5.

Applications of Derivatives
In this chapter we explore how to use derivative and differentiation to solve a variety of problems, some
mathematical and some practical. We explore some applications which motivated and were formalized
in the definition of the derivative, and look at a few clever uses of the tangent line (which has immediate
geometric ties to the definition of the derivative).

5.1 Elasticity of Demand

We begin by analyzing a real example from the air travel industry, and have a detailed look at how the
cost of air plane tickets impact the revenue of tickets sold. A simplistic view may lead one to believe
that a decrease in the cost for an airplane ticket would cause the revenue to increase and vice versa. In
economics, this particular relationship between unit price and revenue is referred to as elastic demand as
we will learn later. Particularly in Canada, start-up airlines can collapse more readily under this condition.
The Department of Finance in Canada studied the aforementioned relationship and published the research
results in
Air Travel Demand Elasticities : Concepts, Issues and Measurement : 1
by differentiating between six types of air travel that are associated pairwise: business and leisure, long-
haul and short-haul, and international long-haul and North American long-haul air travel. The results of
the study corroborate that the demand for business air travel is less elastic than that for leisure air travel.
This finding does not come as a surprise, since even a costly booked vacation can be more readily moved
to different dates than business travels. The other two results of the study are that the demand for long-haul
flights is less elastic than that for short-haul flights, and similarly, the demand for international flights is
less elastic than that for North American flights. This make sense, because the further the destination, the
less likely it is that an alternative mode of transport can be found as a substitute for an expensive flight.
We now derive the mathematical model that helps us to analyze the relationship between unit price
and revenue, and determines the elasticity of demand of a particular economic situation when the demand
function is given.
In order to aid our analysis, it will be more convenient to write the demand function f in the form
q = f (p). In other words, we will think of the quantity demanded q of a certain product as a function of
its unit price p. As is shown in Figure 5.1, the function f is usually a decreasing function of p, because
the quantity demanded of a product typically decreases as the associated unit price increases.
Note: During problem solving, it is often easier to use the inverse function of f , namely p = g(q) than f
itself.
We now take a similar approach as in our analysis of the derivative in Chapter 4. Figure 5.1 shows
an increase of h dollars in the unit price p for some product to a unit price of p + h dollars. Therefore,
the associated quantity demanded changes from f (p) units to f (p + h) units with an overall decrease of

227
228 Applications of Derivatives

f (p)

f (p + h)

p p+h

Figure 5.1: The demand function q = f (p) and the effects on this demand from an increase in price
by h dollars.

f (p + h) − f (p) units. We can now calculate the percentage change in the unit price to be

Change in unit price h

× 100 = (100),
Price p p
and the corresponding percentage change in the quantity demanded to be

Change in quantity demanded f (p + h) − f (p)

× 100 = (100).
Quantity demanded at price p f (p)
By calculating the ratio of the percentage change in the quantity demanded to the percentage change in
price, we can determine the effect the latter has on the former:

f (p + h) − f (p)
100
Percentage change in the quantity demanded f (p)
=
Percentage change in the unit price h
100
p
f (p + h) − f (p)
= h
f (p)
p
We now recognize the difference quotient in this fraction. So, if f is differentiable at p, we can deduce for
small h that
f (p + h) − f (p)
≈ f ′ (p).
h
In other words,
Percentage change in the quantity demanded f ′ (p) p f ′ (p)
= = ,
Percentage change in the unit price f (p) f (p)
p
 5.1. Elasticity of Demand 229

when h is small.
Note: In Section 5.7 it will be shown that for a decreasing function q = f (p) on a certain interval I, its
derivative f ′ (p) < 0 for all p ∈ I. But this means that the value of the quantity p f ′ (p)/ f (p) is negative.
Since it is preferred to work with positive values, economists define the elasticity of demand E(p) to be
the negative of the quantity p f ′ (p)/ f (p).

Definition 5.1: Elasticity of Demand

Suppose that the demand function q = f (p) is differentiable. Then the elasticity of demand, E , at
price p is defined by
p f ′ (p)
E(p) = −
f (p)

Note: Some textbooks define elasticity of demand as

− qp p dq
E(p, q) = dp
=− .
q dp
dq

Example 5.2: Elasticity of Demand

The unit price p in dollars and the quantity demanded q of a certain product are related by the
equation
p = −0.02q + 400 0 ≤ q ≤ 20, 000

(a) Determine the elasticity of demand E(p).

(b) Calculate E(100). What can you determine from your result?

(c) Calculate E(300). What can you determine from your result?

Solution.

(a) Writing q in terms of p, we have

q = f (p) = −50p + 20, 000

and so f ′ (p) = −50. The elasticity of demand is thus

p f ′ (p) 50p p
E(p) = − = =
f (p) −50p + 20, 000 400 − p

(b)
100 1
E(100) = = ·
400 − 100 3
Therefore, when the unit price p is $100 per unit, a small increase in p will lead to a decrease of
approximately 0.33% in the quantity demanded q.
230 Applications of Derivatives

(c)
300
E(300) = = 3.
400 − 300
Here, we see that a small increase in p from $300 per unit will lead to a decrease of approximately 3%
in the quantity demanded q.
♣
The following economic terminology is useful when describing demand in terms of elasticity.

Definition 5.3: Elastic, Unitary and Inelastic Demand

1. The demand is elastic if E(p) > 1. That is to say, the demand is elastic if the percentage
change in demand is greater than the percentage change in price.

2. The demand is unitary if E(p) = 1. That is to say, the demand is unitary if the percentage
change in demand and price are relatively equal.

3. The demand is inelastic if E(p) < 1. That is to say, the demand is inelastic if the percentage
change in demand is less than the percentage change in price.

In Example 5.2, we determined that the demand for the given product is elastic when p = 300 and
inelastic when p = 100. These calculations illustrate that a small percentage change in the unit price will
result in a greater percentage change in the quantity demanded, i.e. when the demand is elastic; and a small
percentage change in the unit price will cause a smaller percentage change in the quantity demanded, i.e.
when the demand is inelastic; and lastly, a small percentage change in the unit price will result in the same
percentage change in the quantity demanded, i.e. when the demand is unitary.

5.1.1. Elasticity and Revenue

In the previous section, we developed the notion of elasticity of demand by analyzing the relationship
between quantity demanded and unit price in terms of percentage change. Of course this change influences
revenue, and so we now have a closer look at the effects of elasticity on revenue. Again we assume that
q = f (p) relates the quantity q demanded of a certain product to its unit price p in dollars. When q units
of the product are sold at the price p, then the revenue is given by
R(p) = pq = p f (p).
We now calculate the marginal revenue with respect to p and obtain
R′ (p) = f (p) + p f ′ (p)
p f ′ (p)
 
= f (p) 1 +
f (p)
= f (p) [1 − E(p)] .
This last equation tells us that elasticity influences revenue. In order to determine what the effects are, we
analyze the sign of the marginal revenue. We first note that f (p) is positive for all values of p and consider
three cases:
 5.1. Elasticity of Demand 231

1. Suppose the demand is elastic when the unit price is set at p dollars. Then
E(p) > 1 =⇒ 1 − E(p) < 0,
and so
R′ (p) = f (p) [1 − E(p)] < 0,
which means that revenue R is decreasing at p. In other words, a small increase/decrease in the unit
price results in a decrease/increase respectively in the revenue. This is illustrated on the revenue
curve of the white region in Figure 5.2.
2. Suppose the demand is unitary when the unit price is set at p dollars. Then
E(p) = 1 =⇒ 1 − E(p) = 0,
and so
R′ (p) = f (p) [1 − E(p)] = 0,
which causes revenue R to be stationary at p, i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing. This means that
a small increase/decrease in the unit price does not affect a change in the revenue. This is visualized
on the revenue curve in Figure 5.2 where arrows point to.
3. Lastly, suppose the demand is inelastic when the unit price is set at p dollars.
E(p) < 1 =⇒ 1 − E(p) > 0,
and so
R′ (p) = f (p) [1 − E(p)] > 0,
which necessitates that revenue R is increasing at p. This implies that a small increase/decrease in
the unit price results in an increase/decrease respectively in the revenue. This is visualized on the
revenue curve of the grey region in Figure 5.2.

R′ (p) = 0
y
R′ (p) > 0 R′ (p) < 0

y = R(p)

p
E(p) < 1 E(p) > 1
E(p) = 1

Figure 5.2: Inelastic demand corresponds to an increase in revenue (see grey), elastic demand corre-
sponds to a decrease in revenue (see white), and at unitary demand revenue is stationary
(see arrows)
232 Applications of Derivatives

The results of this analysis are summarized below:

Effects of Unit Price Changes to Revenue

1. If the demand is elastic at p, i.e. E(p) > 1, then a small increase/decrease in the unit price
results in a decrease/increase respectively in the revenue.

2. If the demand is unitary at p, i.e. E(p) = 1, then a small increase/decrease in the unit price
does not affect a change in the revenue.

3. If the demand is inelastic at p, i.e. E(p) < 1, then a small increase/decrease in the unit price
results in an increase/decrease respectively in the revenue.

Note: By noticing the following relationships between the unit price and the revenue, you may better be
able to remember the effects on a unit price change on the revenue.

1. When the demand is elastic, then the change in unit price and the change in revenue move in opposite
direction.

2. When the demand is inelastic, then the change in unit price and the change in revenue move in the
same direction.

Example 5.4: Elasticity of Demand

Refer to Example 5.2.

(a) For p = 100 and p = 300, calculate whether the demand is elastic, unitary or inelastic.

(b) What can you deduce from your results when p = 100?

Solution.

(a) From part (b) of Example 5.2, we see that E(100) = 31 < 1. Therefore, the demand is inelastic. From
part (c) of Example 5.2, we see that E(300) = 3 > 1, and so the demand is elastic.

(b) Since the demand is inelastic when p = 100, a slight raise in the unit price will lead to an increase in
revenue.

♣
 5.1. Elasticity of Demand 233

Example 5.5: Elasticity of Demand

The demand equation for a certain product is given by

p = −0.02q + 300 0 ≤ q ≤ 15, 000

where p denotes the unit price in dollars and q denotes the quantity demanded. The weekly total
cost function associated with this product is

C(q) = 0.000003q3 − 0.04q2 + 200q + 70, 000

dollars.

(a) Determine the revenue function R and the profit function P.

(b) Determine the marginal cost function C′ , the marginal revenue function R′ , and the marginal
profit function P′ .
′
(c) Determine the marginal average cost function C .

(d) Calculate C′ (3000), R′ (3000) and P′ (3000). What can you deduce from your results?

(e) Determine whether the demand is elastic, unitary, or inelastic when p = 100 and when p = 200.

Solution.

(a) R(q) = pq P(q) = R(q) −C(q)

2
= q(−0.02q + 300q) = −0.02q2 + 300q − (0.000003q3 − 0.04q2 + 200q + 70, 000)
= −0.02q2 + 300q = −0.000003q3 + 0.02q2 + 100q − 70, 000 (0 ≤ q ≤ 15, 000)

(b) C′ (q) = 0.000009q2 − 0.08q + 200

R′ (q) = −0.04q + 300
P′ (q) = −0.000009q2 + 0.04q + 100.

(c) The average cost function is

C(q)
C(q) =
q
0.000003q3 − 0.04q2 + 200q + 70, 000
=
q
70, 000
= 0.000003q2 − 0.04q + 200 +
q
Therefore, the marginal average cost function is

′ 70, 000
C (q) = 0.000006q − 0.04 − .
q2
234 Applications of Derivatives

(d) Using the above results, we find

C′ (3000) = 0.000009(3000)2 − 0.08(3000) + 200 = 41

That is, when the level of production is already 3000 units, the actual cost of producing one additional
unit is approximately $41.
R′ (3000) = −0.04(3000) + 300 = 180
That is, the actual revenue to be realized from selling the 3001st unit is approximately $180.

P′ (3000) = −0.000009(3000)2 + 0.04(3000) + 100 = 139

That is, the actual profit realized from selling the 3001st unit is approximately $139.
p dq dq
(e) We use E(p, q) = − . We first find dp using implicit differentiation:
q dp
d d
(p) = (−0.02q + 300)
dp dp
dq
1 = −0.02
dp
dq
= −50
dp
Therefore,  
p 50p
E(p, q) = − (−50) = .
q q
When p = 100, we must have

100 = −0.02q + 300 =⇒ q = 10, 000.

Therefore,
50(100) 1
E(100) = = < 1.
10, 000 2
Similarly, when p = 200, we must have

200 = −0.02q + 300 =⇒ q = 5, 000.

Therefore,
50(200)
E(200) = = 2 > 1.
5, 000
We conclude that the demand is inelastic when p = 100 and elastic when p = 200.

♣
 5.1. Elasticity of Demand 235

Exercises for Section 5.1

Exercise 5.1.1 For each demand equation, compute the elasticity of demand and determine whether or
not the demand is elastic, unitary, or inelastic at the indicated price, p.
(a) q = − 12 p + 10, p = 10.

(b) q = − 32 p + 9, p = 1.

(c) q + 31 p − 24 = 0, p = 3.
(d) 0.4q + p = 20, p = 12.
(e) p = 16 − 2q2 , p = 4.
(f) 2p = 144 − q2 , p = 48.

Exercise 5.1.2 It is determined that the demand equation for a certain product is
1
q = (225 − p2 ) 0 ≤ p ≤ 15
5
where q is the quantity demanded in units of hundreds and p is the unit price in dollars.
(a) For p = 8 and p = 10, determine whether the demand elastic or inelastic.
(b) Determine the value of p for which the demand is unitary.
(c) If the unit price is lowered slightly from $10, will the revenue increase or decrease?
(d) If the unit price is increased slightly from $8, will the revenue increase or decrease?

Exercise 5.1.3 It is estimated that the quantity q of fair tickets purchased is related to the ticket price p
by the demand equation
2p
q= 36 − p2 0 ≤ p ≤ 6.
3
Currently, the price is set at $2 each.
(a) Is the demand elastic or inelastic at this price?
(b) If the ticket price is increased, will the revenue increase or decrease?

Exercise 5.1.4 The demand function for a certain product is

p
p = 9 − 0.02q 0 ≤ q ≤ 450
where p is the unit price in hundreds of dollars and q is the quantity demanded per week.
(a) Calculate the elasticity of demand.
(b) Determine the values of p for which the demand if inelastic, unitary and elastic.
236 Applications of Derivatives

5.2 Related Rates

When defining the derivative f ′ (x), we define it to be exactly the rate of change of f (x) with respect to
x. Consequently, any question about rates of change can be rephrased as a question about derivatives.
When we calculate derivatives, we are calculating rates of change. Results and answers we obtain for
derivatives translate directly into results and answers about rates of change. Let us look at some examples
where more than one variable is involved, and where our job is to analyze and exploit relations between
the rates of change of these variables. As an aside, this class of problems is known as related rates
problems. The mathematical step of relating the rates of change turns out to be largely an exercise in
differentiation using the Chain Rule or implicit differentiation. This explains why some textbooks place
this section shortly after the sections on the Chain Rule and implicit differentiation.
Let’s say we are interested in the relationship between the rate of change of a mortgage rate and the
rate of change of the number of houses sold over time. If x represents the mortgage rate and y the number
of houses sold at any time t, then x and y are each functions of this third variable t. Suppose furthermore
that the mortgage rate x is related to the number of houses sold y, i.e. we also have an equation relating x
to y:
f (x) = g(y).
Then we can differentiate both sides of this equation implicitly with respect to t, and get
dx dy
f ′ (x) = g′ (y) .
dt dt
In other words, we now have an equation that relates dx/dt to dy/dt. In terms of our problem, this means
that the rate of change of the mortgage rate and the rate of change of the number of houses sold are related
as a function of time. And so, as dx/dt changes determines how dy/dt changes, i.e. the rate of change of
mortgage w.r.t. time controls the rate of change of houses at that instant of time.

Example 5.6: Speed at which a Coordinate is Changing

Suppose an object is moving along a path described by y = x2 , that is, it is moving on a parabolic
path. At a particular time, say t = 5, the x-coordinate is 6 and we measure the speed at which the
x-coordinate of the object is changing and find that dx/dt = 3.
At the same time, how fast is the y-coordinate changing?

Solution. Using the Chain Rule,

dy dx
= 2x .
dt dt
At t = 5 we know that x = 6 and dx/dt = 3, so dy/dt = (2)(6)(3) = 36. ♣
In many cases, particularly interesting ones, x and y will be related in some other way, for example
x = f (y), or F(x, y) = k, or perhaps F(x, y) = G(x, y), where F(x, y) and G(x, y) are expressions involving
both variables. In all cases, you can solve the related rates problem by taking the derivative of both sides,
plugging in all the known values (namely, x, y, and dx/dt), and then solving for dy/dt.
To summarize, here are the steps in doing a related rates problem.
 5.2. Related Rates 237

Steps for Solving Related Rates Problems

1. Read the problem at least twice.

2. Sketch and label a diagram of the problem if applicable.

3. Identify the independent variable (often, but not always, time).

4. Unless already introduced, use a let statement to introduce dependent variables.

5. State the known and unknown rate(s) and value(s) using your variable name(s).

6. Find an equation relating the independent and dependent variables.

7. Differentiate the equation implicitly w.r.t the independent variable.

8. Use substitution of known values to solve the new equation.

9. Critically evaluate if your answer makes sense.

Example 5.7: Receding Airplanes

A plane is flying directly away from you at 500 mph at an altitude of 3 miles. How fast is the plane’s
distance from you increasing at the moment when the plane is flying over a point on the ground 4
miles from you?

Solution. To see what’s going on, we first draw a schematic representation of the situation, as shown
below.
......−→
......
.
......
.......
y....... ....... ......

.
.......
3
......
.
......
.......
......
.
......
x

Because the plane is in level flight directly away from you, the rate at which x changes is the speed
of the plane, dx/dt = 500 mph. The distance between you and the plane is y; it is dy/dt that we wish to
know. By the Pythagorean Theorem we know that x2 + 9 = y2 . Taking the derivative with respect to the
independent variable t, we obtain
dx dy
2x = 2y y.
dt dt
We are interested in the time at which x = 4; at this time we know that 42 + 9 = y2 , so y = 5. Putting
together all the information we get
dy
2(4)(500) = 2(5) .
dt
dy
Thus, = 400 mph. ♣
dt
238 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.8: Rate of Change of Housing Starts

It is estimated that the number of housing starts, N(t) (in units of a million), over the next 5 years is
related to the mortgage rate r(t) (percent per year) by the equation

8N 2 + r = 36.

What is the rate of change of the number of housing starts with respect to time when the mortage
rate is 4% per year and is increasing at the rate of 0.25% per year?

Solution. We want to find dN/dt when

dr
r=4 and = 0.25.
dt
We are given the relationship
8N 2 + r = 36,
so we can find the relationship between the rate of change of N and the rate of change of r by differentiating
this equation implicitly with respect to time. This gives
d
d
8N 2 + r = (36)
dt dt
dN dr
2(8)N + =0
dt dt
dN dr
16N =−
dt dt
dN −1 dr
=
dt 16N dt
At the instant in time we are considering, the number of housing starts N is unknown. However, we know
that N satisfies
8N 2 + r = 36,
so when r = 4, we must have

8N 2 + 4 = 36
N2 = 4
N = 2,

where we have rejected the negative root. Therefore, when r = 4 and dr/dt = 0.25, the rate of change of
housing starts is
dN −1
= (0.25) = −0.0078125,
dt 16(2)
that is, the number of housing starts is decreasing by approximately 7,813 units. ♣
 5.2. Related Rates 239

Example 5.9: Supply-Demand

It is found that a certain manufacturer produces q thousand units per week when the unit price is
$ p. Suppose the relationship between q and p is

q2 − 3qp + p2 = 5.

What is the rate of change of the supply when the quantity produced is 4000 units and the unit price
is $11, increasing at a rate of $0.10 per week?

Solution. We differentiate the supply equation on both sides with respect to t, obtaining
d 2
d d 2
d
q − (3qp) + p = (5)
dt dt dt dt
 
dq dq dp dp
2q − 3 p + q + 2p = 0,
dt dt dt dt

where we used the Product Rule on the second term. So when p = 11, d p/dt = 0.1 and q = 4000, we have
 
dq dq
2(4) − 3 (11) + 4(0.1) + 2(11)(0.1) = 0
dt dt
dq dq
8 − 33 − 1.2 + 2.2 = 0
dt dt
dq
25 = 1
dt
dq
= 0.04.
dt
Thus, at the instant of time under consideration, the supply is increasing at the rate of (0.04)(1000), or 40,
units per week. ♣

Example 5.10: Spherical Balloon

You are inflating a spherical balloon at the rate of 7 cm3 /sec. How fast is its radius increasing when
the radius is 4 cm?

Solution. Here the independent variable is time t and the dependent variables are the radius r and the
volume V . We know dV /dt, and we want dr/dt. The two variables are related by the equation V = 4π r3 /3.
Taking the derivative with respect to the independent variable t, we get
dV dr
= 4π r 2 .
dt dt
We now substitute the values we know at the instant in question:
dr
7 = 4π 42 ,
dt
240 Applications of Derivatives

so dr/dt = 7/(64π ) cm/sec. ♣

Example 5.11: Conical Container

Water is poured into a conical container at the rate of 10 cm3 /sec. The cone points directly down,
and it has a height of 30 cm and a base radius of 10 cm; see Figure 5.3. How fast is the water level
rising when the water is 4 cm deep (at its deepest point)?

Solution. The water forms a conical shape within the big cone; its height and base radius and volume are
all increasing as water is poured into the container. This means that we actually have three things varying
with time: the water level h (the height of the cone of water), the radius r of the circular top surface of
water (the base radius of the cone of water), and the volume of water V . The volume of a cone is given by

V = π r2 h/3.

Again, the independent variable is time t. We know dV /dt, and we want dh/dt. At first something seems
to be wrong: we have a third variable, r, whose rate we don’t know.
However, the dimensions of the cone of water must have the same proportions as those of the container.
That is, because of similar triangles,
r 10
= ,
h 30
so r = h/3. Now we can eliminate r from the problem entirely:

V = π (h/3)2h/3 = π h3 /27.

We take the derivative of both sides and plug in h = 4 and dV /dt = 10, obtaining

42 dh
10 = 3π ( ) .
27 dt
Thus, dh/dt = 90/(16π ) cm/sec. ♣

←
− 10 −
→
...................................................
................. ..........
.......... .......
...... ....
.... ..
...
↑
..... ..
...
........... .........
|
. . ..
. ..
. .
.. ............. .
... ..................................................................... ....
... ..

|
... ...
... ..
... .
...
...
|
..
... ..
... ..
... ..
..
|
.. .
.
...
... ...
...
...
...
... ....................................... ... r
.............. ............... ...
...
... |
........... .........

↑
...
.............
.. ..........................................
...
......
.
30
| ...
...
..
...
|
|
... ..
...
...
... .
...
..
.. |
|
... .
.
h ...
...
..
..
...
..

|
...
...
...
... ....
.
.
...
..
|
| ... ..
|
↓ ↓
... ...
... ...
......

Figure 5.3: Conical water tank.

 5.2. Related Rates 241

Example 5.12: Swing Set

A swing consists of a board at the end of a 10 ft long rope. Think of the board as a point P at the
end of the rope, and let Q be the point of attachment at the other end. Suppose that the swing is
directly below Q at time t = 0, and is being pushed by someone who walks at 6 ft/sec from left to
right. Find

(a) how fast the swing is rising after 1s;

(b) the angular speed of the rope in deg/sec after 1s.

Solution. We start out by asking: What is the geometric quantity whose rate of change we know, and what
is the geometric quantity whose rate of change we’re being asked about? Again, the independent variable
is time t. Note that the person pushing the swing is moving horizontally at a rate we know. In other
words, the horizontal coordinate of P is increasing at 6 ft/sec. In the x-y-plane let us make the convenient
choice of putting the origin at the location of P at time t = 0, i.e., a distance 10 directly below the point of
attachment as shown below. Then the rate we know is dx/dt, and in part (a) the rate we want is dy/dt (the
rate at which P is rising). In part (b) the rate we want is d θ /dt, where θ stands for the angle in radians
through which the swing has swung from the vertical. (Actually, since we want our answer in deg/sec, at
the end we must convert d θ /dt from rad/sec by multiplying by 180/π .)
Q
•.........
...
...
...
...
...
.
.........
....... .. .....
.... ..
.
...
θ
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
x
...
...
•P
...
...... ..
....
......
...... ..
.......
.

y
....... ..
...
....
....... .......
........ .......
........
.......... .........
........... ..........
............... ...........
............................................................................

(a) From the diagram we see that we have a right triangle whose legs are x and 10 − y, and whose hy-
potenuse is 10. Hence
x2 + (10 − y)2 = 100.
Taking the derivative of both sides with respect to t we obtain
dx dy
+ 2(10 − y)(0 − ) = 0.
2x
dt dt
We now look at what we know after 1 second, namely x = 6 (because x started at 0 and has been
increasing at the rate of 6 ft/sec for 1 sec), thus y = 2 (because we get 10 − y = 8 from the Pythagorean
Theorem applied to the triangle with hypotenuse 10 and leg 6), and dx/dt = 6. Putting in these values
gives us
dy
2 · 6 · 6 − 2 · 8 = 0,
dt
from which we can easily solve for dy/dt: dy/dt = 4.5 ft/sec.
242 Applications of Derivatives

(b) Here our two variables are x and θ , so we want to use the same right triangle as in part (a), but this
time relate θ to x. Since the hypotenuse is constant (equal to 10), the best way to do this is to use the
sine: sin θ = x/10. Taking derivatives we obtain

dθ dx
(cos θ ) = 0.1 .
dt dt
At the instant in question (t = 1 sec), when we have a right triangle with sides 6–8–10, cos θ = 8/10
and dx/dt = 6. Thus (8/10)d θ /dt = 6/10, i.e., d θ /dt = 6/8 = 3/4 rad/sec, or approximately 43
deg/sec.

♣
We have seen that sometimes there are apparently more than two variables that change with time, but
in reality there are just two, as the others can be expressed in terms of just two. However sometimes there
really are several variables that change with time; as long as you know the rates of change of all but one of
them you can find the rate of change of the remaining one. As in the case when there are just two variables,
take the derivative of both sides of the equation relating all of the variables, and then substitute all of the
known values and solve for the unknown rate.

Example 5.13: Distance Changing Rate

A road running north to south crosses a road going east to west at the point P. Car A is driving
north along the first road, and car B is driving east along the second road. At a particular time car A
is 10 kilometers to the north of P and traveling at 80 km/hr, while car B is 15 kilometers to the east
of P and traveling at 100 km/hr. How fast is the distance between the two cars changing accurate to
one decimal place?

Solution. Let a(t) be the distance of car A north of P at time t, and b(t) the distance of car B east of P at
time t, and let c(t) be the distance from car A to car B at time t as shown below.

.......
.
(0, a(t)) •........ .......
.......
.......
.......
....... c(t)
.......
.......
.......
.......

•...............
.......
• ......

P (b(t), 0)

By the Pythagorean Theorem, c(t)2 = a(t)2 + b(t)2. Taking derivatives we get

dc da db
2c = 2a(t) + 2b ,
dt dt dt
so
dc a da + b db a da + b db
= dt dt
= √dt dt
.
dt c a + b2
2
 5.2. Related Rates 243

Substituting known values we get:

dc 10 · 80 + 15 · 100 460
= √ = √ ≈ 127.6 km/hr
dt 102 + 152 13
at the time of interest. ♣
Notice how this problem differs from Example 5.7. In both cases we started with the Pythagorean
Theorem and took derivatives on both sides. However, in Example 5.7 one of the sides was a constant (the
altitude of the plane), and so the derivative of the square of that side of the triangle was simply zero. In this
Example, on the other hand, all three sides of the right triangle are variables, even though we are interested
in a specific value of each side of the triangle (namely, when the sides have lengths 10 and 15). Make sure
that you understand at the start of the problem what are the variables and what are the constants.

Exercises for Section 5.2

Exercise 5.2.1 Suppose the quantity demanded weekly of a product is related to its unit price by the
equation
p + q2 = 144
where p is measured in dollars and q is measured in units of a thousand. What is the rate of change of the
quantity demanded when q = 9, p = 63, and the unit price is increasing at the rate of $2/week?

Exercise 5.2.2 The demand equation for a certain product is

100q2 + 9p2 = 3600

where q is the number (in thousands) of units demanded each week when the unit price is $p. What is the
rate of change of the quantity demanded when the unit price is $14 and the selling price is dropping at the
rate of $.15/unit/week?

Exercise 5.2.3 Suppose the price p (in dollars/unit) of a product is related to the weekly supply q (in units
of a thousand) by the equation
625p2 − q2 = 100.
If 25,000 units are produced and the supply is falling at the rate of 1000 units/week, at what rate is the
price changing?

Exercise 5.2.4 The demand function for a certain product is

p = −0.01q2 − 0.1q + 6

where p is the unit price in dollars and q is the quantity demanded each week (in units of a thousand).
Compute the elasticity of demand and determine whether the demand is inelastic, unitary, or elastic when
q = 10.
244 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.2.5 Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at a constant rate of 3 cm3 /s. How fast is the
radius of the balloon increasing when the radius reaches 5cm?

Exercise 5.2.6 A cylindrical tank standing upright (with one circular base on the ground) has radius 20
cm. How fast does the water level in the tank drop when the water is being drained at 25 cm3 /sec?

Exercise 5.2.7 A cylindrical tank standing upright (with one circular base on the ground) has radius 1
meter. How fast does the water level in the tank drop when the water is being drained at 3 liters per
second?

Exercise 5.2.8 A ladder 13 meters long rests on horizontal ground and leans against a vertical wall. The
foot of the ladder is pulled away from the wall at the rate of 0.6 m/sec. How fast is the top sliding down
the wall when the foot of the ladder is 5 m from the wall?

Exercise 5.2.9 A ladder 13 meters long rests on horizontal ground and leans against a vertical wall. The
top of the ladder is being pulled up the wall at 0.1 meters per second. How fast is the foot of the ladder
approaching the wall when the foot of the ladder is 5 m from the wall?

Exercise 5.2.10 A rotating beacon is located 2 miles out in the water. Let A be the point on the shore that
is closest to the beacon. As the beacon rotates at 10 rev/min, the beam of light sweeps down the shore
once each time it revolves. Assume that the shore is straight. How fast is the point where the beam hits the
shore moving at an instant when the beam is lighting up a point 2 miles along the shore from the point A?

Exercise 5.2.11 A baseball diamond is a square 90 ft on a side. A player runs from first base to second
base at 15 ft/sec. At what rate is the player’s distance from third base decreasing when she is half way
from first to second base?

Exercise 5.2.12 Sand is poured onto a surface at 15 cm3 /sec, forming a conical pile whose base diameter
is always equal to its altitude. How fast is the altitude of the pile increasing when the pile is 3 cm high?

Exercise 5.2.13 A boat is pulled in to a dock by a rope with one end attached to the front of the boat and
the other end passing through a ring attached to the dock at a point 5 ft higher than the front of the boat.
The rope is being pulled through the ring at the rate of 0.6 ft/sec. How fast is the boat approaching the
dock when 13 ft of rope are out?

Exercise 5.2.14 A balloon is at a height of 50 meters, and is rising at the constant rate of 5 m/sec. A
bicyclist passes beneath it, traveling in a straight line at the constant speed of 10 m/sec. How fast is the
distance between the bicyclist and the balloon increasing 2 seconds later?

Exercise 5.2.15 A pyramid-shaped vat has square cross-section and stands on its tip. The dimensions
at the top are 2 m × 2 m, and the depth is 5 m. If water is flowing into the vat at 3 m3 /min, how fast
is the water level rising when the depth of water (at the deepest point) is 4 m? Note: the volume of any
“conical” shape (including pyramids) is (1/3)(height)(area of base).

Exercise 5.2.16 A woman 5 ft tall walks at the rate of 3.5 ft/sec away from a streetlight that is 12 ft above
the ground. At what rate is the tip of her shadow moving? At what rate is her shadow lengthening?
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 245

Exercise 5.2.17 A man 1.8 meters tall walks at the rate of 1 meter per second toward a streetlight that
is 4 meters above the ground. At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving? At what rate is his shadow
shortening?

Exercise 5.2.18 A police helicopter is flying at 150 mph at a constant altitude of 0.5 mile above a straight
road. The pilot uses radar to determine that an oncoming car is at a distance of exactly 1 mile from the
helicopter, and that this distance is decreasing at 190 mph. Find the speed of the car.

Exercise 5.2.19 A police helicopter is flying at 200 kilometers per hour at a constant altitude of 1 km
above a straight road. The pilot uses radar to determine that an oncoming car is at a distance of exactly 2
kilometers from the helicopter, and that this distance is decreasing at 250 kph. Find the speed of the car.

Exercise 5.2.20 A light shines from the top of a pole 20 m high. An object is dropped from the same height
from a point 10 m away, so that its height at time t seconds is h(t) = 20 − 9.8t 2 /2. How fast is the object’s
shadow moving on the ground one second later?

5.3 Linear and Higher Order Approximations

When we define the derivative f ′ (x) as the rate of change of f (x) with respect to x, we notice that in
relation to the graph of f , the derivative is the slope of the tangent line, which (loosely speaking) is
the line that just grazes the graph. But what precisely do we mean by this? In short, the tangent line
approximates the graph near the point of contact. The definition of the derivative f ′ (a) guarantees this
when it exists: By taking x sufficiently close to a but not equal to a,

f (x) − f (a)
≈ f ′ (a) ,
x−a
and consequently,
f (x) ≈ f ′ (a) (x − a) + f (a) .
The left hand side gives us the y-value of the function y = f (x) and the right hand side gives us the y-value
y = f ′ (a) (x − a) + f (a) for the tangent line to the graph of f at the point (a, f (a)) .
In this section we will explore how to apply this idea to approximate some values of f , some changes
in the values of f , and also the roots of f .

5.3.1. Linear Approximations

We begin by the first derivative as an application of the tangent line to approximate f .

Recall that the tangent line to f (x) at a point (a, f (a)) is given by

y − f (a) = f ′ (a)(x − a)
y = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a)
246 Applications of Derivatives

provided that f is differentiable at x = a. As mentioned earlier, notice that the expression

f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a)

is linear in x. Therefore, the above equation is also called the linear approximation of f at a. The function
defined by
L(x) = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a)
is called the linearization of f at a.
If f is differentiable at a then L is a good approximation of f so long as x is “not too far” from a.
Put another way, if f is differentiable at a then under a microscope f will look very much like a straight
line, and thus will look very much like L; since L(x) is often much easier to compute than f (x), then it
makes sense to use L as an approximation. Figure 5.4 shows a tangent line to y = x2 at three different
magnifications.

Figure 5.4: The linear approximation to y = x2 .

Definition 5.14: Linear Approximation

Suppose we are given a function y = f (x).

1. The linearization of f at x = a is given by

L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

provided that f is differentiable at x = a.

2. The linear approximation of f at x = a is given by

f (x) ≈ L(x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a)

provided that f is differentiable at x = a.

Thus in practice if we want to approximate a difficult value of f (b), then we may be able to approxi-
mate this value using a linear approximation, provided that we can compute the tangent line at some point
a close to b. Here are some examples.
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 247

Example 5.15: Linear Approximation

√
Let f (x) = x + 4, what is f (6)?

√ √
Solution. We are asked to calculate f (6) = 6 + 4 = 10 which √ is not easy to do without a calculator.
However 9 is√(relatively) close to 10 and of course f (5) = 9 is easy to compute, and we use this to
approximate 10.
√
To do so we have f ′ (x) = 1/(2 x + 4), and thus the linear approximation to f at x = 5 is
√
 
1 x−5
L(x) = √ (x − 5) + 5 + 4 = + 3.
2 5+4 6
Notice that we did not create a common denominator
√ to add teh two terms. This is because calculations
are often easier in this form. Now to estimate 10, we substitute 6 into the linear approximation L(x)
instead of f (x), to obtain
√ 6−5 19
6+4 ≈ +3 = = 31/6 = 3.16̄ ≈ 3.17
6 6
√
It turns out the exact value of 10 is actually 3.16227766. . . but our estimate of 3.17 was very easy to
obtain and is relatively accurate. This estimate is only accurate to two decimal places. ♣
With modern calculators and computing software it may not appear necessary to use linear approxima-
tions, but in fact they are quite useful. For example in cases requiring an explicit numerical approximation,
they allow us to get a quick estimate which can be used as a “reality check” on a more complex calculation.
Further in some complex calculations involving functions, the linear approximation makes an otherwise
intractable calculation possible without serious loss of accuracy.

Example 5.16: Linear Approximation of Sine

Find the linear approximation of sin x at x = 0, and use it to compute small values of sin x.

Solution. If f (x) = sin x, then f ′ (x) = cos x, and thus the linear approximation of sin x at x = 0 is:
L(x) = cos(0)(x − 0) + sin(0) = x.
Thus when x is small this is quite a good approximation and is used frequently by engineers and scientists
to simplify some calculations.
For example you can use your calculator (in radian mode since the derivative of sin x is cos x only in
radian) to see that
sin(0.1) = 0.099833416 . . .
and thus L(0.1) = 0.1 is a very good and quick approximation without any calculator! ♣

Exercises for Section 5.3.1

Exercise 5.3.1 Determine the linear approximation L(x) at a of each function below. Then use L(x) to
approximate the value of each function at the given x-value.
248 Applications of Derivatives

√ 1
(a) f (x) = x, a = 4, x = 3 (d) f (x) = , a = 3, x = 2.8
√ x2
(b) f (x) = 3 x, a = 8, x = 9
(e) f (x) = x2 + 3, a = 2, x = 2.2
1
(c) f (x) = , a = 5, x = 5.3 (f) f (x) = (x − 2)3 , a = 3, x = 3.1
x

Exercise 5.3.2 Find the linearization L(x) of f (x) = ln(1 + x) at a = 0. Use this linearization to approxi-
mate f (0.1).

Exercise 5.3.3 Use linear approximation to estimate (1.9)3.

Exercise 5.3.4 Show in detail that the linear approximation of sin x at x = 0 is L(x) = x and the linear
approximation of cos x at x = 0 is L(x) = 1.
√ √
Exercise 5.3.5 Use f (x) = 3 x + 1 to √approximate 3 9 by choosing an appropriate point x = a. Are we
over- or under-estimating the value of 3 9? Explain.

5.3.2. Differentials

Very much related to linear approximations are the differentials dx and dy, used not to approximate values
of f , but instead the change (or rise) in the values of f .

Definition 5.17: Differentials dx and dy

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. We define a new independent variable dx, and a new
dependent variable dy = f ′ (x) dx. Notice that dy is a function both of x (since f ′ (x) is a function of
x) and of dx. We call both dx and dy differentials.

Now fix a point a and let ∆x = x − a and ∆y = f (x) − f (a). If x is near a then ∆x is clearly small. If
we set dx = ∆x then we obtain
∆y
dy = f ′ (a) dx ≈ ∆x = ∆y.
∆x
Thus, dy can be used to approximate ∆y, the actual change in the function f between a and x. This is
exactly the approximation given by the tangent line:

dy = f ′ (a)(x − a) = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a) − f (a) = L(x) − f (a).

While L(x) approximates f (x), dy approximates how f (x) has changed from f (a). Figure 5.5 illustrates
the relationships.
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 249

y y = f (x)

f (a + ∆x)

L(x)
∆y

dy

f (a)
∆x = dx
x
a a + ∆x

Figure 5.5: Differentials.

Note:

1. x, dx and ∆x are independent variables.

2. Both dx and ∆x measure the change as x changes from x to x + ∆x.

3. y is a dependent variable of x, and ∆y is a dependent variable of both x and ∆x.

4. ∆y measures the actual change in y as x changes from x to x + ∆x.

5. dy measures the approximate change in y as x changes from x to x + ∆x.

Since differentials are used to estimate the change in the dependent variable corresponding to a small
change in the independent variable, they are a useful concept to analyze change in cost, revenue, and profit
functions, which is summarized below.

Definition 5.18: Differentials in Marginal Analysis

1. Suppose we are given the cost function p = C(q). If C is differentiable, then

dC = C′ (q)dq and ∆C ≈ C′ (q)∆q.

2. Suppose we are given the revenue function p = R(q). If R is differentiable, then

dR = R′ (q)dq and ∆R ≈ R′ (q)∆q.

3. Suppose we are given the profit function p = P(q). If P is differentiable, then

dP = P′ (q)dq and ∆P ≈ P′ (q)∆q.

250 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.19: Actual and Approximate Changes in y

Let y = x4 .

(a) Calculate ∆x and ∆y when x changes from 2 to 2.1, and from 2 to 1.9.

(b) Calculate the differential dy of y. Use dy to approximate ∆y when x changes from 2 to 2.1, and
from 2 to 1.9.

(c) Compare the results of part (b) with those of part (a).

Solution. Let f (x) = x3 .

(a) When x changes from 2 to 2.1, ∆x = 2.1 − 2 = 0.1. Next,

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = f (2.1) − f (2)

= (2.1)3 − 23 = 9.261 − 8 = 1.261.

Similarly, when x changes from 2 to 1.9, we have ∆x = 1.9 − 2 = −0.1, and

∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = f (1.9) − f (2)

= (1.9)3 − 23 = 6.859 − 8 = −1.141.

(b) dy = f ′ (x)dx = 3x2 dx. First, take x = 2 and dx = 2.1 − 2 = 0.1. Then,

dy = 3x2 dx = 3(2)2(0.1) = 1.2.

Next, we have x = 2 and dx = 1.9 − 2 = −0.1. Therefore,

dy = 3x2 dx = 3(2)2 (−0.1) = −1.2.

(c) Comparing the actual changes from part (a) to the approximate changes from part (b), we notice that
the approximation dy = 1.2 is quite close to the actual change ∆y = 1.20601, but the approximation
dy = −1.41 is not very close to the actual change ∆y = −1.2.

Example 5.20: Rise of Natural Logarithm

Approximate the rise of f (x) = ln x from x = 1 to x = 1.1, using differentials.

Solution. Note that ln(1.1) is not readily calculated (without a calculator) hence why we wish to use linear
approximation to approximate f (1.1) − f (1).
We fix a = 1 since we know that f (1) = ln(1) = 0, and so

∆x = dx = x − 1 and ∆y = f (x) − f (1) = ln(x) − ln(1) = ln(x).

 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 251

Since
1
f ′ (x) = ,
x
we also have that  
′ 1
dy = f (1)dx = (x − 1) = x − 1.
1
Then the actual change in f as x changes from 1 to 1.1 is approximated as follows:

∆y ≈ dy
f (1.1) − f (1) ≈ f ′ (1)(1.1 − 1)
ln(1.1) ≈ 0.1

The correct value of ln(1.1) is 0.0953. . . and thus we were relatively close. ♣

Example 5.21: Approximating Function Value

√
Use differentials to approximate the value of 24.5. Compare your result using a calculator.

√
Solution. Consider√the function y = f (x) = x. We want to pick a number x close to 24.5 for which we
know the value of x. Appropriately, we take x = 25. Then the change in y, ∆y, as x changes from x = 25
to x = 24.5 is
∆y ≈ dy = f ′ (x)∆x
 
1
= √ · (−1.5)
2 x x=25
 
1
= (−1.5) = −0.15
10

Therefore, √ √
24.5 − 25 = ∆y ≈ −0.15
√ √
24.5 ≈ 25 − 0.15 = 4.75.
√
A calculator tells us that 24.5 ≃ 4.94975, and so the error in our approximation is about 0.2. ♣

Example 5.22: Approximating Operating Cost

Suppose that the total operating cost of relocating a car 500 km at an average speed of ν km/h, is
6000
C(ν ) = 150 + ν +
ν
dollars. Find the approximate change in cost when the average speed is increased from 80 km/h to
85 km/h.
252 Applications of Derivatives

Solution. We use ν = 80 to approximate C(85).

∆C ≈ dC = C′ (ν )d ν
 
6000
= 1− 2 · (5)
ν ν =80
 
6000
= 1− (5) = 0.0625,
6400
that is, the total cost would increase by approximately $0.06. ♣

Example 5.23: Approximating Sales

A company determines that the relationship between the amount of money q spent on advertising
and total sales S(q) is
S(q) = −0.02q3 + q2 + 2q + 100 0 ≤ q ≤ 60
where q is measured in thousands of dollars. Estimate the change in the company’s total sales if the
amount spent on advertising is increased from $50,000 (q = 50) to $55,000 (q = 55).

Solution. We approximate
∆S ≈ dS = S′ (55)dq
= −0.06q2 + 2q + 2


x=50
· (55 − 50)
= (−30 + 100 + 2)(5) = 360.
That is, total sales will increase by approximately $360,000. ♣

Example 5.24: Approximating Drop in Price

Suppose the demand for a certain product is given by
100
p = f (q) =
q2 + 2
where p is expressed in dollars/unit and q is the quantity demanded each year. The manufacturer
predicts they will be able to produce 6 billion units for the year. If the actual production is 6.2
billion units instead, what would happen to the predicted price, p?

Solution. The differential is given by

100q
dp = − dq.
(q2 + 2)2
So when q = 6 and dq = 0.2,
100(6)
∆p ≈ d p = − (0.2) = −0.0831,
(36 + 2)2
that is, the price will drop by approximately $0.08. ♣
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 253

Exercises for Section 5.3.2

Exercise 5.3.6 Find the differential of the given function.

(a) f (x) = 2x2

2
(e) h(s) = s +
(b) g(t) = t 3 − t s

q−1
√ (f) p(q) =
(c) f (t) = t + 1 q2 + 1
p
(g) f (x) = 3x2 − x
3/2 1/2
(d) p(q) = 2q +q

Exercise 5.3.7 For the following functions f (x), determine ∆y and dy at the given values of a and ∆x.

(a) f (x) = x4 , a = 1, dx = ∆x = 1/2

√
(b) f (x) = x. If a = 1 and ∆x = 1/10

(c) f (x) = sin(2x). If a = π and ∆x = π /100

1
Exercise 5.3.8 For the functions (i) f (x) = x2 − 1 with x changing from 1 to 0.9 and (ii) f (x) = x with x
changing from −1 to −1.01, do the following:

(a) Calculate the differential of f .

(b) Use your results from part (a) to find the approximate change in y for the given change in x.

(c) Calculate the actual change in y for the given change in x and compare your results with that
obtained in part (b).

Exercise 5.3.9 Use differentials to approximate the given quantity.

√
(a) 48.5
√3
(b) 8.2
√ 1 √
(c) 4.05 + √ . Hint: Let f (x) = x + √1x and compute dy with x = 4 and dx = 0.05.
4.05

Exercise 5.3.10 Approximate the amount of paint needed to apply a coat of paint 0.02 cm thick to a sphere
with diameter 40 meters. You may use the fact that the volume of a sphere of radius r is V = (4/3)π r3,
where in this example, dr = 0.02.
254 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.3.11 It is determined that a certain country’s gross domestic product (GDP) can be approxi-
mated by
f (x) = 350x1/4
where f (x) is measured in millions of dollars and x is the capital expenditure in billions of dollars. Ap-
proximate the change in GDP if the country’s capital expenditure changes from $200 million to $210
million.

Exercise 5.3.12 A major supermarket determines that their yearly profit P(q) is related to the amount q
spent on advertising by
1
P(q) = − q2 + 12q + 15 0 ≤ q ≤ 73
6
where both P(q) and q are measured in thousands of dollars. Approximate the change in profits when
advertising expenditure is increased from $30,000 to $32,000.

Exercise 5.3.13 A bank determines that the number N(t) of loans issued over the course of one year is
related to the interest rate r by
8
N(t) =
1 + 0.02r2
where N is measured in millions. Approximate the change in the number of loans the bank issues when
the interest rate is increased from 10% to 10.5%.

Exercise 5.3.14 The supply equation for a certain product is given by

√
p = s(q) = 0.5 q + 8

where q is the quantity supplied and p is the unit price in dollars. Approximate the change in price when
the quantity supplied is increased from 10,000 to 10,200 units.

5.3.3. Error Approximation

When working with differentials, we approximate function values, and therefore an error is introduced
compared to the actual function values. Suppose we are given a function y = f (x) with a measured
quantity as input. If a is the exact value of the measured quantity, but a + dx is the measured value, then
dx = ∆x represents the so-called measurement error. Furthermore, this measurement error causes an
error in the calculation of f (x), which is known as propagation error ∆y = f (a + dx) − f (a). Both types
of errors are known as absolute errors.
If y = f (a) is calculated with the absolute error ∆y, then the relative error in the calculation of y is
given by the quantity ∆y ∆y
y , while the percentage error is given by the quantity y × 100%. Since ∆y is
dy dy
approximated by dy, the relative error is approximated by y and the percentage error by y × 100%.
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 255

True Value Approximate Value

Absolute Error ∆y dy
∆y dy
Relative Error
y y
∆y dy
Percentage Error × 100% × 100%
y y

Table 5.1: Types of Error when Working with Differentials.

Example 5.25: Approximating Errors in Measurement

We are given that the radius of a spherical object is measured to be 0.4 m to within an error of
±0.001 m. What are the relative and percentage errors?

Solution. The relative error in r is

dr 0.001
=± = ±0.0004.
r 0.4
The percentage error is then
dr
× 100% = 0.0004 × 100% = ±0.04%.
r
♣

Example 5.26: Approximating Errors in Measurement

The sides of a cubical object are measured with an absolute percentage error of 3%. Approximate
the maximum percentage error in the calculated volume of the cube using differentials.

Solution. Let x be the side-length of the cube. Then its volume is

V = x3 ,
and
dV = 3x2 dx.
Therefore,
dV 3x2 dx dx
= 3
=3 .
V x x
Hence,
dV dx
=3 ≤ 3(0.03) = 0.09,
V x
where we used the fact that dx
x ≤ 0.03.
Thus, the maximum percentage error in the measurement of the volume of the cube is 9%. ♣
256 Applications of Derivatives

Exercises for Section 5.3.3

Exercise 5.3.15 The edges of a cube are measured to be 12 cm in length, with a maximum possible error
of 0.02 cm. What is the maximum possible error that could occur when calculating the volume of the
cube?

Exercise 5.3.16 A wooden box with a lid is lacquered to an even thickness of 0.04 cm. If the edges of the
box measure 0.5 m, then calculate the approximate amount of lacquer required.

Exercise 5.3.17 A dome of radius 20 m is to be coated with a layer of paint. What is the approximate
amount of paint needed if the coat is to be 0.05 cm thick? Note that the volume of a dome of radius r is
V = 23 π r3 .

Exercise 5.3.18 True or false: If A = f (x), then the percentage change in A is

100 f ′ (x)
dx.
f (x)

Explain your answer.

Exercise 5.3.19 The quarterly profit of a certain manufacturer is given by

P(q) = −0.000032q3 + 6q − 300

million dollars, where q is measured in tens of thousands of units. The expected number of units sold over
the next quarter is 320,000, with a maximum error of 18%. Determine the maximum error in the expected
profit.

Exercise 5.3.20 The demand equation for a certain product is given by

25
p = f (q) =
3q2 + 2
where p is the unit price in dollars and q is the quantity demanded each year, measured in thousands of
units. It is expected that the demand will be 2000 units for the year, with a maximum error of 10%. What
is the maximum error in the predicted price?

Exercise 5.3.21 Suppose a monthly mortgage payment P, in dollars, is computed using the formula
10, 000r
P=
r −360


1 − 1 + 12

where r is the interest rate per year.

(a) Find the differential of P.

 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 257

(b) Approximately how much more will the monthly mortgage payments be if the interest rate increases
from the present rate of 3% per year to 3.2 % per year? From 3% to 3.3% per year? To 3.4% per
year? To 3.5% per year?

Exercise 5.3.22 Suppose $10,000 is deposited into an account that pays interest at the rate r/year com-
pounded monthly. Then the account balance at the end of 10 years is given by
 r 120
A = 10, 000 1 + .
12
(a) Find the differential of A.
(b) Approximately how much more would the account be worth at the end of 10 years with an interest
rate of 1.1% per year instead of 1%? 1.2% per year instead of 1%? 1.3% per year instead of 1%?

Exercise 5.3.23 Suppose $2000 per month is deposited into an account that pays interest at the rate r/year
compounded monthly. Then the account balance at the end of 25 years is given by
 
r 300


24, 000 1 + 12 −1
S=
r
dollars.

(a) Find the differential of S.

(b) Approximately how much more would the account be worth at the end of 25 years with an interest
rate of 1.6%/year instead of 1.5%? 1.7%/year instead of 1.5%? 1.8%/year instead of 1.5%?

5.3.4. Newton’s Method

A well-known numerical method is Newton’s Method (also sometimes referred to as Newton-Raphson’s

Method), named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson. This method is used to find roots, or x-intercepts,
of a function. While we may be able to find the roots of a polynomial which we can easily factor, we saw
in the previous chapter on Limits, that for example the function ex + x = 0 has a solution (i.e. root, or
x-intercept) at x ≈ −0.56714. By the Intermediate Value Theorem we know that the function ex + x = 0
does have a solution. We cannot here simply solve for such a root algebraically, but we can use a numerical
method such as Newton′s. Such a process is typically classified as an iterative method, a name given to
a technique which involves repeating similar steps until the desired accuracy is obtained. Many computer
algorithms are coded with a for-loop, repeating an iterative step to converge to a solution.
The idea is to start with an initial value x0 (approximating the root), and use linear approximation to
create values x1 , x2 , · · · getting closer and closer to a root.
The first value x1 corresponds to the intercept of the tangent line of f (x0 ) with the x-axis, which is:
f (x0 )
x1 = x0 −
f ′ (x0 )
258 Applications of Derivatives

f(x0)

x1 x0 x

Figure 5.6: First iteration of Newton’s Method.

We can see in Figure 5.6, that if we compare the point (x0 , 0) to (x1 , 0), we would likely come to
the conclusion that (x1 , 0) is closer to the actual root of f (x) than our original guess, (x0 , 0). As will be
discussed, the choice of x0 must be done correctly, and it may occur that x1 does not yield a better estimate
of the root.
Newton’s method is simply to repeat this process again and again in an effort to obtain a more accurate
solution. Thus at the next step we obtain:

f (x1 )
x2 = x1 −
f ′ (x1 )

x1 x2 x0 x

f(x1)

Figure 5.7: Second iteration of Newton’s Method.

We can now clearly see how (x2 , 0) is a better estimate of the root of f (x), rather than any of the
previous points. Moving forward, we will get:
f (x2 )
x3 = x2 −
f ′ (x2 )
Rest assured, (x3 , 0) will be an even better estimate of the root! We express the general iterative step as:
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 259

The idea is to iterate these steps to obtain the desired accuracy.

Newton’s Method
1. Choose an initial estimate x0 of the root r.

2. Calculate the next estimate using the iterative formula

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − (n = 0, 1, 2, ...)
f ′ (xn )

3. Calculate |xn − xn+1 |, which determines the number of accurate digits that have been achieved
in the estimation of the root r.

4. Either repeat as of step 2 or terminate the algorithm with r ≈ xn+1 unless Newton’s Method
failed (see Key Points at the end of this section).

Here is an example.

Example 5.27: Newton’s Method to Approximate a Root

Approximate the roots of f (x) = x3 − x + 1 by Newton’s Method, accurate to six decimal places.

Solution. Since the function is a cubic, solving the equation algebraically is difficult. We therefore use
Newton’s Method to compute an approximate root.
Our function f has only one real root as a sketch confirms (see Section 5.7 on how to perform curve
sketching. We note that f (−1) = −5 and f (0) = 1. We apply the Intermediate Value Theorem to determine
that f has a root between these two values. We choose to start with the initial value x0 = −1. We encourage
you to try Newton’s Method with a different initial value such as -0.5 or -0.7 or any other value between
-1 and 0.
We calculate the derivative to be f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 1. Therefore, Newton’s formula is given by
f (xn ) x3n − xn + 1
xn+1 = xn − = x + n − ·
f ′ (xn ) 3x2n − 1
We compute the following approximations of the root. We also encourage you to verify that these are
indeed the correct iterations through Newton’s algorithm.
x0 = −1
x1 = −1.5000
x2 = −1.347826...
x3 = −1.325200...
x4 = −1.324718...
x5 = −1.324717...
x6 = −1.324717...
···
Hence, the root we are seeking is approximately −1.324717. ♣
260 Applications of Derivatives

Applications

Example 5.28: Market Equilibrium

The monthly demand q (in units of a thousand) for a certain product is related to the unit price p (in
dollars) by the demand equation
2
p = 25e−0.1(q+1) .
The monthly supply for the same product is given by the supply equation
5
p = 5 + q2 .
2
Estimate the equilibrium point of this system.

Solution. We determine the equilibrium point by finding the point of intersection of the demand curve and
the supply curve.

20 p = 5 + 52 q2

10 2
p = 25e−0.1(q+1)

x
1 3 5

To find the equilibrium point, we equate both equations, giving

5 2
5 + q2 = 25e−0.1(q+1)
2
5 2
5 + q2 − 25e−0.1(q+1) = 0
2
Instead of attempting to solve this equation exactly using algebraic techniques, we instead employ New-
ton’s Method to find an approximate solution. First, write
2
10 + 5q2 − 50e−0.1(q+1) = 0,
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 261

since it is easier to work without the fraction. Then,

2
f (q) = 10 + 5q2 − 50e−0.1(q+1)
 2

= 5 2 + q2 − 10e−0.1(q+1) , and
2
f ′ (q) = 10q − 50e−0.1(q+1) · (−0.2(q + 1))
 
−0.1(q+1)2
= 10 q + (q + 1)e .

And so we construct the required iterative formula as

2
2 + q2n − 10e−0.1(qn +1)
qn+1 = qn − 2
2 qn + (qn + 1)e−0.1(qn +1)

From the above sketch, we see that a reasonable estimate of the intersection point is q = 2. We now carry
out Newton’s Method using an initial guess of q0 = 2.
2
2 + 22 − 10e−0.1(3)
q1 = 2 − 2

≈ 1.69962
2 2 + (3)e−0.1(3)
2
2 + (1.69962)2 − 10e−0.1(2.69962)
q2 = 1.69962 − 2

≈ 1.68899
2 2 + (2.69962)e−0.1(2.69962)
2
2 + (1.68899)2 − 10e−0.1(2.68899)
q3 = 1.68899 − 2
≈ 1.68898
2 2 + (2.68899)e−0.1(2.68899)

Therefore, the equilibrium quantity is approximately 1.689 units, and the equilibrium price is correspond-
ingly
5
p = 5 + (1.689)2 ≈ 12.1316
2
or approximately $12.1316 per unit. The equilibrium point is thus (1.689, 12.1316). ♣
Another application of Newton’s Method is to the internal rate of return on an investment. Sup-
pose an investment yields returns of R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn dollars at the end of the first, second,. . . ,n-th periods,
respectively with an initial payment of C dollars. Then this investment has a net present value of
R1 R2 R3 Rn
+ + +···+ −C = 0.
1 + r (1 + r) 2 (1 + r) 3 (1 + r)n

By multiplying both sides of the above equation with (1 + r)n , we obtain

C(1 + r)n − R1 (1 + r)n−1 − R2 (1 + r)n−2 − R3 (1 + r)n−3 − · · · − Rn = 0.

Typically, a company’s executives use the internal rate of return to determine whether an investment is
profitable or not.
262 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.29: Internal Rate of Return

A company is deciding on whether or not to purchase new equipment. The upfront cost of the
equipment is $50,000, but the company predicts that they will save $15,000-1000(m − 1) per year
after m years for up to 4 years, after which the equipment will be useless. Approximate the internal
rate of return on this investment.

Solution.
This investment would yield returns of R1 = 15, 000 − 1000(1 − 1) = 15, 000 after the first year, of
R2 = 15, 000 − 1000(2 − 1) = 14, 000 after the second year, R3 = 15, 000 − 1000(3 − 1) = 13, 000 after
the third year, and R4 = 15, 000 − 1000(4 − 1) = 12, 000 after the fourth year. We also have that the initial
investment is C = 50, 000. Therefore, we wish to solve

50, 000(1 + r)4 − 15, 000(1 + r)3 − 14, 000(1 + r)2 − 13, 000(1 + r) − 12, 000 = 0

for r. Let x = 1 + r for simplicity. Then,

f (x) = 50, 000x4 − 15, 000x3 − 14, 000x2 − 13, 000x − 12, 000,

where we are looking to solve f (x) = 0. We can approximate the root of f using Newton’s Method. Since

f ′ (x) = 200, 000x3 − 45, 000x2 − 28, 000x − 13, 000

the required iterative formula is

50, 000x4n − 15, 000x3n − 14, 000x2n − 13, 00xn − 12, 000
xn+1 = xn − ·
200, 000x3n − 45, 000x2n − 28, 000xn − 13, 000

Choose x0 = 1.0. Then our iterates are

50, 000(1.0)4 − 15, 000(1.0)3 − 14, 000(1.0)2 − 13, 000(1.0) − 12, 000
x1 = 1.0 −
200, 000(1.0)3 − 45, 000(1.0)2 − 28, 00(1.0) − 13, 000
≈ 1.03509
x2 ≈ 1.03277
x3 ≈ 1.03276

So if x ≈ 1.033, then r ≈ 1 − x = 0.033. Therefore, we find the rate of return on the investment to be about
3.3%. ♣
As with any numerical method, we need to be aware of the weaknesses of any technique we are using.
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 263

a b 
xa xb xc x

Figure 5.8: Function with three distinct solutions.

If we know our root is somewhere near a, we would make our guess x0 = a. Generally speaking, a
good practice is to make our guess as close to the actual root as possible. In some cases we may have no
idea where the root is, so it would be prudent to perform the algorithm several times on several different
initial guesses and analyze the results.
For example we can see in Figure 5.8 that f (x) in fact has three roots, and depending on our initial
guess, we may get the algorithm to converge to different roots. If we did not know where the roots were,
we would try the technique several times. In one instance, if our initial guess was xa , we’d likely converge
to (a, 0). Then if we were to choose another guess, xb , then we’d likely converge to (b, 0). Eventually,
using various initial guesses we’d get one of three roots: a, b, or c. Under these circumstances we can
clearly see the effectiveness of this numeric method.
y

f(x0)

x3
x0 x1 x x

f(x1)
f(x )

Figure 5.9: Newton’s Method applied to sin x with unstable point x0 .

As another example if we attempt to use Newton′ s Method on f (x) = sin x using x0 = π /2, then
f ′ (x0 )
= 0 so x1 is undefined and we cannot proceed. Even in general xn+1 is typically nowhere near xn ,
and in general not converging to the root nearest to our initial guess of x0 . In effect, the algorithm keeps
"bouncing around". An example of which is depicted in Figure 5.9. Based on our initial guess for such
a function, the algorithm may or may not converge to a root, or it may or may not converge to the root
closest to the initial guess. This gives rise to the more common issue: Selection of the initial guess, x0 .
264 Applications of Derivatives

Here is a summary.

Key Points in Using Newton’s Method

1. We attempt to choose x0 as close as possible to the root we wish to find.

2. A guess for x0 which makes the algorithm ‘bounce around’ is considered unstable.

3. Even the smallest changes to x0 can have drastic effects: We may converge to another root
(see Figure 5.8), we may converge very slowly requiring many more iterations, or we may
not converge at all due to an unstable point (see Figure 5.9).

4. We may encounter a stationary point if we choose x0 such that f ′ (x0 ) = 0 (i.e. x0 is a critical
point, see Definition 5.5.1!) in which case the algorithm fails (see Figure 5.10).

This is all to say that your initial guess for x0 can be extremely important.

x
x0

Figure 5.10: f ′ (x0 ) = 0

Exercises for Section 5.3.4

Exercise 5.3.24 Apply Newton’s Method using the following steps: First, determine the function given the
radical. Second, approximate the given radical with three iterations based on the given initial guess.
√
(a) 3, x0 = 1.5
√
(b) 7, x0 = 2.5
√
3
(c) 14, x0 = 2.5

Exercise 5.3.25 Apply Newton’s Method to approximate the root of each function within the given interval,
accurate to three decimal places.
 5.3. Linear and Higher Order Approximations 265

(a) f (x) = e−x − x, (0, 1).

(b) f (x) = ex − 1x , (0, 1).

(c) f (x) = ln(x2 ), (6, 7).

Exercise 5.3.26 Sketch the graphs of f and g on the same Cartesian coordinate system. Based on the
sketch, choose an initial value to approximate the x-coordinate of the intersection point(s) of the two
graphs. Then apply Newton’s Method to determine the x-coordinate of the intersection point accurate to
within two decimal places.
√
(a) f (x) = x, g(x) = −0.5x + 2
2
(b) f (x) = e−x , g(x) = x2

(c) f (x) = ln x, g(x) = 2 − x

Exercise 5.3.27 For each of the given functions f (x), show that f (x) = 0 has a root between the given
x-values. Use Newton’s Method to find the zero(s). Hint: use the Intermediate Value Theorem.

(a) f (x) = 3x2 − 9x − 11 between x = −1 and x = 0; and between x = 3 and x = 4.

(b) f (x) = x3 − x − 1 between x = 1 and x = 2.

(c) f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 10 between x = 1 and x = 2.

Exercise 5.3.28 Consider f (x) = x3 − x2 + x − 1.

(a) Using initial approximation x0 = 2, find x4 .

(b) What is the exact value of the root of f ? How does this compare to our approximation x4 in part
(a)?

(c) What would happen if we chose x0 = 0 as our initial approximation?

Exercise 5.3.29 Consider f (x) = sin x. What happens when we choose x0 = π /2? Explain.

Exercise 5.3.30 Suppose a company purchases $6000 worth of new equipment which will be used for the
next 3 years. The investment is expected to yield returns of $2,000 at the end of the first year, $3500 at the
end of the second year and $1000 at the end of the third year. What is the internal rate of return on this
investment?

Exercise 5.3.31 Executives of a certain company are contemplating the purchase of $100,000 worth of
equipment, which would be in use over the next 4 years. The investment is expected to yield returns of
$20,000 at the end of the first year, $30,000 at the end of the second year, $45,000 at the end of the third
year and $15,000 at the end of the fourth year. What is the internal rate of return on this investment?
266 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.3.32 A first time home buyer borrows $250,000 from a bank to finance the purchase of a house.
Interest is computed at the end of each month at a rate of 12r per year on the unpaid balance. If the home
buyer repays the loan in equal monthly instalments of $2226.10 over the next 10 years, what is the rate of
interest charged by the bank?

Exercise 5.3.33 A down payment of 10% is made towards a purchase of $10,000. Financing for this
purchase is available with monthly payments of $255.50 over 4 years. What is the rate of interest charged?

Exercise 5.3.34 Suppose the demand equation for a certain product is given by
100
p = d(q) = 1 ≤ q ≤ 20
0.02q2 + 2
where p is the unit price in dollars and q is the quantity demanded in units of hundreds. The corresponding
supply equation is given by
p = s(q) = 0.1q + 30
dollars. What is the equilibrium point?

Exercise 5.3.35 A certain company determines that the demand equation for a product is

p = −3q + 900 0 ≤ q ≤ 300

where p is the unit price in dollars and q is the quantity demanded in units of a thousand. If the weekly
total cost function associated with the production of this product is

C(q) = q2 + 2q + 700,

what is the break-even level(s) of operation for the company?

5.4 Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule

5.4.1. Indeterminate Forms

Before we embark on introducing one more limit rule, we need to recall a concept from algebra. In your
work with functions (see Chapter 2) and limits (see Chapter 4) we sometimes encountered expressions
that were undefined, because they either lead to a contradiction or to numbers that are not in the set of
numbers we started out with. Let us look at an example for either scenario to investigate the concept
“undefined” more deeply.
 5.4. Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule 267

Example 5.30: Undefined because it Leads to Contradiction

Suppose that
1
f (x) = .
x
What happens when x = 0? Then f (0) = 1/0, but 1/0 is undefined. Why is that? Let’s assume this
value is defined. This means that 1/0 is equal to some number, call it n. Then
1
=n
0
1÷0 = n
1 = n×0
1=0

Clearly, 1 is not equal to 0, and so this statement is a contradiction. In fact, if we analyze the
satament
1 = n × 0,
we notice that there is no number for n that will satisfy this equation. Therefore, 1/0 could not have
been a number, and hence we say 1/0 is undefined. This is the reason why we write that the domain
of f is given by 
D f = x ∈ R x 6= 0 .

Example 5.31: Different Number Set

√
Suppose that f (x) = x − 1 and that we are working over the real numbers. What happens when
x = 0? Then √
f (0) = −1,
√
but −1 is undefined over the real numbers. Why is that? Let’s assume this value is defined. Then
by the definition of square root, there is a real number n such that −1 = n2 . Clearly, the square of
a real number cannot produce a negative real number √ because positive × positive and negative ×
negative are both positive real numbers. In fact, −1 is the imaginary number i, which belongs to
the set of complex numbers.

When we work out limit problems algebraically, we will often get as an initial answer something that
is undefined. This is because the places where a function is undefined are the “interesting” places to look
for limits. For example, if
x2 − 9
g(x) = ,
x−3
then
32 − 9 0
g(3) = = ,
3−3 0
but
x2 − 9 (x − 3)(x + 3)
lim g(x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = 6.
x→3 x→3 x − 3 x→3 x−3 x→3
268 Applications of Derivatives

The function g is a line with a hole at x = 3 and the limit showed us that this hole can be removed with the
y-value 6 at x = 3 (see Fig 5.11).

g
7

1 x
−5 −3 −1 1 3 5

x2 −9
Figure 5.11: The function g(x) = x−3 is undefined at x = 3.

However, we must remember that when we are calculating the limit of f (x) as x → a we are not
interested in the behavior of f (x) at a, but we want to know the behavior of f (x) around a. It is therefore
important for us to identify an undefined value a of a function, and furthermore, to investigate whether the
type of undefined value can tell us something about the behavior of the function around a.
Before we continue, we need to draw attention to a notation that we have been using when calculating
limits. When we write f (x) → 0 as x → a, we actually mean that f (x) gets arbitrarily close to zero as
x gets closer and closer to a. However, the function value never reaches zero. Similarly, when we write
f (x) → ∞ as x → a, we actually mean that f (x) grows ever larger, without bound as x gets closer and
closer to a. However, the function value never reaches infinity, since infinity is not even a number.

Limit Behaviour
When calculating limits,

1. 0 represents a number arbitrarily close to zero;

2. +∞ represents an arbitrarily large positive number; and

3. −∞ represents an arbitrarily large negative number.

Therefore, f (x) → 00 as x → a means that f (x) is a fraction for which both the numerator and the
denominator get arbitrarily close to zero as x gets closer and closer to a, and f (x) → ∞
∞ as x → a means
that f (x) is a fraction for which both the numerator and the denominator grow ever larger, without bound
as x gets closer and closer to a. We also know from experience that some limits that demonstrate 00 or
∞
∞ behaviour work out to be real numbers, i.e. the limit exists, while others do not, as the following four
examples remind us:
 5.4. Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule 269

Example 5.32: Limit exists when 0/0

x2 − 9 00 (x − 3)(x + 3)
lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = 6
x→3 x − 3 x→3 x−3 x→3

Example 5.33: Limit does not exist when 0/0

√ √ √ 1
x + 1 − 1 00 x+1−1 x+1+1 1 0+
lim = lim · √ = lim √ = ∞
x2 x2


x→0+ x→0+ x + 1 + 1 x→0+ x x + 1 + 1

Example 5.34: Limit exists when ∞/∞

1
1 − x −∞ −1 1
lim =∞
lim x =−
x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2 2

Example 5.35: Limit does not exist when ∞/∞

1
1 − x2 −∞ −x
lim = lim x
∞
= −∞
x→∞ 2x x→∞ 2

Upon closer inspection of the undefined expressions 0/0 and ∞/∞, we should realize that both terms
are based on the division operation and ask ourselves whether there are other undefined expressions that
we may encounter when taking limits. We therefore investigate arithmetic (a + b,a − b,ab,a/b) and ex-
ponentiating (ab ) operations where a and b are values that approach 0, 1, some arbitrary number n 6= 0, 1
or ∞. We leave it up to the reader to perform an exhaustive listing of all combinations, and instead limit
ourselves to the combinations that are of interest as shown in Table 5.2.

0+0 ∞+∞ 0 · ∞ n · ∞ 00 0∞
0 n
0−0 ∞−∞ ∞ ∞ 10 1∞
∞ ∞
0·0 ±∞ · ±∞ 0 n n0 n∞
0 ±∞
0 ±∞ ∞0 ∞∞

Table 5.2: Arithmetic and Exponentiating Combinations.

We now encourage the reader to investigate each one of the terms shown in Table 5.2 and decide whether
the undefined expression resolves to give a single number value or infinity (determinate form), or whether
this cannot be determined (indeterminate form), all the while keeping in mind our earlier discussion on
limit behaviour around x = a. We formally define this new terminology before we explore some terms
together.
270 Applications of Derivatives

Definition 5.36: Determinate and Indeterminate Forms

An undefined expression involving some operation between two quantities is called a determinate
form if it evaluates to a single number value or infinity.
An undefined expression involving some operation between two quantities is called an indetermi-
nate form if it does not evaluate to a single number value or infinity.

We will inspect multiplication more closely. Consider 0×0. Clearly, a number that is getting arbitrarily
close to zero that is multiplied by another number that is getting arbitrarily close to zero gets even closer
to zero, i.e. 0 × 0 → 0. Now consider ∞ × ∞. Here, multiplying two values that are growing large without
bound simply means that their product grows large without bound, i.e. ∞ × ∞ → ∞. Similarly, (−∞) × ∞
means that the magnitude of the product grows large without bound and that (−∞) × ∞ → −∞. What
about n × ∞, when n 6= 0? Here we need to differentiate between negative and positive values of n: If
n > 0, then n × ∞ → ∞, and if n < 0, then n × ∞ → −∞. So far, we have only encountered determinate
forms involving multiplication. Lastly, consider 0 × ∞. Here, we have a number that is getting arbitrarily
close to zero being multiplied with a value that is growing large without bounds. This is like two ends of a
rope being tugged and we do not know which side is going to win. Therefore, 0 × ∞ is an expression that
cannot be determined.
We leave the remaining terms up to the reader to investigate and simply present the determinate and
indeterminate forms of the expressions from Table 5.2 in Table 5.3.

Determinate Forms Indeterminate Forms

0+0 ∞−∞

0
0−0
0
±∞
0·0
±∞
±∞ · ±∞ 0·∞

0 n
, 00
∞ ∞
∞ ∞
, ∞0
0 n
n·∞ n6=0 1∞

0∞

n∞ n6=1

∞∞

Table 5.3: Determinate and Indeterminate Forms

 5.4. Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule 271

5.4.2. L’Hôpital’s Rule for Finding Limits

We are now in a position to introduce one more technique for trying to evaluate a limit.

0 ∞
Definition 5.37: Limits of the Indeterminate Forms 0 and ∞
f (x) 0
A limit of a quotient lim g(x) is said to be an indeterminate form of the type 0 if both f (x) → 0
x→a
and g (x) → 0 as x → a. Likewise, it is said to be an indeterminate form of the type ∞
∞ if both
f (x) → ±∞ and g (x) → ±∞ as x → a (Here, the two ± signs are independent of each other).

Theorem 5.38: L’Hôpital’s Rule

f (x)
For a limit lim of the indeterminate form 0
0 or ∞
∞,
x→a g(x)

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)

′ (x)
if lim gf ′ (x) exists or equals ∞ or −∞.
x→a

This theorem is somewhat difficult to prove, in part because it incorporates so many different possibil-
ities, so we will not prove it here.
Note:

1. There may be instances where we would need to apply L’Hôpital’s Rule multiple times, but we must
f ′ (x)
confirm that lim ′ is still indeterminate before we attempt to apply L’Hôpital’s Rule again.
x→a g (x)

2. L’Hôpital’s Rule is also valid for one-sided limits and limits at infinity.

Notation when Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule

H
We use the symbol = to denote we are using l’Hôpital’s Rule in that step.

Example 5.39: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form 0/0

x2 − π 2
Compute lim .
x→π sin x

Solution. We use L’Hôpital’s Rule: Since the numerator and denominator both approach zero,
x2 − π 2 H 2x
lim = lim ,
x→π sin x x→π cos x
272 Applications of Derivatives

provided the latter exists. But in fact this is an easy limit, since the denominator now approaches −1, so
x2 − π 2 2π
lim = = −2π .
x→π sin x −1
♣

Example 5.40: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form ∞/∞

2x2 − 3x + 7
Compute lim .
x→∞ x2 + 47x + 1

Solution. As x goes to infinity, both the numerator and denominator go to infinity, so we may apply
L’Hôpital’s Rule:
2x2 − 3x + 7 H 4x − 3
lim 2 = lim .
x→∞ x + 47x + 1 x→∞ 2x + 47
In the second quotient, it is still the case that the numerator and denominator both go to infinity, so we are
allowed to use L’Hôpital’s Rule again:
4x − 3 H 4
lim = lim = 2.
x→∞ 2x + 47 x→∞ 2

So the original limit is 2 as well. ♣

Example 5.41: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form 0/0

sec x − 1
Compute lim .
x→0 sin x

Solution. Both the numerator and denominator approach zero, so applying L’Hôpital’s Rule:
sec x − 1 H sec x tan x 1 · 0
lim = lim = = 0.
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x 1
♣

Example 5.42: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form ∞/∞

1
x2
Compute lim .
x→0+ ln x

Solution. As x aproaches zero from the right, the numerator approaches +∞ and the denominator ap-
proaches −∞. We may therefore apply L’Hôpital’s Rule:
1 −2
x2 H x3
lim = lim 1
x→0+ ln x x→0+
x
H −2
= lim
x→0+ x2
= −∞
 5.4. Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule 273

♣
Note: In order to decide which of two functions f and g grows faster as the independent variable, say
x, becomes larger, we can apply the limit as x goes to infinity to the ratio f /g of these two functions. If
the function f in the numerator grows faster, then the limit approaches infinity. If the function g in the
denominator grows faster, then the limit approaches zero. If the functions have similar growth rates, then
then the limit approaches a constant. This type of limit is readily computed using L’Hôpital’s Rule, and so
L’Hôpital’s Rule is a useful tool to know.
We now exemplify this idea of growth rate. Let us have a closer look at the two functions f (x) = 5x3
and g(x) = x3 . Then the function f (x) = 5x3 grows exactly five times as fast as the function g(x) = x3 .
However, the ratio of the two functions
f (x) 5x3
= 3 = 5, x 6= 0,
g(x) x
is a constant, and so both functions have fundamentally the same growth rate.

5.4.3. Informally Extending L’Hôpital’s Rule

L’Hôpital’s Rule concerns limits of a quotient that are indeterminate forms. But not all functions are
given in the form of a quotient. But all the same, nothing prevents us from re-writing a given function
in the form of a quotient. Indeed, some functions whose given form involve either a product f (x) g (x)
or a power f (x)g(x) carry indeterminacies such as 0 · (±∞) or 1±∞ . Something small times something
numerically large (positive or negative) could be anything. It depends on how small and how large each
piece turns out to be. A number close to 1 raised to a numerically large (positive or negative) power could
be anything. It depends on how close to 1 the base is, whether the base is larger than or smaller than 1,
and how large the exponent is (and its sign). We can use suitable algebraic manipulations to relate them to
indeterminate quotients. We will illustrate with three examples, a product, a power and a difference.

Example 5.43: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form 0 × ∞

Compute lim x ln x.
x→0+

Solution. This doesn’t appear to be suitable for L’Hôpital’s Rule, but it also is not “obvious”. As x
approaches zero, ln x goes to −∞, so the product looks like:
(something very small) · (something very large and negative).
This could be anything: it depends on how small and how large each piece of the function turns out to be.
As defined earlier, this is a type of ±“0 · ∞”, which is indeterminate. So we can in fact apply L’Hôpital’s
Rule after re-writing it in the form ∞∞:
ln x ln x
x ln x = = −1 .
1/x x
Now as x approaches zero, both the numerator and denominator approach infinity (one −∞ and one +∞,
but only the size is important). Using L’Hôpital’s Rule:
ln x H 1/x 1
lim −1
= lim −2
= lim (−x2 ) = lim −x = 0.
x→0+ x x→0+ −x x→0+ x x→0+
274 Applications of Derivatives

One way to interpret this is that since lim x ln x = 0, the x approaches zero much faster than the ln x
x→0+
approaches −∞. ♣
Finally, we illustrate how a limit of the type “1∞ ” can be indeterminate.

Example 5.44: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form 1∞

Compute lim+ x1/(x−1) .

x→1

Solution. Plugging in x = 1 (from the right) gives a limit of the type “1∞ ”. To deal with this type of limit
we will use logarithms. Let
L = lim x1/(x−1) .
x→1+
Now, take the natural log of both sides:
 
ln L = lim ln x1/(x−1) .
x→1+
Using log properties we have:
ln x
ln L = lim .
x−1
x→1+
The right side limit is now of the type 0/0, therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s Rule:
ln x H 1/x
ln L = lim = lim =1
x→1+ x − 1 x→1+ 1

Thus, ln L = 1 and hence, our original limit (denoted by L) is: L = e1 = e. That is,
L = lim x1/(x−1) = e.
x→1+
In this case, even though our limit had a type of “1∞ ”, it actually had a value of e. ♣

Example 5.45: L’Hôpital’s Rule and Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞

 
1 1
Compute lim − .
x→0+ sin x x

Solution. As x approaches zero from the right,

1 1
− → ∞ − ∞.
sin x x
This is not a form on which we know we can use L’Hôpital’s Rule, however, if we combine the fractions,
the problem becomes
x − sin x
lim ,
x→0+ x sin x
which gives us the indeterminate form 0/0. We can now apply L’Hôpital’s Rule twice:
x − sin x H 1 − cos x H sin x 0
lim = lim = lim = = 0.
x→0+ x sin x x→0+ sin x + x cos x x→0+ 2 cos x − x sin x 2−0
♣
 5.4. Indeterminate Form & L’Hôpital’s Rule 275

Exercises for Section 5.4

Exercise 5.4.1 Compute the following limits.

cos x − 1 x2 ln(x2 + 1)
(a) lim (h) lim √ (o) lim
x→0 sin x x→0 2x + 1 − 1 x→0 x
ex (u − 1)3
(b) lim (i) lim x ln x
x→∞ x3 (p) lim
u→1 (1/u) − u2 + 3/u − 3 x→1 x2 − 1
ln x
(c) lim √ 2 + (1/x)
x→∞ x (j) lim sin(2x)
x→0 3 − (2/x) (q) lim
x→0 ln(x + 1)
ln x √
(d) lim 1 + 5/ x
x→∞ x (k) lim √ √
√ x→0+ 2 + 1/ x x−1
(r) lim
9+x−3 cos x x→1 x−1
(e) lim (l) lim
x→0 x x→π /2 (π /2) − x √
√ x+1−1
2− x+2 x2 (s) lim √
(f) lim x→0 x + 4 − 2
x→2 4 − x2 (m) lim
x→0 ex − x − 1
√ √
x−1 ln x x2 + 1 − 1
√
(g) lim 1/3 (n) lim (t) lim √
x→1 x−1 x→1 x − 1 x→0 x+1−1

Exercise 5.4.2 Compute the following limits.

√
(a) lim x ln x [Hint: Let t = 1/x] x1/4 − 1
x→0+ (f) lim
x→1 x
(1 − x)1/4 − 1 3x2 + x + 2
(b) lim (g) lim
x→0 x x→0 x−4
  √
1 x+1+1
(c) lim t + ((4 − t)3/2 − 8) (h) lim √
t→0 t x→0+ x+1−1
√
   
1 1 1 1
(d) lim + √ ( t + 1 − 1) (i) lim (x + 5) +
t→0+ t t x→1 2x x + 2

ex − 1 x3 − 6x − 2
(e) lim (j) lim
x→0 x x→2 x3 + 4

x + sin x
Exercise 5.4.3 Discuss what happens if we try to use L’Hôpital’s Rule to find the limit lim .
x→∞ x+1
276 Applications of Derivatives

5.5 Extrema of a Function

In calculus, there is much emphasis placed on analyzing the behaviour of a function f on an interval I.
Does f have a maximum value on I? Does it have a minimum value? How does the interval I impact our
discussion of extrema?

5.5.1. Relative Extrema

A relative maximum point on a function is a point (x, y) on the graph of the function whose y-coordinate
is larger than all other y-coordinates on the graph at points “close to” (x, y). More precisely, (x, f (x))
is a relative maximum if there is an interval (a, b) with a < x < b and f (x) ≥ f (z) for every z in (a, b).
Similarly, (x, y) is a relative minimum point if it has locally the smallest y-coordinate. Again being more
precise: (x, f (x)) is a relative minimum if there is an interval (a, b) with a < x < b and f (x) ≤ f (z) for
every z in (a, b). A relative extremum is either a relative minimum or a relative maximum.
Note:

1. The plural of extremum is extrema and similarly for maximum and minimum.

2. Because a relative extremum is “extreme” locally by looking at points “close to” it, it is also referred
to as a local extremum.

Definition 5.46: Relative Maxima and Minima

A real-valued function f has a relative maximum at x0 if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x in some open
interval containing x0 .
A real-valued function f has a relative minimum at x0 if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x in some open
interval containing x0 .
y y y

x x x
a x1 x2 b a x1 b a b

(a) relative minima at x = x1 , (b) relative maximum at (e) no relaltive extrema in

x2 x = x1 (a, b)

Relative maximum and minimum points are quite distinctive on the graph of a function, and are there-
fore useful in understanding the shape of the graph. In many applied problems we want to find the largest
or smallest value that a function achieves (for example, we might want to find the minimum cost at which
 5.5. Extrema of a Function 277

some task can be performed) and so identifying maximum and minimum points will be useful for applied
problems as well. Some examples of relative maximum and minimum points are shown in Figure 5.12.

B
B

A
B

Figure 5.12: Some relative maximum points (A) and minimum points (B).

If (x, f (x)) is a point where f (x) reaches a relative maximum or minimum, and if the derivative of f
exists at x, then the graph has a tangent line and the tangent line must be horizontal. This is important
enough to state as a theorem.
The proof is simple enough and we include it here, but you may accept Fermat’s Theorem based on its
strong intuitive appeal and come back to its proof at a later time.

Theorem 5.47: Fermat’s Theorem

If f (x) has a relative extremum at x = a and f is differentiable at a, then f ′ (a) = 0, provided that
f ′ (a) exists.

Proof. We shall give the proof for the case where f (x) has a relative maximum at x = a. The proof for the
relative minimum case is similar.
Since f (x) has a relative maximum at x = a, there is an open interval (c, d) with c < a < d and
f (x) ≤ f (a) for every x in (c, d) . So, f (x) − f (a) ≤ 0 for all such x. Let us now look at the sign of the
f (x) − f (a)
difference quotient . We consider two cases according as x > a or x < a.
x−a
f (x) − f (a)
If x > a, then x − a > 0 and so, ≤ 0. Taking limit as x approach a from the right, we get
x−a
f (x) − f (a)
lim ≤ 0.
x→a+ x−a
f (x) − f (a)
On the other hand, if x < a, then x − a < 0 and so, ≥ 0. Taking limit as x approach a from the
x−a
left, we get
f (x) − f (a)
lim ≥ 0.
x→a− x−a
278 Applications of Derivatives

Since f is differentiable at a,

f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)

f ′ (a) = lim = lim .
x→a+ x−a x→a − x−a
Therefore, we have both f ′ (a) ≤ 0 and f ′ (a) ≥ 0. So, f ′ (a) = 0. ♣
Thus, the only points at which a function can have a relative maximum or minimum are points at
which the derivative is zero, as in the left-hand graph in Figure 5.12, or the derivative is undefined, as in
the right-hand graph. This leads us to define these special points.

Definition 5.48: Critical Point

Any value of x in the domain of f for which f ′ (x) is zero or undefined is called a critical point of
f.
y
Corner
Horizontal tangents

Vertical tangent

x
a b c d e

The x-values a, b and c above are places for which f ′ (x) is zero, and the x-values d and e above are
places for which f ′ (x) is undefined.

Note: When looking for relative maximum and minimum points, you are likely to make two sorts of
mistakes.

1. You may forget that a maximum or minimum can occur where the derivative does not exist. You
should therefore check whether the derivative exists everywhere.

2. You might also assume that any place that the derivative is zero is a relative maximum or minimum
point, but this is not true. A portion of the graph of f (x) = x3 is shown in Figure 5.13. The derivative
of f is f ′ (x) = 3x2 , and f ′ (0) = 0, but there is neither a maximum nor minimum at (0, 0). In other
words, the converse of Fermat’s Theorem – if f ′ (a) = 0 at some point x = a, then f must have a
relative extremum at that point – is not true.
 5.5. Extrema of a Function 279

y = x3

Figure 5.13: No relative extrema even though the derivative is zero at x = 0.

Since the derivative is zero or undefined at both relative maximum and relative minimum points, we
need a way to determine which, if either, actually occurs. The most elementary approach, but one that
is often tedious or difficult, is to test directly whether the y-coordinates “near” the potential maximum
or minimum are above or below the y-coordinate at the point of interest. Of course, there are too many
points “near” the point to test, but a little thought shows we need only test two provided we know that f is
continuous (recall that this means that the graph of f has no jumps or gaps).
Suppose, for example, that we have identified three points at which f ′ is zero or nonexistent: (x1 , y1 ),
(x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ), and x1 < x2 < x3 (see Figure 5.14). Suppose that we compute the value of f (a) for
x1 < a < x2 , and that f (a) < f (x2 ). What can we say about the graph between a and x2 ? Could there be a
point (b, f (b)), a < b < x2 with f (b) > f (x2 )? No: if there were, the graph would go up from (a, f (a)) to
(b, f (b)) then down to (x2 , f (x2 )) and somewhere in between would have a relative maximum point. (This
is not obvious; it is a result of the Extreme Value Theorem stated in the next section.) But at that relative
maximum point the derivative of f would be zero or nonexistent, yet we already know that the derivative
is zero or nonexistent only at x1 , x2 , and x3 . The upshot is that one computation tells us that (x2 , f (x2 ))
has the largest y-coordinate of any point on the graph near x2 and to the left of x2 . We can perform the
same test on the right. If we find that on both sides of x2 the values are smaller, then there must be a
relative maximum at (x2 , f (x2 )); if we find that on both sides of x2 the values are larger, then there must
be a relative minimum at (x2 , f (x2 )); if we find one of each, then there is neither a relative maximum or
minimum at x2 .

x
x1 a b x2 x3

Figure 5.14: Testing for a maximum or minimum.

280 Applications of Derivatives

It is not always easy to compute the value of a function at a particular point. The task is made easier
by the availability of calculators and computers, but they have their own drawbacks—they do not always
allow us to distinguish between values that are very close together. Nevertheless, because this method is
conceptually simple and sometimes easy to perform, you should always consider it.

Example 5.49: Testing for Relative Extrema in Cubic Function

Find all relative maximum and minimum points for the function f (x) = x3 − x.

′ 2
√
Solution. The
√ derivative is f (x) =
√ 3x −1. This
√ is defined everywhere and is zero at x = ± 3/3. Looking
√
first at x = 3/3, we see that f ( 3/3) √ = −2
√ 3/9. Now we test two points on either
√ side of x = 3/3,
choosing √ one point in the interval (−
√ 3/3, 3/3) and one point in the interval ( √ 3/3, ∞). Since √ =
f (0)
0 > −2 3/9 and√f (1) = 0 > √ −2 3/9, there must be a relative minimum at x = 3/3. For x = − 3/3,
we see that f√ (− 3/3) = 2 3/9. This time we can use x = 0 and √ x = −1, and we find that f (−1) =
f (0) = 0 < 2 3/9, so there must be a relative maximum at x = − 3/3. ♣
Of course this example is made very simple by our choice of points to test, namely x = −1, 0, 1.
We could have used other values, say −5/4, 1/3, and 3/4, but this would have made the calculations
considerably more tedious, and we should always choose very simple points to test if we can.

Example 5.50: Testing for Relative Extrema in Trigonometric Function

Find all relative maximum and minimum points for f (x) = sin x + cos x.

Solution. The derivative is f ′ (x) = cos x − sin x. This is always defined and is zero whenever cos x = sin x.
Recalling that the cos x and sin x are the x- and y-coordinates of points on a unit circle, we see that cos x =
sin x when x is π /4, π /4 ± π , π /4 ± 2π , π /4 ± 3π , etc. Since both sine and cosine have a period of 2π , we
need only determine the status of x√= π /4 and x = 5√π /4. We can use 0 and π /2 to test the critical value
x = π /4. We find that f (π /4) = 2, f (0) = 1 < 2 and f (π /2) = 1, so there is a relative maximum
when x = π /4 and also when x = π /4 ± 2π , π /4 ± 4π , etc. We can summarize this more neatly by saying
that there are relative maxima at π /4 ± 2kπ for every integer k.
√
We use π and 32π to test the critical value x = 5π /4. The relevant values are f (5π /4) = − 2, f (π ) =
√ √
−1 > − 2, f (3π /2) = 1 > − 2, so there is a relative minimum at x = 5π /4, 5π /4 ± 2π , 5π /4 ± 4π ,
etc. More succinctly, there are relative minima at 5π /4 ± 2kπ for every integer k. ♣

Example 5.51: Testing for Relative Extrema in Power Function

Find all relative maximum and minimum points for g (x) = x2/3 .

Solution. The derivative is g′ (x) = 23 x−1/3 . This is undefined when x = 0 and is not equal to zero for any
x in the domain of g′ . Now we test two points on either side of x = 0. We use x = −1 and x = 1. Since
g (0) = 0, g (−1) = 1 > 0 and g (1) = 1 > 0, there must be a relative minimum at x = 0. ♣
 5.5. Extrema of a Function 281

Exercises for Section 5.5.1

Exercise 5.5.1 Find all relative maximum and minimum points (x, y) by the method of this section.
(
(a) y = x2 − x x−1 x < 2
(i) f (x) = 2
(b) y = 2 + 3x − x3 x x≥2

(c) y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x


x − 3
 x<3
(d) y = x4 − 2x2 + 3 (j) f (x) = x3 3≤x≤5

1/x x>5

(e) y = 3x4 − 4x3
(f) y = (x2 − 1)/x (k) f (x) = x2 − 98x + 4

(g) y = 3x2 − (1/x2 )

(
−2 x=0
(l) f (x) =
(h) y = cos(2x) − x 1/x2 x 6= 0

Exercise 5.5.2 For any real number x there is a unique integer n such that n ≤ x < n + 1, and the greatest
integer function is defined as ⌊x⌋ = n. Where are the critical values of the greatest integer function? Which
are relative maxima and which are relative minima?

Exercise 5.5.3 Explain why the function f (x) = 1/x has no relative maxima or minima.

Exercise 5.5.4 How many critical points can a quadratic polynomial function have?

Exercise 5.5.5 Show that a cubic polynomial can have at most two critical points. Give examples to show
that a cubic polynomial can have zero, one, or two critical points.

Exercise 5.5.6 Explore the family of functions f (x) = x3 + cx + 1 where c is a constant. How many and
what types of relative extremes are there? Your answer should depend on the value of c, that is, different
values of c will give different answers.

Exercise 5.5.7 We generalize the preceding two questions. Let n be a positive integer and let f be a
polynomial of degree n. How many critical points can f have? (Hint: Recall the Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra, which says that a polynomial of degree n has at most n roots.)

5.5.2. Absolute Extrema

Unlike a relative extremum, which is only “extreme” relative to points “close to” it, an absolute extremum
is “extreme” compared to all other points in the interval under consideration. Some examples of absolute
maximum and minimum points are shown in Figure 5.15. This leads us to the following definitions.
282 Applications of Derivatives

Definition 5.52: Absolute Maxima and Minima

A real-valued function f has an absolute maximum at x0 if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for all x in the domain of
f.
A real-valued function f has an absolute minimum at x0 if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for all x in the domain of
f.

Note:

1. Notice that the definition of absolute extrema entails that an absolute extremum, unlike a relative
extremum, can fall on an endpoint as shown in Figure 5.15.

2. Because of the “global” nature of an absolute extremum it is also often referred to as a global
extremum.

Absolute Maximum
Relative Maxima

Relative Minimum Absolute Minimum

x
a b

Figure 5.15: Classification of Extrema

Example 5.53: Absolute Extrema Using a Graph

Find the absolute extrema of the following functions using their graphs.

(a) f (x) = x2 on the interval (−∞, ∞).

(b) f (x) = |x| on the interval [−1, 2].

(c) f (x) = cos x on the interval [0, π ].

Solution.
 5.5. Extrema of a Function 283

6
This parabola has an absolute minimum at x = 0.
(a)
However, it does not have an absolute maximum.
3

x
−2 2

This graph looks like a check mark. It has an absolute 1

(b)
minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = 2.
x
−1 1 2

f (x) = cos(x) has an absolute minimum at x = π and

(c) x
an absolute maximum at x = 0 on the interval [0, π ]. π π
2

−1

♣
Like Fermat’s Theorem, the following theorem has an intuitive appeal. However, unlike Fermat’s
Theorem, the proof relies on a more advanced concept called compactness, which will only be covered
in a course typically entitled Analysis. So, we will be content with understanding the statement of the
theorem.
284 Applications of Derivatives

Theorem 5.54: Extreme Value Theorem

If a function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f has both an absolute maximum and
an absolute minimum on [a, b].

Although this theorem tells us that an absolute extremum exists, it does not tell us what it is or how to
find it.
Note that if an absolute extremum is inside the interval (i.e. not an endpoint), then it must also be a
relative extremum. This immediately tells us that to find the absolute extrema of a function on an interval,
we need only examine the relative extrema inside the interval, and the endpoints of the interval. We can
devise a method for finding absolute extrema for a function f on a closed interval [a, b].

Guideline for Finding Absolute Extrema Given Continuity of f and Closed Interval

1. Verify the function is continuous on [a, b].

2. Find the derivative and determine all critical values of f that are in (a, b).

3. Evaluate the function at the critical values found in Step 2 and the endpoints x = a and x = b
of the interval.

4. The absolute maximum value and absolute minimum value of f correspond to the largest and
smallest y-values respectively found in Step 3.

Why must a function be continuous on a closed interval in order to use this theorem? Consider the
following example.

Example 5.55: Absolute Extrema and Continuity

Find any absolute extrema for f (x) = 1/x on the interval [−1, 1].

Solution. The function f is not continuous at x = 0. Since 0 ∈ [−1, 1], f is not continuous on the closed
interval:

lim f (x) = +∞
x→0+
lim f (x) = −∞ ,
x→0−

so we are unable to apply the Extreme Value Theorem. Therefore, f (x) = 1/x does not have an absolute
maximum or an absolute minimum on [−1, 1]. ♣
However, if we consider the same function on an interval where it is continuous, the theorem will
apply. This is illustrated in the following example.

Example 5.56: Absolute Extrema and Continuity

Find any absolute extrema for f (x) = 1/x on the interval [1, 2].
 5.5. Extrema of a Function 285

Solution. The function f is continous on the interval, so we can apply the Extreme Value Theorem. We
begin with taking the derivative to be f ′ (x) = −1/x2 which has a critical value at x = 0, but since this
critical value is not in [1, 2] we ignore it. The only points where an extrema can occur are the endpoints
of the interval. To find the maximum or minimum we can simply evaluate the function: f (1) = 1 and
f (2) = 1/2, so the absolute maximum is at x = 1 and the absolute minimum is at x = 2. ♣
Why must an interval be closed in order to use the above theorem? Recall the difference between open
and closed intervals. Consider a function f on the open interval (0, 1). If we choose successive values of
x moving closer and closer to 1, what happens? Since 1 is not included in the interval we will not attain
exactly the value of 1. Suppose we reach a value of 0.9999 — is it possible to get closer to 1? Yes: There
are infinitely many real numbers between 0.9999 and 1. In fact, any conceivable real number close to 1
will have infinitely many real numbers between itself and 1. Now, suppose f is decreasing on (0, 1): As
we approach 1, f will continue to decrease, even if the difference between successive values of f is slight.
Similarly if f is increasing on (0, 1).
Consider a few more examples:

Example 5.57: Determining Absolute Extrema

Determine the absolute extrema of f (x) = x3 − x2 + 1 on the interval [−1, 2].

Solution. First, notice f is continuous on the closed interval [−1, 2], so we’re able to use Theorem 5.54 to
determine the absolute extrema. The derivative is f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 2x, and the critical values are x = 0, 2/3
which are both in the interval [−1, 2]. In order to find the absolute extrema, we must consider all critical
values that lie within the interval (that is, in (−1, 2)) and the endpoints of the interval.

f (−1) = (−1)3 − (−1)2 + 1 = −1

f (0) = (0)3 − (0)2 + 1 = 1
f (2/3) = (2/3)3 − (2/3)2 + 1 = 23/27
f (2) = (2)3 − (2)2 + 1 = 5

The absolute maximum is at (2,5) and the absolute minimum is at (-1,-1). ♣

Example 5.58: Determining Absolute Extrema

Determine the absolute extrema of f (x) = −9/x − x + 10 on the interval [2, 6].

Solution. First, notice f is continuous on the closed interval [2, 6], so we’re able to use Theorem 5.54 to
determine the absolute extrema. The function is not continuous at x = 0, but we can ignore this fact since
0 is not in [2, 6]. The derivative is f ′ (x) = 9/x2 − 1, and the critical values are x = ±3, but only x = +3 is
in the interval. In order to find the absolute extrema, we must consider all critical values that lie within the
interval and the endpoints of the interval.

f (2) = −9/(2) − (2) + 10 = 7/2 = 3.5

f (3) = −9/(3) − (3) + 10 = 4
286 Applications of Derivatives

f (6) = −9/(6) − (6) + 10 = 5/2 = 2.5

The absolute maximum is at (3,4) and the absolute minimum is at (6,2.5). ♣

When we are trying to find the absolute extrema of a function on an open interval, we cannot use the
Extreme Value Theorem. However, if the function is continuous on the interval, many of the same ideas
apply. In particular, if an absolute extremum exists, it must also be a relative extremum. In addition to
checking values at the relative extrema, we must check the behaviour of the function as it approaches the
ends of the interval.
Some examples to illustrate this method.

Example 5.59: Determining Absolute Extrema

Find the extrema of y = sec(x) on (−π /2, π /2).

Solution. Notice sec(x) is continuous on (−π /2, π /2) and has one relative minimum at 0. Also

lim sec(x) = lim sec(x) = +∞ ,

x→(−π /2)+ x→(π /2)−

so sec(x) has no absolute maximum, but the point (0, 1) is the absolute minimum. ♣
A similar approach can be used for infinite intervals.

Example 5.60: Determining Absolute Extrema

x2
Find the extrema of y = on (−∞, ∞).
x2 + 1

Solution. Since x2 + 1 6= 0 for all x in (−∞, ∞) the function is continuous on this interval. This function
has only one critical value at x = 0, which is the relative minimum and also the absolute minimum. Now,
2
limx→±∞ x2x+1 = 1, so the function does not have an absolute maximum: It continues to increase towards
1, but does not attain this exact value. ♣

Exercises for Section 5.5.2

Exercise 5.5.8 Find the absolute extrema for the following functions over the given interval.
x+4
√
(a) f (x) = − x−4 on [0, 3] (e) f (x) = x 1 − x2 on [−1, 1]
2 /32
(b) f (x) = x3 + 4x2 + 4 on [−4, 1] (f) f (x) = xe−x on [0, 2]
(c) f (x) = csc(x) on [0, π ] (g) f (x) = x − tan−1 (2x) on [0, 2]
x
(d) f (x) = ln(x)/x2 on [1, 4] (h) f (x) = x2 +1
 5.6. The Mean Value Theorem 287

Exercise 5.5.9 For each of the following, sketch a potential graph of a continuous function on the closed
interval [0, 4] with the given properties.

(a) Absolute minimum at 0, absolute maximum at 2, relative minimum at 3.

(b) Absolute maximum at 1, absolute minimum at 2, relative maximum at 3.

(c) Absolute minimum at 4, absolute maximum at 1, relative minimum at 2, relative maxima at 1 and 3.

5.6 The Mean Value Theorem

There are numerous applications of the derivative through its definition as rate of change and as the slope
of the tangent line. In this section we shall look at some deeper reasons why the derivative turns out to be
so useful. The simple answer is that the derivative of a function tells us a lot about the function. More
important, “hard” questions about a function can sometimes be answered by solving a relatively simple
problem about the derivative of the function.

Informs
Knowledge of f Knowledge of f ′

Question A about Rephrase Question B about

f Or Relate f′

Analyze

Solution to Rephrase Solution to

Question A about Question B about
f Or Relate f′

The Mean Value Theorem tells us that there is an intimate connection between the net change of the
value of any “sufficiently nice” function over an interval and the possible values of its derivative on that
interval. Because of this connection, we can draw conclusions about the possible values of the derivative
based on information about the values of the function, and conversely, we can draw conclusions about the
values of the function based on information about the values of its derivative.

Net change Possible values

Mean Value
of f (x) on of f ′ (x) on
interval [a, b] Theorem interval (a, b)
288 Applications of Derivatives

Let us illustrate the idea through the following two interesting questions involving derivatives:

1. Suppose two different functions have the same derivative; what can you say about the relationship
between the two functions?
2. Suppose you drive a car from toll booth on a toll road to another toll booth at an average speed of
70 miles per hour. What can be concluded about your actual speed during the trip? In particular, did
you exceed the 65 mile per hour speed limit?

While these sound very different, it turns out that the two problems are very closely related. We know
that “speed” is really the derivative by a different name; let’s start by translating the second question into
something that may be easier to visualize. Suppose that the function f (t) gives the position of your car on
the toll road at time t. Your change in position between one toll booth and the next is given by f (t1)− f (t0 ),
assuming that at time t0 you were at the first booth and at time t1 you arrived at the second booth. Your
average speed for the trip is ( f (t1) − f (t0))/(t1 −t0 ). If we think about the graph of f (t), the average speed
is the slope of the line that connects the two points (t0, f (t0 )) and (t1, f (t1 )). Your speed at any particular
time t between t0 and t1 is f ′ (t), the slope of the curve. Now question (2) becomes a question about slope.
In particular, if the slope between endpoints is 70, what can be said of the slopes at points between the
endpoints?
As a general rule, when faced with a new problem it is often a good idea to examine one or more
simplified versions of the problem, in the hope that this will lead to an understanding of the original
problem. In this case, the problem in its “slope” form is somewhat easier to simplify than the original, but
equivalent, problem.
Here is a special instance of the problem. Suppose that f (t0) = f (t1 ). Then the two endpoints have
the same height and the slope of the line connecting the endpoints is zero. What can we say about the
slope between the endpoints? It shouldn’t take much experimentation before you are convinced of the
truth of this statement: Somewhere between t0 and t1 the slope is exactly zero, that is, somewhere between
t0 and t1 the slope is equal to the slope of the line between the endpoints. This suggests that perhaps the
same is true even if the endpoints are at different heights, and again a bit of experimentation will probably
convince you that this is so. But we can do better than “experimentation”—we can prove that this is so.
We start with the simplified version:

Theorem 5.61: Rolle’s Theorem

Suppose that f (x) has a derivative on the interval (a, b), is continuous on the interval [a, b], and
f (a) = f (b). Then at some value c ∈ (a, b), f ′ (c) = 0.

Proof. We know that f (x) has a maximum and minimum value on [a, b] (because it is continuous), and we
also know that the maximum and minimum must occur at an endpoint, at a point at which the derivative is
zero, or at a point where the derivative is undefined. Since the derivative is never undefined, that possibility
is removed.
If the maximum or minimum occurs at a point c, other than an endpoint, where f ′ (c) = 0, then we
have found the point we seek. Otherwise, the maximum and minimum both occur at an endpoint, and
since the endpoints have the same height, the maximum and minimum are the same. This means that
f (x) = f (a) = f (b) at every x ∈ [a, b], so the function is a horizontal line, and it has derivative zero
everywhere in (a, b). Then we may choose any c at all to get f ′ (c) = 0. ♣
 5.6. The Mean Value Theorem 289

Rolle’s Theorem is illustrated below for a function f (x) where f ′ (x) = 0 holds for two values of x = c1
and x = c2 :
y
f '(c 2 )=0

f(a)=f(b)
x
a c1 c2 b

f '(c 1 )=0

Perhaps remarkably, this special case is all we need to prove the more general one as well.

Theorem 5.62: Mean Value Theorem

Suppose that f (x) has a derivative on the interval (a, b) and is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then
f (b) − f (a)
at some value c ∈ (a, b), f ′ (c) = .
b−a

f (b) − f (a)
Proof. Let m = , and consider a new function g(x) = f (x) − m(x − a) − f (a). We know that
b−a
g(x) has a derivative everywhere, since g′ (x) = f ′ (x) − m. We can compute

g(a) = f (a) − m(a − a) − f (a) = 0

and
g(b) = f (b) − m(b − a) − f (a)
f (b) − f (a)
= f (b) − (b − a) − f (a)
b−a
= f (b) − ( f (b) − f (a)) − f (a) = 0.

So the height of g(x) is the same at both endpoints. This means, by Rolle’s Theorem, that at some c,
g′ (c) = 0. But we know that g′ (c) = f ′ (c) − m, so

f (b) − f (a)
0 = f ′ (c) − m = f ′ (c) − ,
b−a
which turns into
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = ,
b−a
exactly what we want. ♣
The Mean Value Theorem is illustrated below showing the existence of a point x = c for a function
f (x) where the tangent line at x = c (with slope f ′ (c)) is parallel to the secant line connecting A(a, f (a))
290 Applications of Derivatives

f (b)− f (a)
and B(b, f (b)) (with slope b−a ):
y
) B
(c
f'
p e= a)
slo ) ‐f(
b a
f( b ‐
p e=
slo
A
x
a c b
Returning to the original formulation of question (2), we see that if f (t) gives the position of your car
at time t, then the Mean Value Theorem says that at some time c, f ′ (c) = 70, that is, at some time you
must have been traveling at exactly your average speed for the trip, and that indeed you exceeded the speed
limit.
Now let’s return to question (1). Suppose, for example, that two functions are known to have derivative
equal to 5 everywhere, f ′ (x) = g′ (x) = 5. It is easy to find such functions: 5x, 5x + 47, 5x − 132, etc. Are
there other, more complicated, examples? No—the only functions that work are the “obvious” ones,
namely, 5x plus some constant. How can we see that this is true?
Although “5” is a very simple derivative, let’s look at an even simpler one. Suppose that f ′ (x) =
g′ (x) = 0. Again we can find examples: f (x) = 0, f (x) = 47, f (x) = −511 all have f ′ (x) = 0. Are there
non-constant functions f with derivative 0? No, and here’s why: Suppose that f (x) is not a constant
function. This means that there are two points on the function with different heights, say f (a) 6= f (b).
The Mean Value Theorem tells us that at some point c, f ′ (c) = ( f (b) − f (a))/(b − a) 6= 0. So any non-
constant function does not have a derivative that is zero everywhere; this is the same as saying that the
only functions with zero derivative are the constant functions.
Let’s go back to the slightly less easy example: suppose that f ′ (x) = g′ (x) = 5. Then ( f (x) − g(x))′ =
f ′ (x) − g′ (x) = 5 − 5 = 0. So using what we discovered in the previous paragraph, we know that f (x) −
g(x) = k, for some constant k. So any two functions with derivative 5 must differ by a constant; since 5x
is known to work, the only other examples must look like 5x + k.
Now we can extend this to more complicated functions, without any extra work. Suppose that f ′ (x) =
g′ (x). Then as before ( f (x) − g(x))′ = f ′ (x) − g′ (x) = 0, so f (x) − g(x) = k. Again this means that if we
find just a single function g(x) with a certain derivative, then every other function with the same derivative
must be of the form g(x) + k.

Example 5.63: Given Derivative

Describe all functions that have derivative 5x − 3.

Solution. It’s easy to find one:

g(x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x =⇒ g′ (x) = 5x − 3.
The only other functions with the same derivative are therefore of the form
f (x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x + k.
 5.6. The Mean Value Theorem 291

Alternately, though not obviously, you might have first noticed that

g(x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x + 47 =⇒ g′ (x) = 5x − 3.

Then every other function with the same derivative must have the form

f (x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x + 47 + k.

This looks different, but it really isn’t. The functions of the form f (x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x + k are exactly the
same as the ones of the form f (x) = (5/2)x2 − 3x + 47 + k. For example, (5/2)x2 − 3x + 10 is the same as
(5/2)x2 − 3x + 47 + (−37), and the first is of the first form while the second has the second form. ♣
This is worth calling a theorem:

Theorem 5.64: Functions with the Same Derivative

If f ′ (x) = g′ (x) for every x ∈ (a, b), then for some constant k, f (x) = g(x) + k on the interval (a, b).

Example 5.65: Same Derivative

Describe all functions with derivative sin x + ex . One such function is − cos x + ex , so all such
functions have the form − cos x + ex + k.

Theorem 5.64 and the above example illustrate what the Mean Value Theorem allows us to say about
f (x) when we have perfect information about f ′ (x). Specifically, f (x) is determined up to a constant. Our
next example illustrates almost the opposite extreme situation, one where we have much less information
about f ′ (x) beyond the fact that f ′ (x) exists. Specifically, assuming that we know an upper bound on the
values of f ′ (x), what can we say about the values of f (x)?

Example 5.66: Conclusion Regarding Function Value Based on Derivative Information

Suppose that f is a differentiable function such that f ′ (x) ≤ 2 for all x. What is the largest possible
value of f (7) if f (3) = 5?

Solution. We are interested in the values of f (x) at x = 3 and x = 7. It makes sense to focus our attention
on the interval between 3 and 7. It is given that f (x) is differentiable for all x. So, f (x) is also continuous
at all x. In particular, f (x) is continuous on the interval [3, 7] and differentiable on the interval (3, 7) . By
the Mean Value Theorem, we know that there is some c in (3, 7) such that
f (7) − f (3)
f ′ (c) = .
7−3
Simplifying and using the given information f (3) = 5, we get
f (7) − 5
f ′ (c) = ,
4
or, after re-arranging the terms,
f (7) = 4 f ′ (c) + 5.
292 Applications of Derivatives

We do not know the exact value of c, but we do know that f ′ (x) ≤ 2 for all x. This implies that f ′ (c) ≤ 2.
Therefore,
f (7) ≤ 4 · 2 + 5 = 13.
That is, the value of f (7) cannot exceed 13. To convince ourselves that 13 (as opposed to some smaller
number) is the largest possible value of f (7) , we still need to show that it is possible for the value of f (7)
to reach 13. If we review our proof, we notice that the inequality will be an equality if f ′ (c) = 2. One
way to guarantee this without knowing anything about c is to require f ′ (x) = 2 for all x. This means that
f (x) = 2x + k for some constant k. From the condition f (3) = 5, we see that k = −1. We can easily verify
that indeed f (x) = 2x − 1 meets all our requirements and f (7) = 13. ♣

Exercises for Section 5.6

Exercise 5.6.1 Let f (x) = x2 . Find a value c ∈ (−1, 2) so that f ′ (c) equals the slope between the endpoints
of f (x) on [−1, 2].

Exercise 5.6.2 Verify that f (x) = x/(x + 2) satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the
interval [1, 4] and then find all of the values, c, that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.

Exercise 5.6.3 Verify that f (x) = 3x/(x + 7) satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem on the
interval [−2, 6] and then find all of the values, c, that satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.

Exercise 5.6.4 Let f (x) = tan x. Show that f (π ) = f (2π ) = 0 but there is no number c ∈ (π , 2π ) such that
f ′ (c) = 0. Why does this not contradict Rolle’s Theorem?

Exercise 5.6.5 Let f (x) = (x − 3)−2 . Show that there is no value c ∈ (1, 4) such that

f ′ (c) = ( f (4) − f (1))/(4 − 1).

Why is this not a contradiction of the Mean Value Theorem?

Exercise 5.6.6 Describe all functions with derivative x2 + 47x − 5.

1
Exercise 5.6.7 Describe all functions with derivative .
1 + x2

1
Exercise 5.6.8 Describe all functions with derivative x3 − .
x

Exercise 5.6.9 Describe all functions with derivative sin(2x).

Exercise 5.6.10 Find f (x) if f ′ (x) = e−x and f (0) = 2.

Exercise 5.6.11 Suppose that f is a differentiable function such that f ′ (x) ≥ −3 for all x. What is the
smallest possible value of f (4) if f (−1) = 2?
 5.7. Curve Sketching 293

Exercise 5.6.12 Show that the equation 6x4 − 7x + 1 = 0 does not have more than two distinct real roots.

Exercise 5.6.13 Let f be differentiable on R. Suppose that f ′ (x) 6= 0 for every x. Prove that f has at most
one real root.

Exercise 5.6.14 Prove that for all real x and y | cos x − cos y| ≤ |x − y|. State and prove an analogous
result involving sine.
√
Exercise 5.6.15 Show that 1 + x ≤ 1 + (x/2) if −1 < x < 1.

Exercise 5.6.16 Suppose that f (a) = g(a) and that f ′ (x) ≤ g′ (x) for all x ≥ a.

(a) Prove that f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x ≥ a.

(b) Use part (a) to prove that ex ≥ 1 + x for all x ≥ 0.

x2
(c) Use parts (a) and (b) to prove that ex ≥ 1 + x + for all x ≥ 0.
2
(d) Can you generalize these results?

5.7 Curve Sketching

In this section, we discuss how we can tell what the graph of a function looks like by performing simple
tests on its derivatives.

5.7.1. The First Derivative Test and Intervals of Increase/Decrease

The method of Section 5.5.1 for deciding whether there is a relative maximum or minimum at a critical
value is not always convenient. We can instead use information about the derivative f ′ (x) to decide; since
we have already had to compute the derivative to find the critical values, there is often relatively little extra
work involved in this method.
How can the derivative tell us whether there is a maximum, minimum, or neither at a point? The
following so-called First Derivative Test is a procedure for finding relative extrema of a continuous
function based on critical points and analyzing behaviour around the critical points:
294 Applications of Derivatives

Theorem 5.67: First Derivative Test

Let k be a critical point in the domain of a continuous function f and suppose that f is differentiable
around x = k.

1. There is a relative maximum at x = k. This happens if f ′ (x) > 0 as we approach x = k from

the left (i.e. when x is in the vicinity of k, and x < k) and f ′ (x) < 0 as we move to the right of
x = a (i.e. when x is in the vicinity of k, and x > k). See x = a, d in the graph below.

2. There is a relative minimum at x = a. This happens if f ′ (x) < 0 as we approach x = k from

the left (i.e. when x is in the vicinity of k, and x < k) and f ′ (x) > 0 as we move to the right of
x = k (i.e. when x is in the vicinity of k, and x > k). See x = b in the graph below.

3. There is neither a relative maximum or relative minimum at x = a. This happens if f ′ (x) does
not change from negative to positive, or from positive to negative, as we move from the left
of x = a to the right of x = k (that is, f ′ (x) is positive on both sides of x = k, or negative on
both sides of x = k). See x = c, e in the graph below.

y
Corner
Horizontal tangents

Vertical tangent

x
a b c d e

Example 5.68: Relative Extrema

Find all relative maximum and minimum points for f (x) = sin x + cos x using the First Derivative
Test.

Solution. The domain of f is D f = R. The derivative is f ′ (x) = cos x − sin x and from Example 5.50 the
critical values we need to consider are π /4 and 5π /4.
To classify these critical points using the First Derivative Test, we need to determine the sign of f ′ (x)
as x approaches each point from the left and from the right.
First pick a test point in the interval (−∞, π /4), say x = 0. Evaluate
f ′ (0) = cos(0) − sin(0) = 1.
The next test point should be in the interval (π /4, 5π /4), for example x = π . Here,
f ′ (π ) = cos(π ) − sin(π ) = −1.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 295

Lastly, we need a test point in the interval (5π /4, ∞), such as x = 2π . Then

f ′ (2π ) = cos(2π ) − sin(2π ) = 1.

From this information, we can construct the following sign diagram for f ′ (x):

+ − − +
π 5π
4 4

We conclude that f (x) must be increasing on the entire interval (−∞, π /4), decreasing on (π /4, 5π /4),
and increasing on (5π /4, ∞). Therefore, by the First Derivative Test, f has a relative minimum at 5π /4
and a relative maximum at π /4, as shown in the graph below.

y
f (x) = sin x + cos x
1

0.5

x
π 3π 5π 7π
4 4 4 4
−0.5

−1

Example 5.69: Relative Extrema

Find the relative maxima and minima of the function f (x) = x2/3 .

Solution. The derivative of f is

2 2
f ′ (x) = x−1/3 = 1/3 ·
3 3x
′ ′
The function f is not defined at x = 0, so f is discontinuous there. It is continuous everywhere else.
Furthermore, f ′ is not equal to zero anywhere. Thus, x = 0 is the only critical point of the function f .
Pick a test point (say, x = −1) in the interval (−∞, 0) and compute

2
f ′ (−1) = − ·
3
296 Applications of Derivatives

Next, we pick a test point (say x = 1) in the interval (0, ∞) and compute
2
f ′ (1) = ·
3

We now construct the sign diagram for f ′ (x):

− +
0

We see that the sign of f ′ (x) changes from negative to positive as we move across x = 0 from left to right.
Thus, an application of the First Derivative Test tells us that f (0) = 0 is a relative minimum of f . We
confirm these results with the graph of f , shown in Figure 5.16. ♣
Perhaps you noticed in the graphs from this section that the critical points seem to divide the domain
of a function into intervals, where the function either increases or decreases on this interval. We will now
formally introduce this concept of increase and decrease.

f (x)
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

Figure 5.16: The graph of f (x) = x2/3 decreases on (−∞, 0), and increases on (0, ∞).
 5.7. Curve Sketching 297

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

A function f is increasing on an interval (a, b) if for any two numbers x1 and x2 in (a, b),
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
A function f is decreasing on an interval (a, b) if for any two numbers x1 and x2 in (a, b),
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .

y y

f (x2 )
f (x2 )

f (x1 )
f (x1 )

x x
a x1 x2 b a x1 x2 b

(a) f is increasing on (a, b). (b) f is decreasing on (a, b).

We say that f is increasing at x = c if c ∈ (a, b) such that f is increasing on the interval (a, b), see
Figure 5.17. Similarly, we say that f is decreasing at x = c if c ∈ (a, b) such that f is decreasing on the
interval (a, b), see Figure 5.18. Increasing functions slope upward from left to right (Figure 5.17) and
decreasing functions slope downward from left to right (Figure 5.18). But the slope of a function at a
point x = c is the rate of change of the function at x = c, which is given by the derivative of the function at
that point. Therefore, the derivative lends itself naturally as the tool for determining intervals of increase
and decrease, provided the function is differentiable on the intervals, see Figures 5.17 and 5.18. This
leads us to the following theorem, which we can prove using the Mean Value Theorem from Section 5.6.

y y

f ′ (c) > 0
y = f (x)

y = f (x) f ′ (c) > 0

x x
a c b a c b

Figure 5.17: f is increasing at x = c.

298 Applications of Derivatives

y y

f ′ (c) < 0

y = f (x)
y = f (x)
f ′ (c) < 0

x x
a c b a c b

Figure 5.18: f is decreasing at x = c.

Theorem 5.70: Intervals of Increase and Decrease Test

1. If f ′ (x) > 0 for every x in an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.

2. If f ′ (x) < 0 for every x in an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

3. If f ′ (x) = 0 for each value of x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).

Proof. We will prove the increasing case. The proof of the decreasing case is similar. Suppose that
f ′ (x) > 0 on an interval I. Then f is differentiable, and hence also, continuous on I. If x1 and x2 are any
two numbers in I and x1 < x2 , then f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ] and differentiable on (x1 , x2 ) . By the Mean
Value Theorem, there is some c in (x1 , x2 ) such that
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f ′ (c) = .
x2 − x1
But c must be in I, and thus, since f ′ (x) > 0 for every x in I, f ′ (c) > 0. Also, since x1 < x2 , we have
x2 − x1 > 0. Therefore, both the left hand side and the denominator of the right hand side are positive.
It follows that the numerator of the right hand must be positive. That is, f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0, or in other
words, f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) . This shows that between x1 and x2 in I, the larger one, x2 , necessarily has the larger
function value, f (x2 ) , and the smaller one, x1 , necessarily have the smaller function value, f (x1 ) . This
means that f is increasing on I. ♣

Example 5.71: Intervals of Increase and Decrease for f ′ (x) = 0

Determine the intervals where the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 24x + 32 is increasing and where it is
decreasing.

Solution. The derivative of f is

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 24 = 3(x + 2)(x − 4),
 5.7. Curve Sketching 299

and it is continuous everywhere. The zeros of f ′ (x) are x = −2 and x = 4, and these points divide the real
line into the intervals (−∞, −2),(−2, 4), and (4, ∞).
To determine the sign of f ′ (x) in the above intervals, compute f ′ (x) at a convenient test point within
each interval. We find,

Interval Test Point f ′ (c) Sign of f ′ (x)

(−∞, −2) −3 21 +
(−2, 4) 0 −24 −
(4, ∞) 5 21 +

Using these results, we obtain the following sign diagram:

+ − − +
-2 4

We conclude that f is increasing on the intervals (−∞, −2) and (4, ∞) and is decreasing on the interval
(−2, 4). The graph of f is shown below.

f (x)
60

40

20

x
−4 −2 2 4 6
−20

−40

Example 5.72: Intervals of Increase and Decrease for f ′ (x) DNE

Find the interval where the function f (x) = x2/3 is increasing and the interval where it is decreasing.

Solution. The derivative of f is

2 2
f ′ (x) = x−1/3 = 1/3 ·
3 3x
300 Applications of Derivatives

As noted in Example 5.69, f ′ is not defined at x = 0, is continuous everywhere else, and is not equal
to zero in its domain.
Since f ′ (−1) < 0, we see that f ′ (x) < 0 on (−∞.0). Next, we pick a test point (say x = 1) in the
interval (0, ∞) and compute
2
f ′ (1) = ·
3
Since f ′ (1) > 0, we see that f ′ (x) > 0 on (0, ∞). From the consequent sign diagram,

f ′ not defined at x = 0

− − − + + +
-1 0 1

we conclude that f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0) and increasing on the interval (0, ∞). The graph
of f , shown in Figure 5.16 confirms these results. ♣

Example 5.73: Intervals of Increase and Decrease

1
Find the intervals where the function f (x) = x + is increasing and where it is decreasing.
x

Solution. The derivative of f is

1 x2 − 1
f ′ (x) = 1 − = ·
x2 x2
Since f ′ is not defined at x = 0, it is discontinuous there. Furthermore, f ′ (x) is equal to zero when x2 −
1 = 0, or x = ±1. These values of x partition the domain of f ′ into the open intervals (−∞, −1),(−1, 0),(0, 1)
and (1, ∞), where the sign of f ′ is different from zero.
To determine the sign of f ′ in each of these intervals, we compute f ′ (x) at the test points x = −2, − 12 , 21
and 2,respectively, obtaining f ′ (−2) = 34 , f ′ (− 12 ) = −3, f ′ ( 21 = −3, and f ′ (2) = 34 .

f ′ not defined at x = 0

+ − − +
-1 0 1 x

From the above sign diagram for f ′ , we conclude that f is increasing on (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞) and
decreasing on (−1, 0) and (0, 1). The graph of f is shown below. Note that f ′ does not change sign as we
move accros the point of discontinuity, x = 0.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 301

f (x)
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

♣
Note: Example 5.73 reminds us that we must not automatically conclude that the derivative f ′ must
change sign when we move across a discontinuity or zero of f ′ .

Example 5.74: Intervals of Increase and Decrease and Relative Extrema

Consider the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 . Find where f is increasing and where f is decreasing. Use
this information to find the relative maximum and minimum points of f .

Solution. We first compute f ′ (x) and analyze its sign.

f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 4x x2 − 1 = 4x (x − 1) (x + 1) .

Thus, f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 0, 1, and −1. f ′ (x) is a continuous function, and so these are the only critical
points. This splits the domain into the open intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 0), (0, 1) and (1, ∞), where f is either
increasing or decreasing. Picking appropriate test points, we find

f ′ (−2) = −24, f ′ (−0.5) = 1.5, f ′ (0.5) = −1.5, and f ′ (2) = 24.

This leads us to the sign diagram,

− + − +
-1 0 1

from which we see that f is increasing on the interval (−1, 0) and on the interval (1, ∞). Similarly, f is
decreasing on the interval (−∞, −1) and on the interval (0, 1).
Therefore, at the critical points −1, 0 and 1, respectively, f has a relative minimum, a relative maxi-
mum and a relative minimum, as shown below.
302 Applications of Derivatives

f (x)
1.5

0.5

x
−1 1
−0.5

−1

Example 5.75: Intervals of Increase and Decrease in Profit Function

The profit function of Acrosonic is given by

P(x) = −0.02x2 + 300x − 200, 000

dollars, where x is the number of Acrosonic model F loudspeakers systems produced. Find where
the function P is increasing and where it is decreasing.

Solution. The derivative P′ is

P′ (x) = −0.04x + 300 = −0.04(x − 7500).
Thus, P′ (x) = 0 when x = 7500. Furthermore, P′ (x) > 0 for x in the interval (0, 7500), and P′ (x) < 0 for x
in the interval (7500, ∞). This means that the profit function P is increasing on (0, 7500), and decreasing
on (7500, ∞) (see graph below, where both P and x are in units of a thousand).

P(x)

800

600

400

200

x
4 8 12 16
−200

♣
 5.7. Curve Sketching 303

Exercises for Section 5.7.1

Exercise 5.7.1 Find all critical points and identify them as relative maximum points, relative minimum
points, or neither.

(a) y = x2 − x (f) y = (x2 − 1)/x (k) f (x) = x3 /(x + 1)

(b) y = 2 + 3x − x3 (g) y = 3x2 − (1/x2 )
(c) y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x (h) y = cos(2x) − x (l) f (x) = sin2 x
(d) y = x4 − 2x2 + 3 (i) f (x) = (5 − x)/(x + 2)
(e) y = 3x4 − 4x3 (j) f (x) = |x2 − 121| (m) f (x) = sec x

Exercise 5.7.2 Let f (θ ) = cos2 (θ ) − 2 sin(θ ). Find the intervals where f is increasing and the intervals
where f is decreasing in [0, 2π ]. Use this information to classify the critical points of f as either relative
maximums, relative minimums, or neither.
p
Exercise 5.7.3 Let r > 0. Find the relative maxima and minima of the function f (x) = r2 − x2 on its
domain [−r, r].

Exercise 5.7.4 Given the graph of a function f , determine the intervals where f is increasing, constant,
and decreasing.
y y
3 5

4
2
3

1 2

1
x
−4 −2 2 4 6 x
(a) −2 −1 1 2
(c)
y y

2
4

1
2

x
x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
(b) (d)
304 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.7.5 Given the graph of a function f , determine the relative maxima and relative minima, if any.

y y
4
4
3
2
2
x
−2 −1 1 2 3
1
−2
x (c)
(a) −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

y
4 y
x
−4 −2 2 4 6
3 −2

−4
2
−6
1
−8

x −10
(b) −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 (d)

Exercise 5.7.6 A subsidiary of ThermoMaster manufactures an indoor-outdoor thermometer. Manage-

ment estimates that the profit (in dollars) realizable by the company for the manufacture and sale of x units
of thermometers each week is
P(x) = −0.001x2 + 8x − 5000.
Find the intervals where the profit function P is increasing and the intervals where P is decreasing.

Exercise 5.7.7 Based on data from the Central Provident Fund of a certain country (a government agency
similar to the Canada Pension Plan), the estimated cash in the fund in 1995 is given by

A(t) = −96.6t 4 + 403.6t 3 + 660.9t 2 + 250 0 ≤ t ≤ 5

where A(t) is measure in billions of dollars and t is measured in decades, with t = 0 corresponding to
1995. Find the interval where A is increasing and the interval where A is decreasing and interpret your
results. Hint: Use the quadratic formula.

Exercise 5.7.8 Sales in the Web-hosting industry are projected to grow in accordance with the function

f (t) = −0.05t 3 + 0.56t 2 + 5.47t + 7.5 0 ≤ t ≤ 6

where f (t) is measured in billions of dollars and t is measured in years, with t = 0 corresponding to 1999.

(a) Find the interval where f is increasing and the interval where f is decreasing.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 305

(b) What does your result tell you about the sales in the Web-hosting industry from 1999 through 2005?

Exercise 5.7.9 According to a study conducted in 1997, the number of subscribers (in thousands) to the
Canadian cellular market in the next 6 years is approximated by the function
N(t) = 0.09444t 3 − 1.44167t 2 + 10.65695t + 52 0 ≤ t ≤ 6
where t is measured in years, with t = 0 corresponding to 1997.
(a) Find the interval where N is increasing and the interval where N is decreasing.
(b) What does your result tell you about the number of subscribers in the Canadian cellular market in
the years under consideration?

Exercise 5.7.10 Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c with a 6= 0. Show that f has exactly one critical point using
the First Derivative Test. Give conditions on a and b which guarantee that the critical point will be a
maximum. It is possible to see this without using calculus at all; explain.

5.7.2. Concavity and Inflection Points

We know that the sign of the derivative tells us whether a function is increasing or decreasing; for example,

when f ′ (x) > 0, f (x) is increasing. However, a function can increase like this , or like this .

And similarly, a function can decrease like this , or like this . How can you determine which
way it is? For example, as you can see in Figure 5.19, the function y = x3 increases as we move from left
to right, but the sections of the curve defined on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) increase in different ways.
As we approach the origin from the left along the curve, the curve turns clockwise and stays below its
tangents as shown in Figure 5.19. In other words, the slopes of the tangents are decreasing on the interval
(−∞, 0). As we move away to the right of the origin along the curve, the curve turns counterclockwise and
stays above its tangents as shown in Figure 5.19. In other words, the slopes of the tangents are increasing
on the interval (0, ∞). This manner of curving defines the concavity of the curve.
y

y = x3

Figure 5.19: The graph of y = x3 is concave down (−∞, 0), and concave up on (0, ∞).
306 Applications of Derivatives

Definition 5.76: Concavity

Suppose that y = f (x) is a differentiable function on the open interval (a, b), then f is

1. concave up on (a, b) if f ′ is increasing on (a, b); and

2. concave down on (a, b) if f ′ is decreasing on (a, b).

Suppose that a function is twice differentiable. This means that we can get information from the sign
of f ′′ even when f ′ is not zero. Suppose that f ′′ (a) > 0. This means that near x = a, f ′ is increasing. If
f ′ (a) > 0, this means that f slopes up and is getting steeper; if f ′ (a) < 0, this means that f slopes down
and is getting less steep. The two situations of concave up are shown in Figure 5.20.

y y

x x
a a

Figure 5.20: f ′′ (a) > 0: f ′ (a) positive and increasing, f ′ (a) negative and increasing.

Now suppose that f ′′ (a) < 0. This means that near x = a, f ′ is decreasing. If f ′ (a) > 0, this means
that f slopes up and is getting less steep; if f ′ (a) < 0, this means that f slopes down and is getting steeper.
The two situations of concave down are shown in Figure 5.21.

y y

x x
a a

Figure 5.21: f ′′ (a) < 0: f ′ (a) positive and decreasing, f ′ (a) negative and decreasing.

These observations lead us to the following theorem on concavity.

 5.7. Curve Sketching 307

Theorem 5.77: Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Suppose that y = f (x) is a twice differentiable function on the open interval (a, b).

1. If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave up on (a, b).

2. If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).

We now have all the tools to determine the intervals, where the curve of a function is either concave
up or concave down.

Guideline for Determining Intervals of Concavity

Suppose that y = f (x) is a twice differentiable function on its domain.

1. Find all critical points of y = f ′ (x) (note that these are not necessarily the same as for the
function f ) and all x-values where f ′ is undefined.

2. These x-values section the domain into open intervals.

3. Choose a number n in each interval. Then apply the Second Derivative Test for Concavity to
these numbers n to decide if f is concave up or concave down on these intervals.

If we are trying to understand the shape of the graph of a function, knowing where it is concave up
and concave down helps us to get a more accurate picture. Of particular interest are points at which the
concavity changes from up to down or down to up; such points are called inflection points.

Definition 5.78: Inflection Point

Any value of x in the domain of f where the tangent line exists or is vertical and where the concavity
changes is called an inflection point.
y y y

Concave
Concave upward
downward
Concave Concave
downward upward
Concave Concave
upward downward

x x x

If the concavity changes from up to down at x = a, f ′′ changes from positive to the left of a to negative
to the right of a, and usually f ′′ (a) = 0. We can identify such points by first finding where f ′′ (x) is zero
and then checking to see whether f ′′ (x) does in fact go from positive to negative or negative to positive at
these points. Note that it is possible that f ′′ (a) = 0 but the concavity is the same on both sides; f (x) = x4
at x = 0 is an example. These observations lead us to the following guideline for determining inflection
points.
308 Applications of Derivatives

Guideline for Determining Inflection Points

Suppose that y = f (x) is a twice differentiable function on its domain.

1. Compute f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x).

2. Find all critical points c of the function y = f ′ (x) (note that these are not necessarily the same
as for the function f ).

3. Determine the sign of f ′′ to the left and to the right of c.

4. If there is a change in signs, then c is an inflection point.

Example 5.79: Concavity and Inflection Point

Describe the concavity of f (x) = x3 − x using intervals, and determine if there are any inflection
points.

Solution. We find the first two derivatives of f to be

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 1 and f ′′ (x) = 6x.

Next, we create the sign diagram for f ′′ :

− − + +
0

From this sign diagram, we see that f is concave up for x ∈ (−∞, 0) and concave down for x ∈ (0, ∞). The
concavity changes as we move through x = 0 and so the point (0, f (0)) = (0, 0) is an inflection point of f .
The graph of f is shown below.
f (x)

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

♣
 5.7. Curve Sketching 309

Example 5.80: Concavity and Inflection Point

Describe the concavity of
1
f (x) =
x2 + 1
using intervals, and determine if there are any inflection points.

Solution. We find the first and second derivatives of f to be

d 2 2x
f ′ (x) = (x + 1)−1 = −2x(x2 + 1)−2 = − 2 ,
dx (x + 1)2

and

′′ (x2 + 1)2 (−2) + 2(2x)(x2 + 1)(2x)

f (x) =
(x2 + 1)4
(x2 + 1)(−2(x2 + 1) + 8x2 )
=
(x2 + 1)4
(x2 + 1)(6x2 − 2)
=
(x2 + 1)4
2(3x2 − 1)
= ·
(x2 + 1)3

The critical points of f ′′ will occur when f ′′ = 0 since f ′′ is continuous everywhere. We then solve

3x2 − 1 = 0
1
x2 =
3√
x = ± 3.

The sign diagram for f ′′ is shown below:

+ − − +
√ √
- 33 0 3
3

√ √ √ √
Therefore, f is concave upward on (−∞, 3/3) ∪ ( 3/3, ∞) and concave √ downward on (− 3/3, 3/3).
Furthermore, f ′′ (x) changes sign as we move across the points x = ± 3/3. Since
√ !
3
f ± = 3/4,
3
√
the points (± 3/3, 3/4) are inflection points of f . The graph of f is shown below.
310 Applications of Derivatives

f (x)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

Example 5.81: Concavity

1
Using intervals, describe the concavity of f (x) = x + .
x

1 2
Solution. We compute f ′ (x) = 1 − 2
and f ′′ (x) = 3 . From the sign diagram for f ′′ ,
x x
′′
f not defined at x = 0

− − − + + +
0

we see that f is concave downward for x ∈ (−∞, 0) and concave upward for x ∈ (0, ∞). The graph of f is
shown below.

f (x)
4

x
−4 −2 2 4

−2

−4

♣
 5.7. Curve Sketching 311

Law of Diminishing Returns

The law of diminishing returns in economics is related to concavity. The graph of the function shown
in Figure 5.22 gives the output y from a given input x. For example, if the input were advertising costs
for some product, then the output might be the corresponding revenue from sales. The graph shows an
inflection point at (c, f (c)). For x < c, the graph is concave up, which means that the rate of change of the
slope is increasing. Therefore, the output y is increasing at a faster rate with each additional dollar spent.
For x > c, the graph is concave down, which means that the rate of change of the slope is decreasing.
Therefore, the output y is decreasing at a faster rate with each additional dollar spent, i.e. producing
a diminishing return. Therefore, the point (c, f (c)) is referred to as the point of diminishing return.
Another example for diminishing returns comes from agriculture, where there is a fixed amount of land,
machinery, etc.. Here, adding workers increases production a lot at first, then less and less with each
additional worker.

y = f (x)
output ($)

f (c) inflection point

c
input ($)

Figure 5.22: The function y = f (x) is concave up on (0, c), concave down on (c, ∞) and has an inflec-
tion point at (c, f (c)).

Example 5.82: Consumer Price Index

Suppose a certain country’s consumer price index (CPI) between the years 1990 and 1999 is ap-
proximated by
I(t) = −0.2t 3 + 3t 2 + 50 0 ≤ t ≤ 9.
Determine the inflection point of I .

Solution. We calculate the first and second derivatives of I:

I ′ (t) = −0.6t 2 + 6, and

I ′′(t) = −1.2t + 6 = −1.2(t − 5).

312 Applications of Derivatives

So I ′′ is continuous everywhere and I ′′ (t) = 0 =⇒ t = 5. This gives the only critical point of I ′′ . Since

I ′′(t) > 0 for t < 5, and I ′′(t) < 0 for t > 5,

the point (5, I(5)) = (5, 100) is an inflection point of I. The graph of I is sketched below:

I(t)
150
(5, 100)
y = I(t)
100

50

0 2 4 6 8 10
t

This result reveals that the inflation rate only started decelerating when t = 5, that is, in the year 1995.
♣

Exercises for Section 5.7.2

Exercise 5.7.11 Describe the concavity of the functions below.

(a) y = x2 − x (g) y = 3x2 − (1/x2 ) (m) y = x + 1/x

(b) y = 2 + 3x − x3 (h) y = sin x + cos x (n) y = x2 + 1/x

√
(c) y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x (i) y = 4x + 1 − x (o) y = (x + 5)1/4
p
(d) y = x4 − 2x2 + 3 (j) y = (x + 1)/ 5x2 + 35 (p) y = tan2 x

(e) y = 3x4 − 4x3 (k) y = x5 − x (q) y = cos2 x − sin2 x

(f) y = (x2 − 1)/x (l) y = 6x + sin 3x (r) y = sin3 x

Exercise 5.7.12 Describe the concavity of the graphs shown below using intervals, and determine if there
are any inflection points.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 313

y y

x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 2 4 6

(a) (c)
y y

x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

(b) (d)

Exercise 5.7.13 Determine if there are any inflection points.

(a) f (x) = x3 + 4 (e) p(q) = (q − 1)3 − 3
2
(b) f (t) = 6t 3 − 18t 2 + 12t − 15 (f) h(s) = 1+s2

(c) g(x) = 3x4 − 4x3 + 1 (g) p(q) = qe−4q

√
(d) h(t) = 3 t + 12 (h) f (a) = cos(3a) − 12

Exercise 5.7.14 Identify the intervals on which the graph of the function f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 10 is of one of
these four shapes: concave up and increasing; concave up and decreasing; concave down and increasing;
concave down and decreasing.

Exercise 5.7.15 Describe the concavity of y = x3 + bx2 + cx + d. You will need to consider different cases,
depending on the values of the coefficients.

Exercise 5.7.16 Let n be an integer greater than or equal to two, and suppose f is a polynomial of degree
n. How many inflection points can f have? Hint: Use the Second Derivative Test and the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra.
314 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.7.17 A retailer determines that their revenue R as a function of the amount q (in thousands of
dollars) spent on advertising can be approximated by

R(q) = −0.003q3 + 1.35q2 + 2q + 8000 0 ≤ q ≤ 400

thousands of dollars.

(a) Determine the concavity of R using intervals and determine if there are any inflection points.

(b) If the retailer currently spends $140,000 on advertising, should they consider increasing this amount?

Exercise 5.7.18 A grocery store determines that their sales S as a function of the amount q (in thousands
of dollars) spent on advertising can be approximated by

S(q) = −0.002q3 + 0.6q2 + q + 500 0 ≤ q ≤ 200

thousands of dollars. Determine if there are any inflection points and, if there is, discuss its significance.

Exercise 5.7.19 A company wants to determine whether or not their cost-cutting measures (implemented
at time t ≡ 0) will be effective. Suppose the profit P (in hundreds of dollars) of the company over the next
8 years can be approximated by

P(t) = t 3 − 9t 2 + 40t + 50 0 ≤ t ≤ 8.

By studying the concavity of P, deduce whether or not these measures will be effective.

5.7.3. The Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

The basis of the First Derivative Test is that if the derivative changes from positive to negative at a critical
point then there is a relative maximum at the point, and similarly for a relative minimum. However, we
can also use our knowledge from concavity to test for relative extrema at a critical point. In Figure 5.23a,
we observe that the graph of the function f shown here has a relative minimum at the critical point x = c
and that the graph is concave upward at that point. Similarly, in Figure 5.23b, we observe that the graph of
the function f shown here has a relative maximum at the critical point x = c and that the graph is concave
downward at that point. Furthermore, in Section 5.7.2 we just learned that given a twice differentiable
function f and a critical point x = c of f the function f is concave upward at x = c if f ′′ (c) > 0 and
concave downward at x = c if f ′′ (c) < 0. We therefore introduce the so-called Second Derivative Test
for relative extrema as an alternative technique to the First Derivative Test for checking critical points for
relative extrema, as long as the second derivative exists.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 315

y y

f ′′ (c) > 0

f ′′ (c) < 0

x x
c c
(a) f has a relative minimum at x = c. (b) f has a relative maximum at x = c.

Figure 5.23

Theorem 5.83: Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Suppose that y = f (x) is a twice differentiable function on its domain.

1. Compute f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x).

2. Find all critical points c of the function y = f (x) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

3. Compute f ′′ (c) for all such points c.

(a) If f ′′ (c) < 0, then the graph of f has a relative maximum at c.
(b) If f ′′ (c) > 0, then the graph of f has a relative minimum at c.
(c) If f ′′ (c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive and we must use some other method
to learn about the behaviour of the curve f at c.

Note: The above theorem indicates that the Second Derivative Test for relative extrema is inconclusive if
f ′′ (c) = 0 for a critical point c as required, but furthermore, this test also tells us nothing when f ′′ (c) does
not exist and also when there are critical points such that f ′ (c) does not exist. You may wonder why we
should bother with the Second Derivative Test. Well, if the second derivative is easy to compute, then this
test is an efficient method for finding relative extrema.

Example 5.84: Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Consider again f (x) = sin x + cos x, with f ′ (x) = cos x − sin x and f ′′ (x) = − sin x − cos x. Use the
Second Derivative Test to determine which critical points are relative maxima or minima.

√ √ √
Solution. Since f ′′ (π /4)
√ = − 2/2 −
√ 2/2 =
√ − 2 < 0, we know there is a relative maximum at π /4.
′′
Since f (5π /4) = −(− 2/2) − (− 2/2) = 2 > 0, there is a relative minimum at 5π /4. ♣
316 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.85: Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

Let f (x) = x4 and g(x) = −x4 . Classify the critical points of f (x) and g(x) as either maximum or
minimum.

Solution. The derivatives for f (x) are f ′ (x) = 4x3 and f ′′ (x) = 12x2 . Zero is the only critical value, but
f ′′ (0) = 0, so the Second Derivative Test tells us nothing. However, f (x) is positive everywhere except at
zero, so clearly f (x) has a relative minimum at zero.
On the other hand, for g(x) = −x4 , g′ (x) = −4x3 and g′′ (x) = −12x2 . So g(x) also has zero as its only
only critical value, and the second derivative is again zero, but g(x) has a relative maximum at zero. ♣
We conclude this section with a summary of the graphical information gained from both the first and
second derivatives of a function f . The first derivative tells us about the monotonicity of the graph of f , i.e.
where the graph goes up ( f is increasing) or down ( f is decreasing). The second derivative tells us about
the concavity of the graph of f , i.e. where the graph curves up ( f is concave up) or down ( f is concave
down). Together, these properties tell us how the function f is increasing or decreasing as is shown in
Table 5.4.

Signs of Properties of General Shape

f ′ and f ′′ the Graph of f of the Graph of f

f ′ (x) > 0 f increasing

f ′′ (x) > 0 f concave upward
f ′ (x) > 0 f increasing
f ′′ (x) < 0 f concave downward
f ′ (x) < 0 f decreasing
f ′′ (x) > 0 f concave upward
f ′ (x) < 0 f decreasing
f ′′ (x) < 0 f concave downward

Table 5.4

Exercises for Section 5.7.3

Exercise 5.7.20 Find all relative maximum and minimum points by the Second Derivative Test.

(a) y = x2 − x (c) y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x (e) y = 3x4 − 4x3

(b) y = 2 + 3x − x3 (d) y = x4 − 2x2 + 3 (f) y = (x2 − 1)/x

 5.7. Curve Sketching 317

(g) y = 3x2 − (1/x2 ) (k) y = x5 − x (o) y = (x + 5)1/4

(h) y = cos(2x) − x (l) y = 6x + sin 3x (p) y = tan2 x

√
(i) y = 4x + 1 − x
(m) y = x + 1/x (q) y = cos2 x − sin2 x
x+1
(j) y = √ (n) y = x2 + 1/x (r) y = sin3 x
5x2 + 35

Exercise 5.7.21 Suppose a function y = f (x) has the following properties:

f (2) = 1, f ′ (2) > 0, and f ′′ (2) < 0.

Decide which graph below corresponds to the function f .

y y y

2 2 2

1 1 1

x x x
1 2 1 2 1 2
(a) (b) (c)

Exercise 5.7.22 Suppose a function y = f (x) has the following properties:

f (1) = 2, f ′ (x) > 0 on (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞), and f ′′ (1) = 0.

Decide which graph below corresponds to the function f .

y y y

2 2 2

1 1 1

x x x
1 2 1 2 1 2
(a) (b) (c)

Exercise 5.7.23 Suppose a function y = f (x) has the following properties:

f ′ (0) undefined, f ′ (x) < 0 on (−∞, 0), f ′′ (x) < 0 on (0, 3),

and f has an inflection point at x = 3. Decide which graph below corresponds to the function f .
318 Applications of Derivatives

y y y

x x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
(a) (b) (c)

Exercise 5.7.24 A busy coffee shop determines that the number N of transactions processed t hours after
opening at 6 am can be described by

N(t) = −t 3 + 5t 2 + 25t 0 ≤ t ≤ 8.

What is the shop’s busiest hour?

Exercise 5.7.25 A manufacturer determines that the daily cost C (in dollars) of producing q units is given
by
C(q) = q3 − 30q2 + 300q + 50.
Determine if there are any inflection points and interpret your result.

Exercise 5.7.26 A busy coffee shop determines that the number N of transactions processed t hours after
opening at 6 am can be described by

N(t) = −t 3 + 5t 2 + 25t 0 ≤ t ≤ 8.

(a) Describe the rate of change of the number of transactions between 6 am and 11 am, and between 11
am and 2 pm.

(b) When is the rate of change of the number of transactions maximal?

5.7.4. Asymptotes and Other Things to Look For

Vertical Asymptotes Revisited

Vertical Asymptotes were introduced in Section 3.5.3. Since they play an important role in curve sketching,
we provide a short summary as a reminder of the idea. A vertical asymptote is a place where the function
approaches infinity, typically because the formula for the function has a denominator that becomes zero.
For example, the reciprocal function f (x) = 1/x has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, and the function tan x
has a vertical asymptote at x = π /2 (and also at x = −π /2, x = 3π /2, etc.). Whenever the formula for
a function contains a denominator it is worth looking for a vertical asymptote by checking to see if the
denominator can ever be zero, and then checking the limit at such points. Note that there is not always
a vertical asymptote where the derivative is zero: f (x) = (sin x)/x has a zero denominator at x = 0, but
 5.7. Curve Sketching 319

since lim (sin x)/x = 1 there is no asymptote there. Note also that the graph of a function can have any
x→0
number of vertical asymptotes from none (e.g., any polynomial function) to infinitely many (e.g., tangent
function), see Figure 5.28 for some examples.

y y y

x x x

(a) no vertical asymptote (b) two vertical asymptotes (c) infinitely many asymptotes

Figure 5.24

Horizontal Asymptotes Revisited

In Section 3.5.4 we discussed horizontal asymptotes. These too are a fundamental feature when sketching
the graph of a function, and so we offer a short summary about them. A horizontal asymptote is a hori-
zontal line to which f (x) gets closer and closer as x approaches ∞ (or as x approaches −∞). Hence, the
graph of a function can have at most two horizontal asymptotes. Horizontal asymptotes can be identified
by computing the limits lim f (x) and lim f (x). For example, a polynomial function has no horizontal
x→∞ x→−∞
asymptotes as shown in Figure 5.25a. Since lim 1/x = lim 1/x = 0, the line y = 0 (that is, the x-axis)
x→∞ x→−∞
is a horizontal asymptote in both directions; for example, see the reciprocal function in Figure 5.25b. The
arctangent is an example of a function with two horizontal asymptotes (Figure 5.25c).

y y y

x x x

(a) no horizontal asymptote (b) one horizontal asymptote (c) two horizontal asymptotes

Figure 5.25
320 Applications of Derivatives

Slant Asymptotes and other Asymptotic Behaviour

Some functions have straight asymptotes that are neither horizontal nor vertical, but [Link] too are
a fundamental feature when sketching the graph of a function, and so we offer a short summary about
slant asymptotes from our introduction in Section 3.5.5. A slant asymptote is again a line that f (x) gets
closer and closer to as x approaches ∞ (or as x approaches -∞). If y = mx + b describes a slant asymptote,
then lim ( f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0 or lim ( f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0. In the case of rational functions, slant
x→∞ x→−∞
asymptotes occur when the degree of the polynomial in the numerator is one more than the degree of the
polynomial in the denominator, see Figure 5.26.

y
10

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10
x3 +3
Figure 5.26: The function f (x) = x2 −4
has a slant asymptote given by y = x and vertical asymptotes
at x = ±2.

If the degree between the polynomials of the numerator and denominator are higher than one, say
n, then the rational function exhibits asymptotic behaviour towards a polynomial with degree n. This
polynomial can be found by long division and taking a similar limit approach as for slant asymptotes, but
this is beyond the scope of this material. Other functions could also exhibit different asymptotic behaviour,
but such asymptotes are somewhat more difficult to identify and we will ignore them.

Endpoints or Other Special Points of Domain

p happens as x ap-
If the domain of the function does not extend out to infinity, we should also ask what
proaches the boundary of the domain. For example, the function y = f (x) = 1/ r2 − x2 has domain
−r < x < r, and y becomes infinite as x approaches either r or −r (see Figure 5.27). In this case we might
also identify this behaviour because when x = ±r the denominator of the function is zero.
 5.7. Curve Sketching 321

x
-r r

√
Figure 5.27: y = f (x) = 1/ r2 − x2 with asymptotes at endpoints of domain.

If there are any points where the derivative fails to exist (a cusp or corner), then we should take special
note of what the function does at such a point.

Function Symmetry

Finally, it is worthwhile to notice any symmetry. A function f (x) that has the same value for −x as for
x, i.e., f (−x) = f (x), is called an even function. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. Some
examples of even functions are: xn when n is an even number, cos x, and sin2 x, see Figure 5.28a. On the
other hand, a function that satisfies the property f (−x) = − f (x) is called an odd function. Its graph is
symmetric with respect to the origin. Some examples of odd functions are: xn when n is an odd number,
sin x, and tan x, see Figure 5.28b. Of course, most functions are neither even nor odd, and do not have any
particular symmetry.
y y

(a) y = sin2 x is an even function (b) y = tan x is an odd function

Figure 5.28
322 Applications of Derivatives

Exercises for Section 5.7.4

Exercise 5.7.27 State the domain and determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, of the
following functions.
9x − 1 8x2 + 9 6(x2 + 10)
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) =
x2 − 9 x2 − 16 x2 + 2x − 15

Exercise 5.7.28 Match the graphs labelled A through F with one of the rational functions labelled a
through f .
x2 − 25 5 3x2 − 5
a(x) = 2 b(x) = 2 c(x) = 2
x + 3x − 10 x − 2x − 8 x − 2x + 1
x2 7 x2 − 2x
d(x) = 2 e(x) = 2 f (x) = 2
x + x − 12 x + x − 12 x − 7x + 10
y y y
A B C

x x x
−4 3 2 5

y y y
D E F

x x x
1 −4 3 −2 4
 5.7. Curve Sketching 323

Exercise 5.7.29 Draw and label the vertical and horizontal asymptotes, if any, directly on the graphs.

y y y
2

x
−2 2
2 x
y= 3 −1 1
1+0.5|x|
1

x y = 2 − x12
x
y= 2(x2 −1)
(a) (c) (e)
y y y

0.5
2
y= x2 +1 1 y= √ 3x 1
x2 +1
x x
−1
x x
y= 2(x2 +1)

(b) (d) (f)

Exercise 5.7.30 Determine the horizontal and vertical asymptotes of the following functions.
1 (d) h(s) = s3 − 3s2 + s + 1 5
(a) f (x) = (g) h(t) = 2 +
x (t − 2)2
2 t2 s2 − 2
(b) f (q) = − 2 (e) f (t) = (h) f (s) =
q t2 − 9 s2 − 4

t −1 3x x3 − x
(c) g(t) = (f) f (x) = (i) g(x) =
t +1 2
x −x−6 x(x + 1)

Exercise 5.7.31 Find the slant asymptote of the following functions:

5x2 − 3x + 1 x2 x2 + 3x + 2 x2 − 5x + 4
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) = (c) f (x) = (d) f (x) =
x+2 x−1 x−1 x−3

5.7.5. Summary of Curve Sketching

The following is a guideline for sketching a curve y = f (x) by hand. Each item may not be relevant to
the function in question, but utilizing this guideline will provide all information needed to make a detailed
sketch of the function.
324 Applications of Derivatives

Guideline for Curve Sketching

Given a function y = f (x), follow these steps to sketch the graph of f .

1. Determine the domain, and the x-values u1 , u2 , ..., um where the function is undefined. Graph
a set of coordinate axes that is suitable.

2. Find all intercepts. Graph them, if any.

3. Determine if f has any symmetry.

4. Determine asymptotes:
a. Horizontal Asymptotes (x → ∞ and x → −∞). Graph them, if any.
b. Vertical Asymptotes (x → ui for i = 1, 2, ..., m). Graph them, if any.

5. Calculate f ′ :
a. Determine the critical points c1 , c2 , ..., cn of f and use these numbers along with
u1 , u2 , ..., um to create a sign chart for f ′ .
b. Determine the intervals of increase and decrease.
c. Apply the First Derivative Test to determine relative extrema. Graph them, if
any.

6. Calculate f ′′ :
a. Determine the critical points c′1 , c′2 , ..., c′n of f ′ and use these numbers along with
u1 , u2 , ..., um to create a sign chart for f ′′ .
b. Determine the intervals of concave up and concave down.
c. Determine all inflection points. Graph them, if any.
7. Use both sign charts to complete the sketch of the graph and don’t forget to label the graph
with relevant information.

Example 5.86: Curve Sketching

2x2
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = ·
x2 − 1

Solution.
1. The domain is {x : x2 − 1 6= 0} = {x : x 6= ±1} = (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)
2. There is an x-intercept at x = 0. The y intercept is y = 0.
3. f (−x) = f (x), so f is an even function (symmetric about y-axis)
2x2 2
4. lim 2
= lim = 2, so y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.
x→±∞ x − 1 x→±∞ 1 − 1/x2
Now the denominator is 0 at x = ±1, so we compute:
2x2 2x2 2x2 2x2
lim = +∞, lim = −∞, lim = −∞, lim = +∞.
x→1+ x2 − 1 x→1− x2 − 1 x→−1+ x2 − 1 x→−1− x2 − 1
 5.7. Curve Sketching 325

So the lines x = 1 and x = −1 are vertical asymptotes.

5. For critical values we take the derivative:

4x(x2 − 1) − 2x2 · 2x −4x
f ′ (x) = = .
(x2 − 1)2 (x2 − 1)2

Note that f ′ (x) = 0 when x = 0 (the top is zero). Also, f ′ (x) = DNE when x = ±1 (the bottom is
zero). As x = ±1 is not in the domain of f (x), the only critical point is x = 0 (recall that to be a
critical point we need it to be in the domain of the original function).
Drawing a number line and including all of the split points of f ′ (x) we have:
f '(‐2) > 0 f '(‐0.5) > 0 f '(0.5) < 0 f '(2) < 0

+ + ‐ ‐
‐1 0 1
inc inc dec dec

Thus f is increasing on (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) and decreasing on (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).
By the First Derivative Test, x = 0 is a relative max.

6. For possible inflection points we take the second derivative:

12x2 + 4
f ′′ (x) =
(x2 − 1)3

The top is never zero. Also, the bottom is only zero when x = ±1 (neither of which are in the domain
of f (x)). Thus, there are no possible inflection points to consider.
Drawing a number line and including all of the split points of f ′′ (x) we have:
f ''(‐2) > 0 f ''(0) < 0 f ''(2) > 0

+ ‐ +
‐1 1
CU CD CU

Hence f is concave up on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞), concave down on (−1, 1).

7. We put this information together and sketch the graph.

We combine some of this information on a single number line to see what shape the graph has on
certain intervals:
local
CU VA CD max CD VA CU
‐1 0 1
inc inc dec dec
326 Applications of Derivatives

Note that there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 2 and that the curve has x-int of x = 0 and y-int of
y = 0. Therefore, a sketch of f (x) is as follows:
7

‐5 ‐4 ‐3 ‐2 ‐1 1 2 3 4 5
‐1

‐2

‐3

‐4

Example 5.87: Curve Sketching

Sketch the graph of the function

f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2.

Solution. Obtain the following information on the graph of f .

1. The domain of f is (−∞, ∞).

2. By setting x = 0, we find that the y-intercept is 2. The x-intercept is found by setting y = 0, which
in this case leads to a cubic equation. Since the solution is not readily found, we will not use this
information.

3. Since f is a cubic polynomial, we expect odd symmetry. This will become more obvious once we
analyze f ′ and f ′′ .

4. We now look for any asymptotes of f :

lim f (x) = lim x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2 = ∞

x→∞ x→∞

lim f (x) = lim x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 2 = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞
We see that f decreases without bound as x decreases and increases without bound as x increases.
Therefore, f has no horizontal asymptotes. Since f is a polynomial,there are no vertical asymptotes.

5.
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9 = 3(x − 3)(x − 1)
Setting f ′ (x) = 0 gives x = 1 or x = 3 as our only critical points. The following sign diagram for f
shows that f is increasing on the intervals (−∞, 1) and (3, ∞) and decreasing on the interval (1, 3).
 5.7. Curve Sketching 327

+ − +
inc 1 dec 3 inc

Since the sign of f ′ changes as we move across the critical point x = 1, a relative maximum occurs
at (1, f (1)) = (1, 6). Similarly, a relative minimum of f occurs at (3, 2).

6. We find
f ′′ (x) = 6x − 12 = 6(x − 2),
which is equal to zero when x = 2. The sign diagram for f ′′ ,

− +
CD 2 CU

shows that f is concave downward on (−∞, 2) and concave upward on (2, ∞). Since the sign of f ′′
changes sign as we move across x = 2, f must have an inflection point at (2, f (2)) = (2, 4). In fact,
we can show that f exhibits odd symmetry about this point.

7. Putting all of the above information together, we arrive at the following graph of f (x).

7
(1, 6)
6
5
4
3
2
(3, 2)
1
x
1 2 3 4 5 6

♣
Suppose we are not given the definition of a function as in Examples 5.86 and 5.87, but rather, we are
being provided information about its domain and other behaviours. Sometimes, these pieces of information
may still allow us to sketch the curve of such a function as shown in the next example.
328 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.88: Curve Sketching with Pieces of Information

Suppose the following properties of a function f are given.

1. Domain: (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

2. Intercepts (0, −1) and (−1, 0).

3. f is symmetric about the line y = −x + 2.

4. x = 1 is a vertical asymptote and y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

5. f is decreasing on (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

6. f has no relative extrema.

7. f is concave downward on (−∞, 1) and concave upward on (1, ∞).

8. f has no points of inflection.

Solution. We initialize our graph with the x- and y- intercepts (item 2), along with the given horizontal
and vertical asymptotes (item 4).

1
x
−1 1
−1

Let’s first look at the bottom left-hand corner of the graph. We are given that, here, f is decreasing and
concave downward (items 5 and 7). We can therefore connect the two intercepts like so:
 5.7. Curve Sketching 329

1
x
−1 1
−1

The line of symmetry y = −x + 2 (item 3) is drawn in black. We reflect the curve across this line, ensuring
that our final curve is concave up and decreasing on the interval (1, ∞) (items 5 and 7). Our final result is
below.
y

1
x
−1 1
−1

Exercises for Section 5.7

Exercise 5.7.32 Follow the Curve Sketching Guideline provided in this section to sketch the graphs of the
following functions.

(a) y = x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 (e) y = x5 − x

(b) y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 5
(f) y = x(x2 + 1)
2 2/3
(c) y = (x − 1) (x + 3)
(d) x2 + x2 y2 = a2 y2 , a > 0. (g) y = x3 + 6x2 + 9x
330 Applications of Derivatives

Exercise 5.7.33 Follow the Curve Sketching Guideline provided in this section to sketch the graphs of the
following functions.
√
(a) y = 4x + 1 − x (f) y = x/(x2 − 9)
p
(b) y = (x + 1)/ 5x2 + 35
(g) y = x2 /(x2 + 9)
(c) y = x + 1/x √
2 (h) y = 2 x − x
(d) y = x + 1/x
(e) y = (x + 5)1/4 (i) y = (x − 1)/(x2 )

Exercise 5.7.34 Follow the Curve Sketching Guideline provided in this section to sketch the graphs of the
following functions.

(a) y = xex (f) y = tan2 x

(b) y = (ex + e−x )/2 (g) y = cos2 x − sin2 x

(c) y = e−x cos x (h) y = sin3 x

(d) y = ex − sin x (i) y = 6x + sin 3x

(e) y = ex /x (j) y = 3 sin(x) − sin3 (x), for x ∈ [0, 2π ]

Exercise 5.7.35 Sketch the graph of y = f (x) using the following information:
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
y-intercept: 2
Asmptotes: none
Increasing on: (−∞, 0) ∪ (4, ∞)
Decreasing on: (0, 4)
Relative Extrema: relative max at (0, 2), relative min at (4, −30)
Concavity: Downward on (−∞, 2), upward on (2, ∞)
Inflection point: (2, −14)

Exercise 5.7.36 Sketch the graph of y = f (x) using the following information:
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
y-intercept: 0
x-intercepts: 0,2
Asmptotes: none
Increasing on: (1.5, ∞)
Decreasing on: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 3/2)
Relative Extrema: relative min at (3/2, −27/80)
Concavity: Downward on (0, 1), upward on (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞)
Inflection points: (0, 0) and (1, −1/5)
 5.8. Optimization Problems 331

Exercise 5.7.37 Sketch the graph of y = f (x) using the following information:
Domain: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x-intercept: 1
Asmptotes: x-axis and y-axis
Increasing on: (0, 2)
Decreasing on: (−∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞)
Relative Extrema: relative max at (2, 1/4)
Concavity: Downward on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 3), upward on (3, ∞)
Inflection point: (3, 2/9)

Exercise 5.7.38 Sketch the graph of y = f (x) using the following information:
Domain: (−∞, ∞) √
Symmetry: Odd x-intercepts: ±5 5,0
Asmptotes: none
Increasing on: (−∞, −2.15) ∪ (2.15, ∞)
Decreasing on: (−2.15, 2.15)
Relative Extrema: relative max at (−2.15, 4.3), relative min at (2.15, −4.3)
Concavity: Upward on (0, ∞), Downward on (−∞, 0)

5.8 Optimization Problems

Many important applied problems involve finding the best way to accomplish some task. Often this in-
volves finding the maximum or minimum value of some function: the minimum time to make a certain
journey, the minimum cost for doing a task, the maximum power that can be generated by a device, and so
on. Many of these problems can be solved by finding the appropriate function and then using techniques
of calculus to find the maximum or the minimum value required.
Generally such a problem will have the following mathematical form: Find the largest (or smallest)
value of f (x) when a ≤ x ≤ b. Sometimes a or b are infinite, but frequently the real world imposes some
constraint on the values that x may have.
Such a problem differs in two ways from the relative maximum and minimum problems we encoun-
tered when graphing functions: We are interested only in the function between a and b, and we want to
know the largest or smallest value that f (x) takes on, not merely values that are the largest or smallest in a
small interval. That is, we seek not a relative maximum or minimum but a global (or absolute) maximum
or minimum.
332 Applications of Derivatives

Guideline for Solving Optimization Problems

1. Identify what is to be maximized or minimized and what the constraints are.

2. Draw a diagram (if appropriate) and label it.

3. Decide what the variables are and in what units their values are being measured in. For
example, A for area in square metres, r for radius in inches, C for cost in Euros. In other
words, if the problem does not introduce these variables, you need to do so.

4. Write a formula for the function that is to be maximized or minimized.

5. Use the given constraint to express the formula from Step 4 in terms of a single variable,
namely something like f (x) (or A(x), C(x),..., whatever name is appropriate). Then identify
the domain of this function, which is typically [a, b] or (a, b).

6. Find the critical points of f . Compare all critical values and endpoints (or perhaps lim f (x)
x→a+
and lim f (x) or curve sketching if the interval is open) to determine the absolute extrema of
x→a−
f.

7. Provide your solution meaningfully, which includes unit(s).

Example 5.89: Maximize your Profit

You want to sell a certain number n of items in order to maximize your profit. Market research tells
you that if you set the price at $1.50, you will be able to sell 5000 items, and for every 10 cents you
lower the price below $1.50 you will be able to sell another 1000 items. Suppose that your fixed
costs (“start-up costs”) total $2000, and the per item cost of production (“marginal cost”) is $0.50.
Find the price to set per item and the number of items sold in order to maximize profit, and also
determine the maximum profit you can get.

Solution. The first step is to convert the problem into a function maximization problem. Since we want
to maximize profit by setting the price per item, we should look for a function P(x) representing the profit
when the price per item is x. Profit is revenue minus costs, and revenue is number of items sold times
the price per item, so we get P = nx − 2000 − 0.50n. The number of items sold is itself a function of x,
n = 5000 + 1000(1.5 − x)/0.10, because (1.5 − x)/0.10 is the number of multiples of 10 cents that the
price is below $1.50. Now we substitute for n in the profit function:

P(x) = (5000 + 1000(1.5 − x)/0.10)x − 2000 − 0.5(5000 + 1000(1.5 − x)/0.10)

= −10000x2 + 25000x − 12000

We want to know the maximum value of this function when x is between 0 and 1.5. The derivative is
P′ (x) = −20000x + 25000, which is zero when x = 1.25. Since P′′ (x) = −20000 < 0, there must be a
relative maximum at x = 1.25, and since this is the only critical value it must be a global maximum as
well. (Alternately, we could compute P(0) = −12000, P(1.25) = 3625, and P(1.5) = 3000 and note that
 5.8. Optimization Problems 333

P(1.25) is the maximum of these.) Thus the maximum profit is $3625, attained when we set the price at
$1.25 and sell 7500 items. ♣

Example 5.90: Minimize Average Cost

A manufacturer determines that the daily average cost of producing q units is
5000
C(q) = 0.0001q2 − 0.08q + 65 + q>0
q
Determine the number of units produced per day which minimizes the average cost.

Solution. We first note that the domain of the function C is the open interval (0, ∞). Calculate,

′ 5000
C (q) = 0.0002q − 0.08 − ·
q2

Then solving C′ (q) = 0 gives q = 500, which is the only critical point of C. Next,

′′ 10, 000
C (q) = 0.0002 + ·
q3
And so
′′ 10, 000
C (500) = 0.0002 + > 0.
(500)3
Therefore, by the Second Derivative Test, q = 500 is a relative minimum of C.
Furthermore, C is concave upward everywhere, so the relative minimum of C must be the absolute
maximum of C. The minimum cost is thus
5000
C(500) = 0.0001(500)2 − 0.08(500) + 65 + = 60
500
or $60 per unit. The sketch of C follows.

10
y = C(x)
80

60
(500, 60)
40

20
x
200 400 600 800 100
334 Applications of Derivatives

Example 5.91: Maximize Manufacturing Capacity

It is estimated that the operating rate of a major manufacturer’s factories over a certain 365-day
period is given by
800t
f (t) = 100 + 2 0 ≤ t ≤ 365
t + 90, 000
percent. Determine the day on which the operating rate is maximized.

Solution. We wish to find the absolute maximum of f on [0, 365]. We first calculate

(t 2 + 90, 000)(800) − 800t(2t)

f ′ (t) =
(t 2 + 90, 000)2
−800(t 2 − 90, 000)
=
(t 2 + 90, 000)2

Therefore, f ′ (t) = 0 =⇒ t = −300 or 300. So the only critical point of f is t = 300 (since t = −300 is
outside the domain of f ). Evaluating f (t) at this critical point and both endpoints, we see

f (0) = 100, f (300) = 101.33, f (365) = 101.308

Thus, the manufacturing capacity operating rate was at a maximum after 300 days. ♣

Example 5.92: Largest Rectangle

Find the largest rectangle (that is, the rectangle with largest area) that fits inside the graph of the
parabola y = x2 below the line y = a (a is an unspecified constant value), with the top side of the
rectangle on the horizontal line y = a; see Figure 5.29.)

Solution. We want to find the maximum value of some function A(x) representing area. Perhaps the
hardest part of this problem is deciding what x should represent. The lower right corner of the rectangle is
at (x, x2 ), and once this is chosen the rectangle is completely determined. So we can let the x in A(x) be
the x of the parabola f (x) = x2 . Then the area is

A(x) = (2x)(a − x2 ) = −2x3 + 2ax.

√ √
We want the maximum value of A(x) when x is in [0, a]. (You might object to allowing x = 0 or x = a,
since then the “rectangle” has either no width or no height, so is not “really” a rectangle. But the problem
is somewhat easier if we simply allow such rectangles, which have zero area.)
Setting 0 = A′ (x) = 6x2 + 2a we get x = pa/3 as the only√critical value. Testing this and the two
p
√
endpoints, we have A(0) = A( a) =p0 and A( a/3) = (4/9) 3a3/2 . The maximum area thus occurs
when the rectangle has dimensions 2 a/3 × (2/3)a. ♣
 5.8. Optimization Problems 335

y
y = x2

y=a

Figure 5.29: Rectangle in a parabola.

Example 5.93: Largest Cone

If you fit the largest possible cone inside a sphere, what fraction of the volume of the sphere is
occupied by the cone? (Here by “cone” we mean a right circular cone, i.e., a cone for which the
base is perpendicular to the axis of symmetry, and for which the cross-section cut perpendicular to
the axis of symmetry at any point is a circle.)

Solution. Let R be the radius of the sphere, and let r and h be the base radius and height of the cone inside
the sphere. What we want to maximize is the volume of the cone: π r2 h/3. Here R is a fixed value, but r
and h can vary. Namely, we could choose r to be as large as possible—equal to R—by taking the height
equal to R; or we could make the cone’s height h larger at the expense of making r a little less than R. See
the cross-section depicted in the figure shown below. We have situated the picture in a convenient way
relative to the x- and y-axes, namely, with the centre of the sphere at the origin and the vertex of the cone
at the far left on the x-axis.

.......
........
..............
.................................
........
.......
(h − R, r)
...... ...............
... ..... ...
......... .... ..........
...... .......... ...
..
...
...
.. .... ...
... ...... ... ...
... ....... ....
... ...
......... .
...
...
..
. . ........ ..
. ...
.
.. .......... .... ...
.... .......... .
.
.
...
... ..... ..... ... ...
... .... ..
... ............ ..
..
..
......... . .
........... .
... ..
... ......... . ..
... .......
. .. .
...
... . ....... .
.. .
... .......... . ..
.
... ....... .... ...
... ....... ... ..
... ....... ..
... .......
..
.
...
.....
... .
........ .
. ..
... ....... .... ...
.... .......
....... .. ....
.....
...... ....... ... .........
...... ....... .. ......
....... .. ...
......... .......
................ .........
............................

Notice that the function we want to maximize, π r2 h/3, depends on two variables. This is frequently
the case, but often the two variables are related in some way so that “really” there is only one variable. So
our next step is to find the relationship and use it to solve for one of the variables in terms of the other, so
as to have a function of only one variable to maximize. In this problem, the condition is apparent in the
336 Applications of Derivatives

figure: the upper corner of the triangle, whose coordinates are (h − R, r), must be on the circle of radius R.
That is,
(h − R)2 + r2 = R2 .
We can solve for h in terms of r or for r in terms of h. Either involves taking a square root, but we notice that
the volume function contains r2 , not r by itself, so it is easiest to solve for r2 directly: r2 = R2 − (h − R)2 .
Then we substitute the result into π r2 h/3:

V (h) = π (R2 − (h − R)2)h/3

π 2
= − h3 + π h2 R
3 3
We want to maximize V (h) when h is between 0 and 2R including the endpoints. Like in Example 5.92:
Largest Rectangle, we argue that zero volume at the endpoints of the closed interval makes the problem
easier to solve Now we solve 0 = f ′ (h) = −π h2 + (4/3)π hR, getting h = 0 or h = 4R/3. We compute
V (0) = V (2R) = 0 and V (4R/3) = (32/81)π R3. The maximum is the latter; since the volume of the
sphere is (4/3)π R3, the fraction of the sphere occupied by the cone is

(32/81)π R3 8
= ≈ 30%.
(4/3)π R3 27

Example 5.94: Containers of Given Volume

You are making cylindrical containers to contain a given volume. Suppose that the top and bottom
are made of a material that is N times as expensive (cost per unit area) as the material used for the
lateral side of the cylinder.
Find (in terms of N ) the ratio of height to base radius of the cylinder that minimizes the cost of
making the containers.

Solution. Let us first choose letters to represent various things: h for the height, r for the base radius, V
for the volume of the cylinder, and c for the cost per unit area of the lateral side of the cylinder; V and c
are constants, h and r are variables. Now we can write the cost of materials:

c(2π rh) + Nc(2π r2).

Again we have two variables; the relationship is provided by the fixed volume of the cylinder: V = π r2 h.
We use this relationship to eliminate h (we could eliminate r, but it’s a little easier if we eliminate h, which
appears in only one place in the above formula for cost). The result is
V 2cV
f (r) = 2cπ r 2
+ 2Ncπ r2 = + 2Ncπ r2 .
πr r
We want to know the minimum value of this function when r is in (0, ∞). We now set 0 = f ′ (r) =
−2cV /r2 + 4Ncπ r, giving r = V /(2N π ). Since f ′′ (r) = 4cV /r3 + 4Ncπ is positive when r is positive,
p3

there is a relative minimum at the critical value, and hence a global minimum since there is only one
critical value.
 5.8. Optimization Problems 337

Finally, since h = V /(π r2),

h V V
= 3= = 2N,
r πr π (V /(2N π ))
so the minimum cost occurs when the height h is 2N times the radius. If, for example, there is no difference
in the cost of materials, the height is twice the radius (or the height is equal to the diameter). ♣

Example 5.95: Rectangles of Given Area

Of all rectangles of area 100, which has the smallest perimeter?

Solution. First we must translate this into a purely mathematical problem in which we want to find the
minimum value of a function. If x denotes one of the sides of the rectangle, then the adjacent side must be
100/x (in order that the area be 100). So the function we want to minimize is
100
f (x) = 2x + 2
x
since the perimeter is twice the length plus twice the width of the rectangle. Not all values of x make sense
in this problem: lengths of sides of rectangles must be positive, so x > 0. If x > 0 then so is 100/x, so we
need no second condition on x.
We next find f ′ (x) and set it equal to zero: 0 = f ′ (x) = 2 − 200/x2 . Solving f ′ (x) = 0 for x gives
us x = ±10. We are interested only in x > 0, so only the value x = 10 is of interest. Since f ′ (x) is
defined everywhere on the interval (0, ∞), there are no more critical values, and there are no endpoints. Is
there a relative maximum, minimum, or neither at x = 10? The second derivative is f ′′ (x) = 400/x3 , and
f ′′ (10) > 0, so there is a relative minimum. Since there is only one critical value, this is also the global
minimum, so the rectangle with smallest perimeter is the 10 × 10 square. ♣

Example 5.96: Minimize Travel Time

Suppose you want to reach a point A that is located across the sand from a nearby road (see Fig-
ure 5.30). Suppose that the road is straight, and b is the distance from A to the closest point C on
the road. Let v be your speed on the road, and let w, which is less than v, be your speed on the sand.
Right now you are at the point D, which is a distance a from C. At what point B should you turn off
the road and head across the sand in order to minimize your travel time to A?

Solution. Let x be the distance short of C where you turn off, i.e., the distance from B to C. We want to
minimize the total travel time. Recall that when traveling at constant velocity, time is distance divided by
velocity.
speed v, and then the distance BA at speed w. Since DB = a − x and, by
You travel the distance DB at p
the Pythagorean Theorem, BA = x2 + b2 , the total time for the trip is
√
a−x x2 + b2
f (x) = + .
v w
We want to find the minimum value of f when x is between 0 and a. As usual we set f ′ (x) = 0 and solve
for x:
338 Applications of Derivatives

1 x
0 = f ′ (x) = − + √
v w x + b2
2

p
w x2 + b2 = vx

w2 (x2 + b2 ) = v2 x2

w2 b2 = (v2 − w2 )x2

wb
x= √
v2 − w2
Notice that a does not appear in the last pexpression, but a is not irrelevant, since we are interested only in
critical values that are in [0, a], and wb/ v2 − w2 is either in this interval or not. If it is, we can use the
second derivative to test it:
b2
f ′′ (x) = 2 .
(x + b2 )3/2 w
Since this is always positive there is a relative minimum at the critical point, and so it is a global minimum
as well.
If the critical value is not in [0, a] it is larger than a. In this case the minimum must occur at one of the
endpoints. We can compute
a b
f (0) =+
v w
√
a2 + b2
f (a) =
w

but it is difficult to determine which of these is smaller by direct comparison. If, as is likely in practice,
we know the values of v, w, a, and b, then it is easy to determine this. With a little cleverness, however, we
can determine the minimum in general. Wephave seen that f ′′ (x) is always positive, so the derivative f ′ (x)
is always increasing. We know that at wb/ v2 − w2 the derivative is zero, so for values of x less than that
critical value, the derivative is negative. This means that f (0) > f (a), so the minimum occurs when x = a.
p
So the upshot is this: If you start farther away
p from C than wb/ v2 − w2 then you always want to cut
across the sand when you are a distance wb/ v2 − w2 from point C. If you start closer than this to C, you
should cut directly across the sand. ♣
 5.8. Optimization Problems 339

A.
.•
....
..
... .
.. b
....
..
..
..
a−x .
•...................................•.. x •
D B C
Figure 5.30: Minimizing travel time.

Exercises for Section 5.8

Exercise 5.8.1 Suppose the monthly profit a manufacturer realizes from selling q units is given by
P(q) = −5q2 + 1300q − 15, 000
dollars. What is the maximum monthly profit?

Exercise 5.8.2 Suppose the daily profit a manufacturer realizes from selling q units is given by
P(q) = −0.2q3 − 2q2 + 1000
What is the maximum daily profit?

Exercise 5.8.3 A manufacturer determines that the total cost C(q) of manufacturing q units per day is
given by
C(q) = 400 + 4q + 0.0001q2
dollars. If each unit is sold at
p = 10 − 0.0004q
dollars, what is the daily level of production that maximizes the daily profit?

Exercise 5.8.4 A certain company has a weekly fixed cost of $9945, and a variable production cost of
V (q) = q2 − 3q + 80
dollars per unit. If the revenue from selling q units per week is
R(q) = q2 − 6q + 20,
what is the level of production that will maximize the weekly profit?

Exercise 5.8.5 Suppose the total monthly cost of manufacturing q units is given by
C(q) = 0.5q2 − 50q + 15, 000
dollars.
340 Applications of Derivatives

(a) Determine the average cost function C.

(b) Determine the level of production that results in the smallest average production cost.

(c) Determine the level of production for which the average cost is equal to the marginal cost.

(d) What can you deduce from your results?

Exercise 5.8.6 Given the following demand equation,

p
p = 300 − 0.5q,

where p is unit price and q is the number of units manufactured per week, how many units should be
manufactured and sold each week in order to maximize the total revenue?

Exercise 5.8.7 We define the average revenue as

R(q)
R(q) = q > 0.
q

Show that if R(q) is concave downward, then the maximum average revenue occurs when R(q) = R′ (q).

Exercise 5.8.8 The gross domestic product (GDP) of a certain country following a national crisis (at
t ≡ 0) is approximated by
G(t) = −0.4t 3 + 4.8t 2 + 20 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
where G(t) is measured in billions of dollars. When during this time period is the GDP at its highest?

Exercise 5.8.9 Suppose the amount of money in an account is given by

a(t) = −0.01t 4 + 0.5t 3 + 3.8t 2 + 12.6t + 1200 0 ≤ t ≤ 55

thousands of dollars over 55 years. Determine the year during which the value of the account is maximal.

Exercise 5.8.10 Over a time period of 6 years, it is shown that the number N of independently owned
bakeries is given by

N(t) = 2 + 8.82x − 7.73x2 + 2.08x3 − 0.175x4 0 ≤ t ≤ 6

(in millions of bakeries). Determine the absolute extrema of the function N on the interval [0, 6] and
interpret your results.

Exercise 5.8.11 Suppose

C(q) = 0.02q3 − 0.03q2 + 20q + 300
is the daily cost function for a certain producer where q is measured in units of thousands. Determine the
level of production that minimizes the daily average cost per unit.

Exercise 5.8.12 Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area having fixed perimeter 100.
 5.8. Optimization Problems 341

Exercise 5.8.13 Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area having fixed perimeter P.

Exercise 5.8.14 A box with square base and no top is to hold a volume 100. Find the dimensions of the
box that requires the least material for the five sides. Also find the ratio of height to side of the base.

Exercise 5.8.15 A box with square base is to hold a volume 200. The bottom and top are formed by
folding in flaps from all four sides, so that the bottom and top consist of two layers of cardboard. Find the
dimensions of the box that requires the least material. Also find the ratio of height to side of the base.

Exercise 5.8.16 A box with square base and no top is to hold a volume V . Find (in terms of V ) the
dimensions of the box that requires the least material for the five sides. Also find the ratio of height to side
of the base. (This ratio will not involve V .)

Exercise 5.8.17 You have 100 feet of fence to make a rectangular play area alongside the wall of your
house. The wall of the house bounds one side. What is the largest size possible (in square feet) for the play
area?

Exercise 5.8.18 You have l feet of fence to make a rectangular play area alongside the wall of your house.
The wall of the house bounds one side. What is the largest size possible (in square feet) for the play area?

Exercise 5.8.19 Marketing tells you that if you set the price of an item at $10 then you will be unable to
sell it, but that you can sell 500 items for each dollar below $10 that you set the price. Suppose your fixed
costs total $3000, and your marginal cost is $2 per item. What is the most profit you can make?

Exercise 5.8.20 Find the area of the largest rectangle that fits inside a semicircle of radius 10 (one side
of the rectangle is along the diameter of the semicircle).

Exercise 5.8.21 Find the area of the largest rectangle that fits inside a semicircle of radius r (one side of
the rectangle is along the diameter of the semicircle).

Exercise 5.8.22 For a cylinder with surface area 50, including the top and the bottom, find the ratio of
height to base radius that maximizes the volume.

Exercise 5.8.23 For a cylinder with given surface area S, including the top and the bottom, find the ratio
of height to base radius that maximizes the volume.

Exercise 5.8.24 You want to make cylindrical containers to hold 1 liter using the least amount of con-
struction material. The side is made from a rectangular piece of material, and this can be done with no
material wasted. However, the top and bottom are cut from squares of side 2r, so that 2(2r)2 = 8r2 of
material is needed (rather than 2π r2 , which is the total area of the top and bottom). Find the dimensions
of the container using the least amount of material, and also find the ratio of height to radius for this
container.

Exercise 5.8.25 You want to make cylindrical containers of a given volume V using the least amount of
construction material. The side is made from a rectangular piece of material, and this can be done with
no material wasted. However, the top and bottom are cut from squares of side 2r, so that 2(2r)2 = 8r2 of
342 Applications of Derivatives

material is needed (rather than 2π r2 , which is the total area of the top and bottom). Find the optimal ratio
of height to radius.

Exercise 5.8.26 Given a right circular cone, you put an upside-down cone inside it so that its vertex is
at the center of the base of the larger cone and its base is parallel to the base of the larger cone. If you
choose the upside-down cone to have the largest possible volume, what fraction of the volume of the larger
cone does it occupy? (Let H and R be the height and base radius of the larger cone, and let h and r be the
height and base radius of the smaller cone. Hint: Use similar triangles to get an equation relating h and
r.)

Exercise 5.8.27 A container holding a fixed volume is being made in the shape of a cylinder with a
hemispherical top. (The hemispherical top has the same radius as the cylinder.) Find the ratio of height
to radius of the cylinder which minimizes the cost of the container if (a) the cost per unit area of the top is
twice as great as the cost per unit area of the side, and the container is made with no bottom; (b) the same
as in (a), except that the container is made with a circular bottom, for which the cost per unit area is 1.5
times the cost per unit area of the side.

Exercise 5.8.28 A piece of cardboard is 1 meter by 1/2 meter. A square is to be cut from each corner and
the sides folded up to make an open-top box. What are the dimensions of the box with maximum possible
volume?

Exercise 5.8.29 (a) A square piece of cardboard of side a is used to make an open-top box by cutting out
a small square from each corner and bending up the sides. How large a square should be cut from each
corner in order that the box have maximum volume? (b) What if the piece of cardboard used to make the
box is a rectangle of sides a and b?

Exercise 5.8.30 A window consists of a rectangular piece of clear glass with a semicircular piece of
colored glass on top; the colored glass transmits only 1/2 as much light per unit area as the the clear
glass. If the distance from top to bottom (across both the rectangle and the semicircle) is 2 meters and
the window may be no more than 1.5 meters wide, find the dimensions of the rectangular portion of the
window that lets through the most light.

Exercise 5.8.31 A window consists of a rectangular piece of clear glass with a semicircular piece of
colored glass on top. Suppose that the colored glass transmits only k times as much light per unit area as
the clear glass (k is between 0 and 1). If the distance from top to bottom (across both the rectangle and
the semicircle) is a fixed distance H, find (in terms of k) the ratio of vertical side to horizontal side of the
rectangle for which the window lets through the most light.

Exercise 5.8.32 You are designing a poster to contain a fixed amount A of printing (measured in square
centimeters) and have margins of a centimeters at the top and bottom and b centimeters at the sides. Find
the ratio of vertical dimension to horizontal dimension of the printed area on the poster if you want to
minimize the amount of posterboard needed.

Exercise 5.8.33 What fraction of the volume of a sphere is taken up by the largest cylinder that can be fit
inside the sphere?
 5.8. Optimization Problems 343

Exercise 5.8.34 The U.S. post office will accept a box for shipment only if the sum of the length and girth
is at most 108 in. (Girth is the maximum distance around the package perpendicular to the length; for
a rectangular box, the length is the largest of the three dimensions.) Find the dimensions of the largest
acceptable box with square front and back.

Exercise 5.8.35 Find the dimensions of the lightest cylindrical can containing 0.25 liter (=250 cm3 ) if the
top and bottom are made of a material that is twice as heavy (per unit area) as the material used for the
side.

Exercise 5.8.36 A conical paper cup is to hold 1/4 of a liter. Find the height and
p radius of the cone which
minimizes the amount of paper needed to make the cup. Use the formula π r r2 + h2 for the area of the
side of a cone.

Exercise 5.8.37 A conical paper cup is to hold a fixed volume of water. Find the ratio of height to
base
p radius of the cone which minimizes the amount of paper needed to make the cup. Use the formula
π r r2 + h2 for the area of the side of a cone, called the lateral area of the cone.

Exercise 5.8.38 Find the fraction of the area of a triangle that is occupied by the largest rectangle that
can be drawn in the triangle (with one of its sides along a side of the triangle). Show that this fraction
does not depend on the dimensions of the given triangle.

Exercise 5.8.39 How are your answers to Problem 5.8.19 affected if the cost per item for the x items,
instead of being simply $2, decreases below $2 in proportion to x (because of economy of scale and
volume discounts) by 1 cent for each 25 items produced?