were announced, and the findings of his
emerged in the 17th century. experiments as the “laws of genetics” were
o Anton Van Leeuwenhoek published.
discovered microorganisms using his o He predicted the presence of “units
microscope. of heredity” later called genes which
He unraveled the chemical did not change their identity from
basis of the process of generation to generation but only
fermentation using analytical recombined.
techniques. o This tried to explain how organisms
o In 1857, Louis Pasteur published both resemble and differ from their
his report on lactic acid formation parents.
from sugar fermentation. o It was believed that every gene
He published a detailed report directly corresponds to a specific
on alcohol fermentation later trait.
in 1860. o In 1920s, genetics was helping plant
o Pasteur identified three types of breeders improve their crops.
fermentation as consequence of o By the 1940s, genetics had
anaerobic life… transformed the agriculture sector,
Fermentation, which which led to the Green Revolution
generates gas; in the 1960s.
Fermentation that results in
alcohol; and THE BEGINNING OF MODERN
Fermentation which results in BIOTECHNOLOGY
acids. The science of genetics was transformed by
At the end of the 19th century, Eduard the discovery of DNA, which carries the
Buchner observed the formation of ethanol hereditary information in the cells.
and CO2 o DNA was discovered by Friedrich
o This happened when cell free
Miescher in 1869 but was not taken
extract of yeast was added to an seriously as the chemical basis of
aqueous solution of sugar. genes until the early 1950s.
o This proved that cells are not o Francis Crick, James Watson, and
essential for the fermentation Rosalind Franklin discovered the
process, and the components structure of the DNA in 1953
responsible for the process are o The structure, function, and
dissolved in the extract.
composition of DNA are virtually
Buchner named those needed components
identical in all living organisms.
for fermentation as “Zymase”.
o What makes it different is the precise
o The fermentation process was
ordering of the chemical base in the
modified in Germany during WWI to
DNA molecule.
produce glycerin for making the
o Marshall Nirenberg and H. Gobind
explosive nitroglycerin.
Khorana carried out deciphering of
o Similarly, military armament
the genetic code in 1961.
programs discovered new
Soon, scientists and industrialist were
technologies in food and chemical
seeking to alter the genetic make-up of
industries which helped them win
living things by transferring specific genes
battles in the first world war.
from one organism to another.
How microorganisms were utilized during
o Walter Gilbert carried out the first
the world war…
recombinant DNA experiment in
1973, and the hybridomas in 1975.
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o Monoclonal antibodies were produced 1973 The first genetic engineering experiment
carried out by Walter Gilbert
in 1982. 1975 Creation of the first hybridomas
o The first recombinant human 1976 The first biotech company
therapeutic protein, insulin 1978 World’s first ‘test-tube baby,’ Louise Brown,
was born through in vitro fertilization
(Humulin) was produced in 1982 1981 The first gene was synthesized. The first DNA
o In 1976, US company Genentech synthesizer was developed.
became the first company to develop 1982 The first genetically engineered drug, human
insulin, produced by bacteria, was
technologies to rearrange DNA. manufactured and marketed by a U.S.
o Commercial uses of recombinant company. Production of the first monoclonal
DNA assisted biotechnology include antibodies for diagnostics.
1983 The first transgenic plant was createda
the development of interferon, petunia was genetically engineered to be
insulin, and a number of resistant to kanamycin, an antibiotic.
genetically modified crop plants. The chromosomal location of the gene
responsible for the genetic disorder,
o This means that virtually any lifeform Huntington’s Disease, was discovered leading
on this planet can theoretically to the development of genetic screening test.
become the private property of the 1985 DNA fingerprinting was the first used in a
criminal investigation.
company or person who ‘creates’ it. 1986 The first field tests of genetically-engineered
o One of the greatest threats of the plant (tobacco) were conducted
new biosciences is that life will 1990 Chymosin, an enzyme used in cheese making,
became the first product of genetic
become the monopoly of a few giant engineering to be introduced into the food
companies. supply.
o Transgenic animals have been Human genome project was launched
The first human gene therapy trial was
created such as the unfortunate performed on a four-year-old girl with an
onco-mouse designed to develop immune disorder
cancer ten months after birth to 1991 The gene implicated in the inherited from the
breast cancer was discovered.
study cancer. 1992 Techniques for testing embryos for inherited
o Companies have been assisted and disease were developed
encouraged in their research by the 1994 First commercial approval for transgenic plant
by the U.S. government
1980 ruling of the U.S. Supreme 1995 First successful xenotransplantation trial was
Court allowing genetically engineered conducted, transplanting a heart from a
microorganisms to be patented. genetically-engineered pig into baboon.
1996 Dolly, the sheep was cloned from a cell of an
adult sheep
1998 Embryonic stem cell was grown successfully,
opening new doors or tissue-based therapies.
MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF 1999 A U.S. company announced the successful
BIOTECHNOLOGY cloning of human embryonic cell from an adult
skin cell
5000 Indus and Indo-Aryan civilization practiced Chinese scientist cloned a giant panda embryo
BC biotechnology to produce fermented foods and Indian scientist and companies started
medicines and to keep the environment clean. producing recombinant vaccines, hormones,
4000 Egyptians used yeast to make wine and bread. and other drugs.
BC 2002 The draft of human genome sequence was
1750 The Sumerians brewed beer. published
BC
250 BC The Greeks used crop rotation to maximized
crop fertility.
THE COLORS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1500 The Aztecs made cake from spirulina.
AD
1663 Robert Hook first describes cells.
White Biotechnology (Industrial
1675 Microbes were first described by Anton Van Biotechnology)
Leeuwenhock.
1859 Darwin published his theory of evolution in the White biotechnology is arguably the largest
“The Origin of Species.” area of biotechnology. It revolves primarily
1866 Gregor John Mendel published the basic laws of
genetics around the use of biocatalysts for the
1869 DNA was isolated by Friederich Miecher. industrial-scale production and
1910 Genes were discovered to be present in processing of products. There is also a
chromosomes
1917 The term “Biotechnology” was used to
focus on reducing the environmental
describe fermentation technology impact of industrial processes, involving
1928 The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discover by the production of biodegradable polymers
Alexander Flemming
1941 The term “Genetic Engineering” was first used
and renewable fuel to encourage a more
1944 Hereditary material was identified as DNA sustainable system.
1953 Watson and Crick proposed the double helix
Structure of DNA Red Biotechnology (Medicine and Human
1961 Deciphering of genetic code by M. Nirenberg Health Biotechnology)
and H. G. Khorana
1969 The first gene was isolated
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Red biotechnology also referred to as nanobiotechnology. This includes search for
biopharmaceuticals, involves the use of primers, sequencing of peptides, search for
biotechnology in the medical field. This is alternations in DNA.
often in, but not limited to, the
pharmaceutical industry. Red biotechnology Brown Biotechnology (Biotechnology of
covers applications of biotechnology relating Desert and Dry Regions)
to clinical trials, vaccine development, This centers around treatment of desert-like
disease research, antibiotic production, soils drawing from species that are highly
drug development, and molecular resistant to dry and saline soils. This
diagnostics. involves mainly places such as Africa. In this
Green Biotechnology (Agricultural case the use of GMO technology could make
Biotechnology) a beneficial impact using improved seeds to
grow high-value commercial crops in low-
Green biotechnology plays a key role in the rainfall areas. So yeah, basically,
increased production of food to meet the something dry resistant with sufficient crop
demand of an increasing population, as well yield. This branch is quite closely related to
as in developing less environmentally grey and green biotechnology.
damaging fertilizers and biopesticides. Many
techniques are utilized in green Violet Biotechnology (Law, Ethics, and
biotechnology, from tissue cultivation, Philosophy Biotechnology)
micropropagation, marker-assisted selection, It actually centers upon the study of the
and reverse breeding to genetic legal aspects that surround this science.
engineering. Biotechnology is something quite
Blue Biotechnology (Marine controversial and also potentially very
Biotechnology) dangerous. Therefore, it gives rise to heated
emotions in almost anyone. Thus, the need
This focuses on marine organisms. Basically, for regulation and formation of a platform
it involves use of marine organisms or their for discussion was necessary. This also
products for creation of new includes biosecurity and moral impact of
medicaments, cosmetic products, food certain technologies (gene therapy, animal
or food supplements. Considering that the testing, etc.).
sea presents the greatest biodiversity, there
is potentially a huge range of sectors to Dark Biotechnology (Bioterrorism and
benefit from the use of this kind of Biological Warfare)
biotechnology. Dark biotechnology is not really something
Yellow Biotechnology (Food and Nutrition that anyone from science community takes
Biotechnology part in, well, at least not in the bad part. It
includes production of biological warfare and
This encompasses creation of new ways to bioterrorism. It investigates pathogenic,
improve certain food products or to obtain virulent and resistant microorganisms, to
more nutrition-rich products. It also tries to convert them into biological weapons or
eliminate allergens and other components counteract their harmful effects.
from food that are the root of various
intolerances. Well, it is also close relative
of green biotechnology as they have
many things in common.
Grey Biotechnology (Environmental
Biotechnology)
This tries to use living organisms to improve
the environment we live in. This includes
bioremediation that uses microorganism
or even plants to clean up the environment
from certain pollutants. It also tries to
maintain biodiversity.
Gold Biotechnology (Bioinformatics and
Computer Science Biotechnology)
This deals in bioinformatics, computers
science, chip technology as well as
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