KENYATTAUNIVERSITY

DIGITAL SCHOOL
IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT: PSYCHOLOGY
APS 212 – CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

WRITEN BY: EDITED BY:

LYDIAH MAINGI-NGUNJIRI LYDIAH MAINGI-NGUNJIRI

Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2016

All Rights Reserved

Published By:

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS

1
INTRODUCTION
APS 212: Child Psychology is a course offered within the Bachelor of Psychology degree
course. This course introduces students to the many different perspectives in child psychology. It
is designed to provide the learner with the knowledge, and skills required relevant to child and
family counseling as well as dealing with children in care settings. Focus will be given to
theories of child development, stages of development and the factors affecting development of
children.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course the learner should;
 Be familiar with the different theoretical models of understanding child development.
 To understand Areas and methods of Research on Children
 Explain different areas of childhood development
 Appreciate the factors influencing the child’s development.
 Discuss Resilience in Children.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction to child psychology
o A brief overview of the course (Child psychology).
o History of Child Psychology.
o The concept of Childhood.
o Areas of Application

2. Theories of Child Psychology

o Psychoanalytic child development theories
o Cognitive child development theories
o Social child development theories

2
3. Research methodology in child psychology
o Importance of research on child development
o Measurement techniques used in developmental research
o Ethical issues involved in research with children

4. Areas of Child Development.

o Physical Development
o Cognitive development
o Language and communication;
o Emotional development.
5. Brain Development
o Brain Development
o Risk factors for Brain development
o Windows of Opportunity

6. Stages of development
o Prenatal Development
o Birth and Neonate
o Early Childhood, Middle Childhood,
o Transition to Adolescence
7. Ecological influences on child development
o The family environment
o Poverty and consequences
o Impact of community violence
o Cultural and maturational influences

8. Developmental psychopathologies
o Development of some childhood disorders
o Risk and Resilience
o Prevention and treatment

3
 LECTURER 1

INTRODUCTION TO CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Define the term child psychology.
 State the goals of child psychology.
 Discuss the history of child psychology
 Explain the concept of childhood
 Discuss the applications of child psychology.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this section we are going to introduce what child psychology is.

Child psychology is also referred to as child development. It is the study of the psychological
processes of children and, specifically, how these processes differ from those of adults, how they
develop from birth to the end of adolescence, and how and why they differ from one child to the
next.

Child psychology represents an approach to understanding children through a description and an

explanation of the psychological changes which children undergo in the course of time. E.g as
children grow older they form attachments to people, acquire language and learn to behave in
ways that are rewarding. They become able to regulate their own behavior.

4
Child psychologists are committed to an exploration of reasons and processes that underlie the
developmental changes.

Child psychology borrows heavily from developmental psychology. The language of

development permeates child psychology and the child centered professions. Practitioners in
these areas speak of such things as "developmentally appropriate practices" for early childhood
education, developmental "readiness" for reading, and "stages" of cognitive, moral, and social
development

Psychological changes can either be quantitative or qualitative in nature. e. g a child acquiring

more and more words is quantitative. Being able to use the words and communicate is
qualitative. It is such changes that child psychologists seek to explain.

1.3 Definition of Child Psychology

Let us now define child psychology. Child Psychology refers to the study of children’s behavior
including physical, cognitive, motor, linguistic, perceptual, social, and emotional characteristics
from birth through adolescence.

1.4 Goals of Child Psychology

Developmental psychology has two main goals

1. The first is to describe the behavior at each point in the person's development such as
determining the age that babies begin to walk, the social skills of four year olds, and so
forth.

2. The second is to identify the causal factors involved in producing changes in behavior
such as the importance of genetic or biological factors, the role of various experiences,
and the influence of peers, parents, and others.

5
1.4 History of Child Psychology

In order to understand child psychology, it is important to look at its history and how it has come
to be where it is currently. We will therefore look at the history of child psychology in the
section that follows.

In medieval times, laws generally did not distinguish between child and adult offenses. After
analyzing samples of art along with available publications, historian Philippe Aries concluded
that European societies did not accord any special status to children prior to 1600. In paintings,
children were often dressed in smaller versions of adult-like clothing. Some people believe that
children were actually treated as miniature adults with no special status in medieval Europe.
Aries interpretation has been criticized, however. He primarily sampled aristocratic, idealized
subjects, which led to the overdrawn conclusion that children were treated as miniature adults
and not accorded any special status.

In medieval times, children did often work, and their emotional bond with parents may not have
been as strong as it is for many children today. However, in medieval times, childhood probably
was recognized as a distinct phase of life more than Aries believed. Also, we know that in
ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome rich conceptions of children's development were held.

Through history, philosophers have speculated at length about the nature of children and how
they should be reared. Three such philosophical views resulted which are;

I. Original Sin,
II. Tabula Rasa,
III. Innate Goodness.

In the original sin view, especially advocated during the Middle Ages, children were perceived
as basically bad, being born into the world as evil beings. The goal of child rearing was to
provide salvation, to remove sin from the child's life.

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the tabula rasa view was proposed by English
philosopher John Locke. Locke, a British empiricist, adhered to a
strict environmentalist position, that the mind of the newborn as a tabula rasa ("blank slate") on

6
which knowledge is written through experience and learning. He argued that children are not
innately bad but, instead, are like a "blank tablet," a tabula rasa. Locke believed that childhood
experiences are important in determining adult characteristics. In essence, this view held the
opinion that children gained from their interactions with the people they found in their
environments. If they got exposed to negative experiences, they became negative. If they were
exposed to positive experiences, they became positive. Locke therefore advised parents to spend
time with their children and to help them become contributing members of society.

In the eighteenth century, the innate goodness view was presented by Swiss-born philosopher
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who stressed that children are inherently good. Because children are
basically good, said Rousseau, they should be permitted to grow naturally, with little parental
monitoring or constraint. Rousseau, a Swiss philosopher who spent much of his life in France,
proposed a nativistic model in his famous novel Emile, in which development occurs according
to innate processes progressing through three stages: Infans (infancy), puer (childhood), and
adolescence.

In 1840, when Charles Darwin began a record of the growth and development of one of his own
children, collecting the data much as if he had been studying an unknown species. The work of
Darwin, the British biologist famous for his theory of evolution, led others to suggest that
development proceeds through evolutionary recapitulation, with many human behaviors
having their origins in successful adaptations in the past as "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny."

In 1891 American educational psychologist G. Stanley Hall established the Pedagogical

Seminary, a periodical devoted to child psychology and pedagogy.

The scientific study of children began in the late nineteenth century, and blossomed in the early
twentieth century as pioneering psychologists sought to uncover the secrets of human behavior
by studying its development. William Shakespeare had his melancholy character, "Jacques" in
(As You like It), articulate the "seven ages of man," which included three stages of childhood and
four of adulthood.

7
During the early 20th century, the development of intelligence tests and the establishment of
child guidance clinics further defined the field of child psychology.

A number of notable 20th-century psychologists among them Sigmund Freud, Melanie Klein,
and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud dealt with child development chiefly from the psychoanalytic
point of view. Perhaps the greatest direct influence on modern child psychology was Jean Piaget
of Switzerland. By means of direct observation and interaction, Piaget developed a theory of the
acquisition of understanding in children. He described the various stages of learning in childhood
and characterized children’s perceptions of themselves and of the world at each stage of learning.

The data of child psychology are gathered from a variety of sources. Observations by relatives,
teachers, and other adults, as well as the psychologist’s direct observation of and interviews with
a child (or children), provide much material. In some cases a one-way window or mirror is used
so that children are free to interact with their environment or others without knowing that they
are being watched. Personality tests, intelligence tests, and experimental methods have also
proved useful in understanding child development. Despite attempts to unify various theories of
child development, the field remains dynamic, changing as the fields of physiology and
psychology develop.

8
1.5 CONCEPT OF CHILDHOOD

In this section, we will discuss the concept of Childhood. Childhood is conceptualized as a

process of development toward adulthood. In the nineteenth century, childhood began to be
mapped out as a series of developmental stages that determined the character of the adult
individual. Rose (1989) argues that, in making it the object of scientific inquiry, psychology
invented childhood and claimed a particular expertise in categorizing children, measuring their
aptitudes, managing and disciplining them and has done so ever since.

The idea of childhood as a developmental phase also means that childhood is usually seen as
important largely in terms of its consequences for adulthood. This is, as a number of researchers
have pointed out, a very adult-centered view (Leonard 1990; Thorne 1987; Waksler 1986).
Children are thought of as incomplete adults whose experiences are not worth investigating in
their own right, but only in so far as they constitute learning for adulthood. Developmental
theories presuppose that children have different capacities at different ages, yet children are
frequently characterized as the polar opposites of adults: children are dependent, adults are
independent; children play, adults work; children are emotional, adults are rational. The
definitions of both childhood and adulthood are, moreover, gendered. Models of ideal adulthood
are frequently in effect models of manhood, so that there is often a correspondence between
attributes deemed childish and those deemed feminine such as emotionalityand conversely those
deemed adult and masculine such as rationality ( Jackson 1982; Thorne 1987).

According to Article 1 of the CRC, (United Nations Convention of the Rights of the child 1989
“a child means every human being below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to
the child, majority is attained earlier”. The Article thus grants individual countries the discretion
to determine by law whether childhood ceases at 12, 14, 16 or whatever age is found
appropriate.

Today, nearly all cultures share the view that the younger the child the more vulnerable she/he is
physically and psychologically and the less able to fend for herself/himself. Age limits are a
formal reflection of society’s judgment about the evolution of children’s capacities and
responsibilities. But age limits differ from activity to activity, and from country to country.

9
Biologically, a child is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty. Some
definitions of a child include the fetus, as being an unborn child. The legal definition of "child"
on the other hand refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of
majority.

Child psychology/child development focuses on childhood as the time of development between

conception and adolescence.

Personal reflection
Describe the concept of childhood according to your community, culture, ethnic group or
race.

1.6 AREAS OF APPLICATION

Insert a video link showing child care settings that are likely to apply child
psychology

Knowledge in child psychology can be applied in various fields such as in;

 Training parents
 Counseling parents e.g. in hospital set ups and in schools
 Counseling children at different developmental stages
 Training child educators and other care-givers.
 Children’s homes and centers that deal with children.
 Schools and educational institutions
 Curriculum development
 Policy making

10
 1.7 SUMMARY

Child psychology is the study of the psychological processes or changes of

children. It looks at how children differ from adults and from other children and how the
progress from one developmental stage to another.
 Children were at once thought to have been born evil and hence their upbringing was
intended to make them good. At another point in history they were deemed as “tabula
rasa” and hence their care givers needed to be cautious of what they learn because it
determined their outcome. At some other point in history they thought to have been
born good. Major milestones have been made in the history of child psychology.
 The conceptualization of childhood determines how children are treated or dealt with
and differs in different contexts such as biologically, legally and psychologically.
 Knowledge in child psychology is essential in various contexts where children are
dealt with such as in their upbringing by parents, their schooling amongst others.

NOTE

Childhood is an exclusionary status (Hood-Williams 1990) in that children are neither

citizens nor legal subjects and are under the jurisdiction of their parents. Their subordinate
position is also evident in their interaction with adults.
Children t acquire ideas about what is appropriate for people of their own age and may try
to negotiate specific freedoms or privileges on this basis. Ordering children's lives in this
way also influences what they are capable of achieving.

1.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss the distinction in the concept of childhood from the medieval times to
the modern times.

11
1.9 FURTHER READING

Ariès, Philippe. (1962). Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. New
York.
Howes, C. and Matheson, C.C. (1992) ‘Sequences in the development of competent play
with peers: social and social pretend play’, Developmental Psychology, vol. 28, no. 5, pp.
961–74.

12
 LECTURER 2

THEORIES OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this lecture we shall look at the theories of child psychology. A theory is a principle or idea
that is proposed, researched, and generally accepted as an explanation. Child psychology theories
also referred to as developmental theories provide us with insights into how children grow and
learn. Understanding theories about how children develop will help to us form knowledge base
in caring for young children. This combined knowledge will enable you to plan appropriate
projects and treatment plans, curriculum/helping activities for children. The objectives of this
lecture include;

2.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Explain the various theories of child psychology namely psychoanalysis, Eric

Erickson psychosocial theory, Lawrence Kohlberg theory of moral development, Jean
Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory of
child development
 Distinguish the concepts of the theories of child psychology

A theory of development should reflect an attempt to relate behavioral to chronological age.

Hence, the diverse behavioral characteristics should be related to specific stages of growth. The
rules governing the transitions between these growth states also must be identified. Let us now
look at some of the most prominent theories of development.

2.3 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Under the category of psychoanalytic theories, we will discuss Sigmund Freud’s theory of
psychosexual stages and Eric Erickson’s theory of psychosocial stages. Let us now look at
Sigmund Freud’s theory.

13
2.3.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory of psychosexual Stages
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents
dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities
developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults. He came up with five
stages of sexual development which he named; Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
According to Freud, failure to receive gratification at any stage led to fixation at that stage and
hence affecting that person’s personality.

 Oral phase-In this phase, Freud stated that children are focused on the pleasures that they
receive from sucking and biting with their mouth. This is because at this stage in life
children explore their world through the mouth especially through sucking. Freud viewed
people who did not receive gratification orally at this stage to have remained fixated and
therefore continue to seek pleasure through the mouth. Such people are likely to be
excessively talkative, or excessively drink or eat such as people who use alcohol and
substance abuse.

 Anal phase-this focus shifts to the anus as they begin toilet training and attempt to control
their bowels. Children whose parents are strict and do not allow them to release their
bowels anywhere anytime learn to hold and are therefore rigid or mean people who hold
onto their opinions or way of life even in adulthood. On the other hand children of
permissive parents who could release their bowels freely become carefree personalities.

 Phallic stage-the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual identification that
comes with having or not having a penis. Freud thought that children turn their interest
and love toward their parent of the opposite sex and begin to strongly resent the parent of
the same sex. He called this idea the Oedipus complex as it closely mirrored the events of
an ancient Greek tragic play in which a king named Oedipus manages to marry his
mother and kill his father. Freud suggests that the way individuals relate with the
opposite or same sex members depends on how they negotiated this phase.

 Latency phase-during this stage, the sexual urges and interest were temporarily
nonexistent. Children at this phase engage more in play activities.

14
  Genital phase-At this stage, adult sexual interests and activities were thought to dominate.
Freud thought that the way adolescents expressed their sexual interests at this phase was
dependent on the phallic stage.

Freud also thought that all babies are initially dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish
urges for immediate gratification which he labeled the Id. As babies attempt and fail to get all
their whims met, they develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic and possible,
which Freud called the "Ego". Over time, babies also learn about and come to internalize and
represent their parents' values and rules. These internalized rules, which he called the "Super-
Ego", are the basis for the developing child's conscience that struggles with the concepts of right
and wrong and works with the Ego to control the immediate gratification urges of the Id.

2.3.2 Erik Erickson Psychosocial Theory

We will discuss the second psychoanalytic theory; the psychosocial theory of Eric Erickson in
this section. Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory
about human development from birth to death. In contrast to Freud's focus on sexuality, Erikson
focused on how peoples' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop
abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied
members of society. Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and
mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it’s called a
'psychosocial' theory.

According to Erickson’s theory, every person must pass through a series of 8 interrelated stages
over the entire life cycle namely;

 Trust versus mistrust

 Autonomy versus shame and doubt
 Initiative versus guilt
 Industry versus inferiority
 Identity versus identity confusion
 Intimacy versus isolation
 Generativity versus stagnation
 Integrity versus despair

15
In this section we will look at each of the eight stages of psychosocial development.

Trust versus mistrust (0-1year)

During the first eighteen months of life, children learn to trust or mistrust their environment. To
develop trust, they need to have warm, consistent, predictable, and attentive care. The major
focus at this stage is on the mother and father’s nurturing ability to care for the child. The child
will develop optimism, trust, confidence and security if properly cared for and handled. They
develop a sense of confidence and trust that the world is safe and dependable. If a child does not
develop trust he or she may feel insecure, develop sense of worthlessness and general mistrust to
the world.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-3years)

At this stage, toddlers use their new motor and mental skills. They want to be independent and
do things for themselves. They are in the process of discovering their own bodies and practicing
their developing locomotor (physical movement) and language skills. The objective of this stage
is to gain self-control without a loss of self-esteem. They need to learn to choose and decide for
themselves. To do this, toddlers need a loving, supportive environment. The well cared for child
is sure of himself /herself and carries him/herself with pride rather than shame. Children tend to
be vulnerable here sometimes feeling shame and low self -esteem during an inability to perform
a certain task. This is brought about mostly by caregiver’s overprotection or lack of adequate
activities. It results in self-doubt, poor achievement, and shame.

Initiative versus guilt (3-6years)

Between three and five years of age, the third stage occurs. The children continue to develop
their self-concept and gain a desire to try new things and to learn new things while being
responsible for their actions to some extent. According to Erikson, this stage emerges as a result
of the many skills children have developed. Now children have the capacity and are ready to
learn constructive ways of dealing with people and things. They are learning how to take
initiative without being hurtful to others. At this stage, If caregivers continue to give children a
safe space to experiment and appropriate stimuli to learn, the children will continue to find their

16
purpose. However, if caregivers try to create too many strict boundaries around what children
can do and to force too much responsibility on kids, children will feel extreme guilt for their
inability to complete tasks perfectly.

Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority

The major crisis of this stage occurs between six and twelve years of age. At this time, children
enjoy planning and carrying out projects. This helps them learn society’s rules and expectations.
During this stage, children gain approval by developing intellectual skills such as reading,
writing, and math. The way the family, neighbours, teachers, and friends respond to children as
they engage in these skills, affects their future development. Realistic goals and expectations
help to enrich children’s sense of self. Children can become frustrated by criticism or
discouragement, or if parents demand too much control. Feelings of incompetence and insecurity
will emerge.

2.4 THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

In this section, we shall discuss the theories of moral development.

2.4.1 Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Child Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) described three stages of moral development where he

described the process through which people learn to discriminate right from wrong and to
develop increasingly sophisticated appreciations of morality. He believed that his stages were
cumulative; each built off understanding and abilities gained in prior stages. According to
Kohlberg, moral development is a lifelong task, and many people fail to develop the more
advanced stages of moral understanding.

The following are the levels and stages of moral development according to Kohlberg.

Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation

17
Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that
the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we
follow the law because we do not want to go to jail. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and
absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the
individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he
needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to
say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before
him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives
away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s
duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman
refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this
is his duty as an officer of peace and order.

Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming
up with the decision on the morality of the action.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally
accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and
rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice.
18
Kohlberg’s theory has been faced with criticism on the following reasons:-

 Individuals do not always progress through the stages. Rest (1979) found that one in
fourteen actually slipped backwards. The evidence for distinct stages of moral
development looks very weak and some would argue that behind the theory is a culturally
biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and
societies.

 Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take account of; habits that people have
developed over time, whether people see situations as demanding their participation, the
costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way and competing motive such as peer
pressure and self -interest. Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of
moral reasoning. It is also to do with social factors.

 Gilligan (1977) claims that there is a sex bias in Kohlberg’s theory. He neglects the
feminine voice of compassion, love and non-violence, which is associated with the
socialization of girls.

2.5 THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Under the category of cognitive theories of development, we shall discuss Jean Piaget’s theory.

2.5.1 Jean Piaget Theory of Child Development

Jean Piaget ( 1896-1980) believed that children naturally attempt to understand what they do not
know. He proposed that children gather knowledge gradually during active involvement in real-
life experiences. By physically handling objects, young children discover that relationships exist
between them. Piaget suggested that the processes of adaptation, assimilation, and
accommodation occurred during every stage of development.

Piaget argued that children progress through a series of four critical stages of cognitive
development. Each stage is marked by shifts in how kids understand the world. Piaget believed
that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try to explore and make sense of the
world around them. The stages of this theory include;

19
  Sensory-motor (0-2years) - The more major tasks occurring during this period involve
children figuring out how to make use of their bodies. They do this by experiencing
everything with their five senses, hence "sensory," and by learning to crawl and then
walk, point and then grasp, hence, "motor."
 Pre-operational stage (2-7years) -At this point, children start to use mental symbols to
understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to engage
in pretend play.
 Concrete operational stage (7-11years) - Children gain the ability to think logically to
solve problems and to organize information they learn. However, they remain limited to
considering only concrete, not abstract, information because at this stage the capability
for abstract thought isn't well developed yet.
 Formal operational stage (11years onwards) -Adolescents learn how to think more
abstractly to solve problems and to think symbolically, e.g., about things that aren't really
there concretely in front of them.

His key concepts included; schema, accommodation, assimilation and equilibration.

Piaget’s theory has been criticized on the following grounds;

 Piaget did not consider the influence of the social environment on the cognitive
development of children. Instead, he concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive
development and biological maturation (Vygotsky, 1978).
 Piaget’s concept of schema has been refuted by behaviorists because it cannot be directly
observed as it is an internal process. Therefore, they would claim it cannot be objectively
measured.
 For Piaget thought is seen to precedes language. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
(1978) argues that the development of language and thought go together and that the
origin of reasoning is more to do with our ability to communicate with others than with
our interaction with the material world.

20
2.5.2 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory of Child Development

Vygotsky believed that children learn through social and cultural experiences. He argued that
children learn through their interactions with peers and adults who are highly skilled than them.
While interacting with others, children learn the customs, values, beliefs, and language of their
culture. For this reason, Vygotsky suggested that families and teachers should provide plenty of
social interaction for young children.

"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the child
(intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the
formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals."

Some of the key concepts of Vygotsky theory comprise of the following ;

1. Private speech, or self-talk. This refers to when children “think out loud.” After learning
language, children engage in this self-talk to help guide their activity and develop their
thinking. Self-talk continues until children reach school age.
2. zone of proximal development (ZPD). This concept presents learning as a scale. On one
of the scale are tasks that a child can do on his/her own (tasks within the child’s
developmental level), at the middle are tasks a child can perform with the assistance of a
peer or an adult and at the upper end are the tasks that a child cannot accomplish even
with help.
3. Scaffolding. This is the term used to refer to the assistance offered by peer or an adult to a
child inorder to accomplish the middle level tasks. It provides the structure for learning to
occur.
In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky believed that learning was not limited by stage or maturation.
Children move forward in their cognitive development with the right social interaction and
guided learning.

21
 2.8 SUMMARY

Theories of development can help caregivers understand how to best work with
children. Some of the most prominent theories include the eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial
theory and the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Vygotsky claimed that
children learn through social and cultural expression. All these theories provide
insight into children’s development. Theories of development can help caregivers
understand how to best work with children. Some of the most prominent theories include the
eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory and the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive
developmenttheory. Vygotsky claimed that children learn through social and cultural expression.
All these theories provide insight into children’s development.

2.6 FURTHER READING

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner&
Co.
2.11 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

What are the significant differences between Vygotsky and. Piaget theories of child
development?

22
 2.12 GLOSSARY

Schemas - A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand world.

Assimilation - The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schemas is
known as assimilation.
Accommodation - Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing
schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Equilibration - Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration

23
 LECTURE 3
RESEARCH IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this lesson we shall learn the methods used by child psychologists to carry out research on
children. Researchers of child development have a variety of research methods from which to
choose. These methods differ in important ways. For example, in a case study, the research tends
to not intrude very much into the lives of the subjects of the study, and experimental control is
not a major concern of the researcher. Conversely, in an experimental or quasi-experimental
study, the research is typically more intrusive, and the researchers desire a certain amount of
experimental control. Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each method plays an
important role in deciding which one to use in a particular study.

3.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss the importance of research in child development
 Discuss the measurement techniques used in developmental research
 Discuss the ethical issues involved in research with children

24
3.3 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

The physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth that takes place in the first years of a
child’s life sets the foundation for success or failure in learning and life. Research in child
psychology is therefore important since with that knowledge, you can better identify, interpret,
and respond to a child’s individual differences. Whatever your field, you’ll be prepared to
respond effectively to the needs, challenges, and capacities of children and their families, helping
them get the best start in life.

3.4 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES USED IN DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

We will now look at the various methods used in research with children. The first task a child
psychology researcher has is to decide on a research method by which to collect information. No
matter which method is used, it the research should be conducted according to scientifically
accepted procedures.

The type of method the researcher chooses is driven by several factors:

 The hypothesis that is being tested or the research question that is being asked
 The type of information that is being gathered, how the study is designed
 The number of participants.
 Any ethical considerations that relate to the participants.

Scientific inquiries are categorized into two broad categories: qualitative methods and
quantitative methods. Qualitative methods employ nonnumeric designs and attempt to study
phenomena inductively, as a process, and in the place in which the phenomena occur.
Quantitative approaches on the other hand measure phenomena numerically and deduce
conclusions from the numeric data. Both approaches are well represented in the study of
children. Let us first discuss the qualitative methods in this section.

3.4.1 Qualitative Methods

The major types of qualitative methods include observation, self-report, and case study.

25
 i. Observation
There are two ways of carrying out observation. The first involves viewing the subject of interest
in a laboratory setting. The benefit of this is that the situation can be controlled by the researcher.
The drawbacks of this kind observation are that the setting can be unnatural and the subject is
aware that they are being studied and hence can be artificial in their behavior.

The second allows researchers to observe participants in real-world settings (naturalistic

observation). The strength of this method is that it allows researchers to view behavior as it
really happens in a natural setting. In conducting a naturalistic observation, the researcher
observes behavior in a natural environment, such as in a home, day-care, or school setting. The
drawback is that the researcher cannot control outside variables that might impact behavior.

ii. Self-reports

Self-reports can also be used to gather information qualitatively. There are two forms of self-
reports.

1. The first is the interview method, in which the researcher poses questions to participants
either in informal or formal settings as he/she records the responses. These may include
direct interviews, focus group discussions or even telephone interviews.
2. The second form is the self-report instrument, in which participants respond to a
questionnaire or some other type of structured instrument.

Both forms have advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages

The advantages of self-reports include;

 Structured instruments provide control over external and extraneous stimuli. This means
that the there is less interference of other variables that are not necessary for the research.
 Permit comparisons of the responses, and aid in efficient data collection.

26
  Interviews may provide richer information and could tap aspects of the participants that
go unmeasured in structured instruments, such as how the participants think and function
in the natural setting.

Disadvantages

 Self reports limit generalization of results. Results of the open interview are difficult to
use for comparison purposes among individuals or groups of individuals. The rich data
gained through interviews could come at the cost of standardization, thereby ruling out
comparisons across participant responses.

iii. Case Study

The third qualitative method of research is the clinical method, or case study. The case study
allows the researcher to gain detailed information on one individual's development. The rich data
provides an extensive picture of the developmental process of an individual. In turn this means
that there is only one person in the study and that any conclusions that are drawn cannot be
easily generalized to other individuals.

3.4.2 Quantitative methods

Having looked at qualitative methods, we will now look at the quantitative methods of research
in section. There are three types of commonly used quantitative methods of study:

 Correlational
 Experimental,
 Quasi-Experimental.

To some degree each of these designs allows the researcher to identify relationships between
different factors and to then specify the causes of these relationships. Let us discuss each of the
three methods singly.

27
 i. Correlational design

Correlational design is used to determine whether relationships exist between two or more
variables. In most cases the investigator intends to determine whether a change in one variable
coincides with a change in a second variable. In a correlation design no variable manipulation
occurs.

For example, a child's behaviors are measured as they occur naturally and a numerical index
reflecting the relationship between the measures' outcomes is then computed. Usually, a
correlation coefficient is used to calculate the strength and type (positive or negative) of
relationship that exists.

Although the correlational design is extremely useful, it cannot be used to determine cause-effect
relationships between variables. Thiss is because variables other than the ones under study
cannot be controlled, measured, or otherwise considered in this design; such variables could
influence the relationship between the variables under study. This kind of control is afforded
only in designs in which variables can be manipulated and participants can be randomly assigned
to groups.

Correlational research methods are common in the study of development partly because ethical
concerns in research with human beings.

ii. Experimental design

Experimental designs allow cause-effect conclusions unlike correlational designs. This is

because variables can be manipulated and participants can be randomly assigned. With respect to
manipulation of variables, the researcher must assign independent and dependent variables to the
experiment. The independent variables are the ones manipulated by the researcher while the
dependent variable represents the responses of the participants.

For example, an independent variable might represent the amount of direct reading instruction
students receive, and the dependent variable might be reading achievement scores. In essence,

28
the researcher wants the dependent variable to reflect the effect of being treated with the
independent variable.

Experiment is the most scientific method of research. However, it can be difficult to use if the
variables of interest are abstract or internal concepts. Another problem is that some variables of
interest cannot be studied through experimentation for ethical reasons. Examples of this would
be research on the effects of child abuse on development. One cannot expose children to abuse to
find out its effect on the children.

iii. Quasi- experimental designs

These are not true experiments. Since true experiments may have ethical issues, researchers in
child psychology as in other areas in social science carry out quasi-experiments

Developmental/child psychologists are mostly concerned with the changes in children that occur
over a period of time e.g. the first five years of life. This fact brings to light another research
design choice that must be considered: longitudinal research versus cross-sectional research.
Let us now delve into these two research designs.

 Longitudinal research

Longitudinal studies involve studying the same group of participants over a particular time
period. In a longitudinal study, a researcher performs repeated observations or testing at
specified points during the participants' lives, thus allowing the observation of development. The
time span involved may be anywhere from a few months to a lifetime. This design provides the
best information about the continuity or discontinuity of behavior over time and allows for the
individual tracking of patterns of behavior, as well as trends of development, within a similar
group. However, this design has a lot of disadvantages that in most cases override its benefits.
Here are some of its disadvantages;

29
  It is expensive to study a large group of individuals over an extensive time span.
 Keeping up with these individuals can be costly and time consuming.
 Participants may move away from home and local communities, and therefore drop out
of the study.
 Sometimes the participants become wise to the testing or observations and practice over
repeated measures and contaminate the results.
 Cohort effects may also be a factor in the outcomes of longitudinal studies. Cohort effects
are common characteristics or trends in development for one cohort or group that may not
follow suit for another cohort.

To try to alleviate some of these potential problems, researchers often study small groups of
individuals; but this may make it difficult to generalize the findings to a larger group.

Lets us now discuss cross sectional design and see how it differs from longitudinal design

 Cross-sectional design

Cross-sectional studies involved studying groups of participants in different age groups at the
same point in time. This involves studying different groups of children who for instance share
the same age but who may come from a different educational or ethnic background; any
differences between groups might be attributed to the child's lifestyle rather than age. The three
most popular cross sectional designs include;

 Cross-sectional: a number of different-age individuals with the same trait or

characteristic of interest are studied at a single time.
 Cross-sequential: individuals in a cross-sectional sample are tested more than once over
specified period of time.
 The sequential design, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes
members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over
time, charting changes in the groups.

30
3.5 Ethical Issues Involved in Research With Children

The ethics of research with children is a balance issue. On the one hand, the focus is on ways of
preventing and reducing harms in research and ensuring adequate protection of children and
young people. On the other hand, there is concern about the risks and harms of silencing and
excluding children from research about their views, experiences and participation. The most
common issues that are raised concern data confidentiality, the purpose of the study and of
interviews, as well as the use of audio or video recording of the interviews. The principles to be
followed include and not limited to the following:
 Non-harmful procedures- The investigator should use no research procedure that may
bring harm to the child either physically or psychologically. The investigator is also
obligated at all times to use the least stressful research procedure whenever possible.
 Informed consent-Before seeking consent or assent from the child, the investigator
should inform the child of all features of the research that may affect his or her
willingness to participate and should answer the child's questions in terms appropriate to
the child's comprehension.
 :Parental Consent
The informed consent of parents, legal guardians or those who act in loco parentis (e.g.,
teachers, superintendents of institutions) similarly should be obtained, preferably in
writing. Parental consent is required where it is viewed that a child is incapable of
understanding the implications of taking part in a study or where the child is regarded as
incompetent to consent. Although the child’s assent is advisable, the power to consent, in
law, is that of his/her parents or legal guardian. Those acting for a child are only acting
legally if participation in the project is of benefit to the child. If it is not, the parent or
guardian could be said to be acting illegally.

One parent can give consent but it is preferable to have both. Where there is parental
disagreement as to whether an ‘incompetent’ child should be volunteered for research,
it is possible that one parent could apply to court to block the child’s participation. The
Ethics Committee may in such circumstances advise that where there is disagreement,
the child should not be included in the research.

31
  Confidentiality and anonymity must be explained in a way that children can
understand. The extent of the anonymity and any potential areas where the confidentiality
of the interview may be broken should be explained to the child at the outset of the
interview. For example, the researcher has a duty to take steps to protect the child or
other children, if they are considered to be ‘at risk of significant harm’.

 Incentives: Incentives to participate in a research project must be fair and must not
unduly exceed the range of incentives that the child normally experiences. Whatever
incentives are used, the investigator should always keep in mind that the greater the
possible effects of the investigation on the child, the greater is the obligation to protect
the child's welfare and freedom.

3.6 SUMMARY

The study of human behavior is as complex as the behaviors themselves, which is why
it is so important for social scientists to utilize empirical methods of selecting participants,
collecting data, analyzing their findings, and reporting their results.
Various qualitative and quantitative methods can be used in carrying out research with children.
Whatever method a researcher opts for, it must follow scientific principles and should be ethical.

3.7 FURTHER READING

Marion, M. (2003).Guidance of young children (6thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Merrill Prentice Hall.
McDevitt, T.M., &Ormrod, J.E. (2004).Child development: Educating and working with
children and adolescents (2nded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

32
3.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

What is the main difference between cross-sectional method and longitudinal

method?

3.9 GLOSSARY

Research methodology-It is a science of studying how research is to be carried

out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined
as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained.
A hypothesis- is a testable statement that reflects what the researcher expects to find in a
study. For example, a study on gender and learning disabilities might begin with a
hypothesis that one gender will be more impacted by learning disorders.

33
 LECTURER 4

AREAS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

8.1 INTRODUCTION
1. Have you been to a kindergarten, a children’s home, a church school class or play centre
for children.
 Describe what you saw.
 What are some of the differences you noticed in the kids?
 What do you think attributes to these differences?
2. Have you ever interacted with identical twins? What differences if any did you notice?

No two children are alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth
patterns. Even identical twins, who have the same genetic makeup, are not exactly alike. They
may differ in the way they respond to play, affection, objects, and people in their environment.
To help all these children, one needs to understand the sequence of their development. In this
lecture we shall learn the areas of child development. This knowledge will help us in guiding
young children.

8.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Differentiate the main areas of development
 Discuss the physical development
 Explain the cognitive development; language and communication.
 Discuss the social and emotional development.
 Describe how the development in the different areas of interrelates.

Before we discuss the areas f development, it is important to ask ourselves what development is.
Development refers to change or growth that occurs in children. It starts with infancy and
continues to adulthood. The study of child development is often divided into three main areas.
These include physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development. Dividing development into
these areas makes it easier to study. In the next section, we shall look at each of these areas of

34
development. Later on we shall discuss how development in one area can affect development in
another area.

4.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

In this section we will discuss physical development. This refers to physical body changes which
occur in a relatively stable, predictable sequence and in an orderly manner. These changes
include; changes in bone thickness, vision, hearing, and muscle. Height and weight also form
part of it. Actually, height and weight are the most obvious signs of physical development.
Physical skills, such as crawling, walking, and writing, are the result of physical development.
These skills fall into two main categories:
 Gross-motor development which involves improvement of skills using the large
muscles in the legs and arms. Such activities as running, skipping, and bike riding fall
into this category.
 Fine-motor development involves the small muscles of the hands and fingers. Grasping,
holding, cutting, and drawing are some activities that require fine motor development.

Environmental factors may affect what children can do physically. These factors include proper
nutrition and appropriate toys and activities. It is possible to find children of the same age but
whose physical development is obviously different. This can be brought about by the genetical
make up as well as the environmental factors.

4.4 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

This refers to processes people use to gain knowledge. This includes;

 Language, thought, reasoning, and imagination are all included.

 Identifying colors and knowing the difference between one and many are examples of
cognitive tasks.

Language and thought are a result of cognitive development. These two skills are closely
related. Both are needed for planning, remembering, and problem solving. As children mature
and gain experience with their world, these skills develop.

35
4.5 SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Social development refers to child's ability to make and maintain relationships. A child
cooperates with others during early childhood and begins to develop conflict resolution skills
while emotional development, on the other hand, involves feelings and expression of feelings
The two are grouped together because they are interrelated. For instance, trust, fear, confidence,
pride, friendship, and humor are all part of social-emotional development. Other emotional traits
include timidity, interest, and pleasure. Learning to express emotions in appropriate ways begins
early. Caregivers promote this learning when they positively model these skills. A person’s self-
concept and self-esteem are also part of this area. As children have success with all skills,
confidence flourishes. This leads to a healthy self-concept and sense of worth.

Physical, cognitive, and social-emotional areas of development are linked to

one another. Development in one area can strongly influence another area. For instance, writing
words requires fine-motor skills. In this case, if a child has not gained physical development in
their fine –motor skill, they may not develop the cognitive development which requires a child to
write, it also requires cognitive development. Language, a part of cognitive development, is
needed to communicate with others. The words a child has learnt are the ones he/she uses to
interact with other children. A child who is limited in the use of language to communicate may
be isolated by others and this can lead to negative feelings or even to developing a negative self
concept.

4.6 SELF- REFLECTION EXERCISE

i. Draw your self-concept.

ii. Explain how your own development in the three areas discussed above may
have contributed to your self-concept

36
4.7 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

In the other sections we looked at areas of development and acknowledged that children are
unique and may not develp in exactly the same way. Although each child is unique, the basic
patterns, or principles, of growth and development are universal, predictable, and orderly. We
shall hereby discuss the principles of child development that make development follow a
predictable pattern.

Knowledge of the principles of development help you;

 Understand that the order or sequence of development in children is generally the same.
However, each child develops at his or her own rate.
 Observe what abilities each child has gained.
 Plan appropriate activities that aid children in successfully developing new skills

Through careful observation and interaction with children, researchers and those who work with
children understand the characteristics of the principles that follow.
 Development tends to proceed from the head downward. This is called the
cephalocaudal principle. According to this principle, the child first gains control of the
head, then the arms, then the legs. Infants gain control of head and face movements
within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift
themselves up using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control
and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk.
 Development also proceeds from the center of the body outward according to the
proximodistal principle. In this case, the spinal cord develops before other parts of the
body. The child’s arms develop before the hands, and the hands and feet develop before
the fingers and toes. Fingers and toes are the last to develop.
 Development also depends on the principle of maturation. Maturation refers to the
sequence of biological changes in children. These orderly changes give children new
abilities. Much of the maturation depends on changes in the brain and the nervous
system. These changes assist children to improve their thinking abilities and motor skills.
A rich learning environment helps children develop to their potential.

37
Children must mature to a certain point before they can gain some skills, For instance, the brain
of a four-month-old has not matured enough to allow the child to use words. A four-month-old
will babble and coo. However, by two years of age, with the help of others, the child will be able
to say and understand many words. This is an example of how cognitive development occurs
from simple tasks to more complex tasks. Likewise, physical skills develop from general to
specific movements. For example, think about the way an infant waves its arms and legs. In a
young infant, these movements are random. In several months, the infant will likely be able to
grab a block with his or her whole hand. In a little more time, the same infant will grasp a block
with the thumb and forefinger.

4.8 SUMMARY

Studying and understanding the areas of child growth and development is an

important part of understanding and dealing with children. All children are unique, they
differ in physical, cognitive, social and emotional growth patterns.
There are principles that govern development namely Cephalocaudal, proximodistal and
maturation.

4.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss the social and emotional skills that children need to have developed in order
to fit in well at school?

38
4.10 GLOSSARY

Developmental milestones -Are a set of functional skills or age-specific tasks that most
children can do at a certain age range.
Gross motor -This involves learning to use all of the “big” muscles in our body. Crawling,
walking, running, skipping, jumping, and climbing are all examples of gross motor activity.
Fine motor - Fine motor activities teach hand-eye coordination. These activities require a child
to learn to precisely control the muscles in the hands. Things like coloring, writing, cutting with
scissors, using tweezers, tearing paper, etc.
Language - This domain includes alphabetic, phonemic awareness, oral, and written language

4.11 FURTHER READING

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.
Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women's conceptions of self and of
morality. Harvard Educational Review, 47(4), 481-517.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner&
Co.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

39
 LECTURE FIVE
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In lecture four we discussed the three main areas of development. Recognizing how the brain
functions in development is important just as understanding the areas and principles of
development. The focus of this lecture is the discussion on how the brain develops and its
influence on development.

5.2 OBJECTIVES
By the end of the lecture you should be able to:
1. Describe how the brain develops
2. Explain the factors that affect brain development.
3. Discuss the concept of windows of opportunity and how it applies in child
development.

5.3 BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

The focus of this section is a discussion on how the brain develops. This will help us to
understand how the development of the brain can affect the development in the other areas
already discussed in the previous lecture. The studies show that young children’s brains are
highly active. The most rapid development occurs during the first three years of life. At birth, a
child’s brain weighs about one pound and is underdeveloped. It contains billions of specialized
nerve cells called neurons. Although these cells are present at birth, they are not linked. After
birth, the links between the neurons develop rapidly. These links, or connections, are called
synapses. “Brain wiring” occurs as new links form. The larger the number of synapses, the
greater the number of messages that can pass through the brain.

Synapses are a result of the child’s interaction with the world. They influence the ability of a
child to learn, solve problems, get along with others, and control emotions. For example, the
child’s growing brain responds each time a caregiver provides sensory stimulation. This

40
stimulation could be in the form of holding, talking, reading, or singing. When stimulation
occurs, the child’s growing brain responds by forming new connections.

The ability of an infant’s brain to change according to stimulation is known as plasticity.

 Early care has a long-lasting impact on how children develop. The number of brain
connections children form and keep depends on the care they receive. Warm, nurturing,
consistent, and responsive care causes positive changes in the brain.
 Likewise, children need environmental stimulation. A wide variety of visual, auditory,
and sensory experiences will help promote brain connections.
 On the other hand, a lack of nurturing and interaction can limit a child’s potential. Some
children are deprived of stimulation either intentionally or unintentionally. These children
receive fewer touches. They are spoken to less often. They may also not receive much
visual stimulation. This neglect can impair brain development and the child’s potential.
 The amount of stress created by negative experiences also affects brain development.
Overstimulation, a flood of sounds and sights, is one factor that can cause harmful stress
to infants. When under stress, the body produces a steroid called cortisol. High levels of
this hormone wash over the brain like an acid. Over a long length of time, cortisol can
lead to problems with memory and regulating emotion. A child constantly exposed to
stress can develop connections that trigger anxiety, fear, and mistrust. These children
may grow up to be unhappy, sad, or even angry. They may also have problems with self-
control.

5.4 RISK FACTORS FOR HEALTHY BRAIN DEVELOPMENT.

In this section, a list of factors that can interfere with brain development is provided.

 Trauma
 Emotional or physical abuse
 Poverty
 Exposure to environmental toxins such as lead
 Parental substance abuse during the prenatal and post natal periods.

41
5.5 WINDOWS OF OPPORTUNITY

However, timing is important. The parts of the brain develop at different times and different
rates. Timing is therefore key in maximizing the brains capacity to develop. Studies show that
there are windows of opportunity, or a specific span of time, for the normal development of
certain types of skills. Let us discuss the windows of opportunity in this section. This
understanding can help us guide caregivers and people working with children on how to
maximize the brain development of certain skills.

During these key times hereby referred to as windows of opportunity, appropriate stimulation is
needed for the brain synapses to link easily and efficiently. After these key periods, chances for
creating stable, long-lasting pathways in the brain tend to diminish. Learning will continue to
occur for the remainder of the person’s life. However, the skill mastery level may not be as high.

Brain Functions and Their Approximate Windows Of Opportunity

A discussion on the windows of opportunity for specific brain functions follows in this section.

Vision: Birth to Six Months

At birth, an infant’s brain is not wired for sight. The first six months of life is a key period for
developing vision. Covering newborns’ eyes or keeping infants in a dark room during this time
affects their vision and their sight may not develop normally. Once passed, this window of
opportunity is impossible to recover. For this reason, newborns’ eyes are examined after birth.
If a cataract covering the lens of the eye is present, it needs to be removed. Vision is one area
that develops with little stimulation. Infants need interesting objects to look at, including toys
and people. As you carry infants, point out interesting objects, pictures, people, and places.
 4-6
Vocabulary/Speech: Birth to Three Years
Infants need to hear language to learn it. The speech a child hears during the first three years of
life will determine his or her adult vocabulary. Children at this age have an incredible capacity
for learning language. On the other hand, infants and toddlers who hear fewer words develop
fewer vocabularies. It is important for caregivers to speak in full sentences. Talk to children
often. Tell them what you are doing; what they are doing, and what you will do next. Read them

42
stories and play music. Engage them in social interactions that require language. This helps them
to learn as many words as possible and hence develop language competence.

Emotional Control: Birth to Three Years

The critical period for emotional control occurs between birth and three years of age. Emotional
development includes the abilities to identify feelings, manage strong emotions, and develop
empathy. Severe stress or early abuse can damage a child’s emotional development. Infants and
toddlers thrive in stable relationships. In early childhood programs, they should be assigned a
primary caregiver. Children need caregivers who can read their cues, respond promptly, and
meet their needs in a nurturing manner. By using caring words, caregivers reassure children that
they are valued. Caregivers can also support emotional understanding by labeling children’s
feelings. Storybooks are effective in helping to promote this type of development.

Math/Logic Development: One to Four Years

The critical timing for promoting brain connections related to math is from one to four years of
age. Young children need chances for working with materials that offer an appropriate level of
challenge. Blocks and rhythm instruments are examples of toys that encourage sensory
exploration related to math. Caregivers can introduce experiences requiring matching and sorting
by size, shape, and color. Learning how objects are alike and different is an important skill.
When appropriate, caregivers need to introduce words to describe color, size, shape, and texture.
They also need to introduce math words, such as bigger, smaller, more, less, and one more.

Motor Development: Prenatal to Eight years

Motor development requires complex brain networking. The window of opportunity begins
before children are even born. The window lasts for the first eight years. During this time, stable,
long-lasting structures can be created. Young children need a variety of gross- and fine-motor
activities to support motor development. Such include playing with toys of different nature,
riding tricycles and such that are age appropriate.

43
It is evident from the discussion on windows of opportunity that there is a lot that care givers can
do to promote brain development. There are also some risks involved that care givers should
watch out for in order not to interfere with the brain functions.

5.6 SUMMARY

Brain function Approximate window of opportunity

Vision Birth -6 months
Motor Development Pre-natal-8months
Emotional control Birth-3 years
Vocabulary/speech Birth-3 years
Math/logic 1 to 4 years

5.7 GLOSSARY

Plasticity -the ability of an infant’s brain to change according to stimulation

Sensory stimulation- could be in the form of holding, talking, reading, or singing. When
stimulation occurs, the child’s growing brain responds by forming new connections.

Windows of opportunity- a specific span of time, for the normal development of certain types
of skills.

5.8 SELT- TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss and give relevant examples of the risk factors for the healthy brain
development given in section 5.4 of this lecture

44
5.9 FURTHER READING.

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers

McDevitt, T.M., &Ormrod, J.E. (2004).Child development: Educating and working with children
and adolescents (2nded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

45
 LECTURER 6

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Development refers to change that occurs in children. It starts with infancy and continues to
adulthood. By studying child development, you will form a profile of what children can do at
various ages. For instance, you will learn that two-year-old children like to run. This means they
should be provided for space for them to move freely. Likewise, you will learn that infants
explore with their senses, often by mouthing objects. This implies that all toys for infants should
be clean and safe.

6.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Explain the sequence of child development in stages
 Describe all the stages of child development
 Explain the main changes that take place in the stages of development

6.3 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

In this section we will discuss each of the stages of child development. Be on the lookout for the
unique changes in each stage.

6.3.1 Prenatal Development

Prenatal development is the first stage of development. It refers to the process in which a baby
develops from a single cell after conception into an embryo and later a fetus. The average length
of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the date of conception. During
this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term baby. There are
three primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and
the fetal stage. Let us look at each one of them in this section.

46
The Germinal Stage

The germinal stage begins with conception, when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey
that can take up to a week to complete. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after
conception. Within just a few hours after conception, the singe-celled zygote begins making a
journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus where it will begin the process of cell division and
growth. The zygote first divides into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. Once the
eight cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become.

Embryonic stage

The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. Soon
after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on
different functions (called differentiation). A process (gastrulation) leads to the formation of
three distinct layers called germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), the mesoderm (middle layer),
and the endoderm (inner layer). As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into
different tissues and structures. For example, the ectoderm eventually forms skin, nails, hair,
brain, nervous tissue and cells, nose, mouth, anus, tooth enamel, and other tissues. The
mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive organs, lymphatic
tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm forms the lining of lungs, bladder, digestive tract, tongue,
tonsils, and other organs.

Fetal stage

Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage. When an embryo becomes a fetus
at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length and weighs about 3
grams. By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50
centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms. Although all of the organ systems were formed during
embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the fetal stage.

47
6.3.2. Birth and Neonate

The neonatal period (birth to 1 month) is a time of extensive and ongoing system transition from
uterine environment to external world, this includes the initial period after birth which is referred
to as the perinatal period.

It would seem obvious to say that development does not stop at birth. In fact many systems
(cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, homeostasis) undergo significant changes at birth,
and many others (neural) have not yet completed their development.

6.3.3 Early Childhood

Children are the foundation of sustainable development. The early years of life are crucial not
only for individual health and physical development, but also for cognitive and social-emotional
development.

6.3.4 Middle Childhood

By this time, children can dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and
tie their shoes. Having independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as
starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships
become more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this
time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through
friends, schoolwork, and sports.

6.3.5 Transition to Adolescence.

This is a time of many physical, mental, emotional, and social changes. Hormones change as
puberty begins. Most boys grow facial and pubic hair and their voices deepen. Most girls grow
pubic hair and breasts, and start their period. They might be worried about these changes and
how they are looked at by others. This also will be a time when your teen might face peer
pressure to use alcohol, tobacco products, and drugs, and to have sex. Other challenges can be
eating disorders, depression, and family problems. At this age, teens make more of their own
choices about friends, sports, studying, and school. They become more independent, with their
own personality and interests, although parents are still very important.

48
6.4 SUMMARY

Children go through distinct periods of development as they move from infants to

young adults. During each of these stages multiple changes in the development of the brain are
taking place. The various stages of development in childhood include; Prenatal, Birth and
neonate, early childhood, middle childhood and transition to adolescence.

6.5 NOTE

 Even from birth, babies can communicate.

 A newborn doesn't realize they are a separate person.
 Infants in the first eight weeks have no control over their movements and all their
physical activity is involuntary or reflex.

6.6 FURTHER READING

Marion, M. (2003).Guidance of young children (6thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
McDevitt, T.M., &Ormrod, J.E. (2004).Child development: Educating and working with
children and adolescents (2nded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

6.7 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

What is the difference between development and growth?

49
6.8 GLOSSARY

Implantation is the process that occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine
lining and rupture tiny blood vessels.
Differentiation is the process by which clusters of cells within the foetus begin to take on
different functions.

6.10 FURTHER READING

Marion, M. (2003).Guidance of young children (6thed.). Upper Saddle River,NJ:

Merrill Prentice Hall.
McDevitt, T.M., &Ormrod, J.E. (2004).Child development: Educating and working with
children and adolescents (2nded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.
Rinaldi, C. (2001). Infant-toddler centers and preschools as places of culture. In Project Zero
and Reggio Children. Making learning visible: Children as individual and group learners. :
Reggio [Link].

50
 LECTURER SEVEN

PLAY AND CHLID DEVELOPMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Play is said to be the language of children. What role does in have on the development of
children? We will try to answer this question in this lecture.

7.2 OBJECTIVES

I. Define the term play

II. Describe the role of play in child development
III. Discuss the benefits of play to children
IV. Explain factors that have reduced play

7.3 DEFINITION OF PLAY

What is play?

Play is that activity through which child learns by doing with the least amount of resistance. It is
a behaviour format which can facilitate report and communication and through which
information and learning can pass between child and adult. Play is a natural activity for children.
It is a way in which children explore their environment and come to terms with its realities.

Parents are often faced with the difficulty of finding effective methods to implement in order to
facilitate the child's growth. In this situation, play may be used not only as a basic activity
resource but in many instances as an appropriate child care methodology. Play is a behaviour
format which can facilitate rapport and communication and through which information and
learning can pass between child and adult.

Child care practice can utilize the high levels of motivation that is apparent in play as well as its
undeniable educational value. In order to do so, there is need to establish the validity of play in
respect of child development. There is need to place play within a theoretical framework and to

51
integrate this knowledge into our child care techniques. In an attempt to understand how play and
development interact, let us look at the role of play in the next section.

7.4 THE ROLE OF PLAY

Following are some major roles of play:

1. Play activity provides a stable, logical, preverbal structure to which the child applies his
reasoning. The reasoning is put into language and the language in turn assists reasoning because
it helps the child to recognize what others think of his speech efforts. Children talk their mind out
during play, this way they hear their own thoughts. This assists in reasoning.

2. Play facilitates language acquisition and skills by providing a vehicle through which language
can be practiced and encouraged. For instance, children use words in play and hence practice the
use of language. Through play children also imitate what they hear adults speak.

3. Through play the child learns to express himself in a unique and individual [Link]
discovers qualities about himself and finds his own sense of satisfaction. For instance in play, the
child can construct 'as if' situations in which he can play mother, father, sister, teacher, etc. In the
acting out of various situations and roles, play has a constructive function.

4. It is an attempt by the child to master and integrate reality. In this sense play also has the
adaptive function of defusing and divesting situations of their negative and threatening qualities.
This facilitates the positive assimilation of experiences for the child.

5. Play is a process of experimentation and exploration. Children learn how to handle different
things, master how to aim, pour and mix things through play.

6. Through play the child attempts to master various skills to cope with his changing roles in a
changing environment, to assimilate and integrate processes and to develop an adaptive and
individual personality.

52
7.5 THE BENEFITS OF PLAY

Along the role of play in development are a variety of benefits to the child. In this section we
dicuss some of thses benefits. Play allows children to use their creativity while developing their
imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength. Play is important to
healthy brain development. It is through play that children at a very early age children engage
and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they
can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with
other children or adult caregivers. As they master their world, play helps children develop new
competencies that lead to enhanced confidence and the resiliency they will need to face future
challenges.

Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve
conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. When play is allowed to be child driven, children
practice decision-making skills, move at their own pace, discover their own areas of interest, and
ultimately engage fully in the passions they wish to pursue. Ideally, much of play involves
adults, but when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and
lose some of the benefits play offers them, particularly in developing creativity, leadership, and
group skills.

In contrast to passive entertainment, play builds active, healthy bodies. In fact, it has been
suggested that encouraging unstructured play may be an exceptional way to increase physical
activity levels in children, which is one important strategy in the resolution of the obesity
epidemic. Perhaps above all, play is a simple joy that is a cherished part of childhood.

7.6 FACTORS THAT REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF PLAY FOR CHILDREN

1. Focus on Academics

Despite the numerous benefits derived from play for both children and parents, time for free play
has been markedly reduced for some children. Many school children are given less free time and
fewer physical outlets at school by reducing time committed to break. Creative arts, and even
physical education are also been reduced in an effort to focus on reading and mathematics. This

53
change may have implications on children’s ability to store new information, because children’s
cognitive capacity is enhanced by a clear-cut and significant change in activity. Reduced time for
physical activity may be contributing to the discordant academic abilities between boys and girls,
because schools that promote sedentary styles of learning become a more difficult environment
for boys to navigate successfully.

2. Specialized enrichment programmes

Some children are given less time for free exploratory play as they are hurried to adapt into adult
roles and prepare for their future at earlier ages. Such children are involved in organized
activities that are perceived to help them adapt into adult roles. Children are therefore exposed to
enrichment videos and computer programs from early infancy as well as specialized books and
toys designed to ensure that they are well-rounded and adequately stimulated for excelled
development. Specialized gyms and enrichment programs designed for children exist in many
communities, and there is an abundance of after-school enrichment activities. As a result, much
of parent-child time is spent arranging special activities or transporting children between those
activities. In addition to time, considerable family financial resources are being invested to
ensure that the children have what are marketed as the “very best” opportunities. Although
organized activities have a developmental benefit for children, especially in contrast to
completely unsupervised time, research shows that benefits increase with higher levels of
participation. It is not clear, however, at what point children may be “overscheduled” to their
developmental detriment or emotional distress. Free child-driven play known to benefit children
is decreased and children schedules become highly packed with adult-supervised or adult-driven
activities.

7.7 THE ROLE OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGISTS

Child psychologists have a role to serve as caring, objective child professionals with whom
parents can discuss their approach to child rearing and reflect on their own desires for their
children. Because child Psychologists have a unique and important role in promoting the
physical, emotional, and social well-being of children and adolescents, they should promote
strategies that will support children to be resilient and to reduce excessive stressors in their lives.
They can accomplish this through the following:-

54
 They can promote free play as a healthy, essential part of childhood. They should
recommend that all children are afforded ample, unscheduled, independent, non-screen
time to be creative, to reflect, and to decompress. They should emphasize that although
parents can certainly monitor play for safety, a large proportion of play should be child
driven rather than adult directed.
 Psychologists should emphasize the advantages of active play and discourage parents
from the overuse of passive entertainment (eg, television and computer games).
Emphasize that active child-centered play is a time-tested way of producing healthy, fit
young bodies.
 Emphasize the benefits of “true toys” such as blocks and dolls, with which children use
their imagination fully, over passive toys that require limited imagination.
 Educate families regarding the protective assets and increased resiliency developed
through free play and some unscheduled time.
 Reinforce that parents who share unscheduled spontaneous time with their children and
who play with their children are being wonderfully supportive, nurturing, and productive.
 Enlighten parents that, although very well intentioned, arranging the finest opportunities
for their children may not be parents’ best opportunity for influence and that shuttling
their children between numerous activities may not be the best quality time. Children will
be poised for success, basking in the knowledge that their parents absolutely and
unconditionally love them. This love and attention is best demonstrated when parents
serve as role models and family members make time to cherish one another: time to be
together, to listen, and to talk, nothing more and nothing less.
 Be a stable force, reminding parents that the cornerstones of parenting—listening, caring,
and guiding through effective and developmentally appropriate discipline—and sharing
pleasurable time together are the true predictors of childhood, and they serve as a
springboard toward a happy, successful adulthood.

55
7.8 SUMMARY

Play is essential to development because it contributes to the cognitive, physical,

social, and emotional well-being of children and youth. Play also offers an ideal opportunity
for parents to engage fully with their children. Despite the benefits derived from play for
both children and parents, time for free play has been markedly reduced for some children.

7.8 SELF- TEST QUESTIONS

1. Giving relevant examples, discuss some of the factors that have reduced the
amount of play time for the children in your community.

2. Discuss the benefits of Play in children

3. Suggest how play time can be increased in our schools context.

7.9 FURTHER READING

Ginsburg K.R (2007). The Importance of Play In Promoting Healthy Child

Development And Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bonds. Pediatrics Vol. 119 No.
1 January 1, 2007 pp. 182 -191 (doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-2697)

56
 CHAPTER EIGHT

ECOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous lessons, we discussed how child development occurs in the brain and in the three
distinct areas. That is physical, cognitive and social-emotional. We also looked at the stages
within which the development takes place. This development of children and young people and
their subsequent life chances in adulthood are the product of a complex set of interacting factors,
at individual, family and community levels. An ecological framework is used to examine the
mutual influences between the different systems that are important during childhood. In this
lecture we shall therefore try to examine the ecological factors that influence child development.

8.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

o Discuss the effects of family environment on child development

o Discuss the effects of poverty on child development
o Discuss the impact of community violence on child development
o Explain the cultural and maturational influences on child development

8.3 FAMILY ENVIRONMENT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT

The focus of this section is a discussion on how the family environment affects child
development. Research indicates that the development of a child’s behavior is strongly
influenced by how well his or her family functions. It is during this time that children are
dependent upon adults to meet their needs that their concept of the importance of family
develops. The ability to handle life’s issues and demands is based upon psychological
foundations of early family experiences. Within the society, parents identify certain values that

57
are important for the development of their children (Goldsmith, 2000).The Family Pediatrics
Report (2003) indicated that, “Families are the most central and enduring influence in children’s
lives regardless of their education, composition, income, or values.”

8.3.1 The Structure of the Family

The Family Pediatrics Report (2003) explained that the development of children is significantly
influenced by interpersonal relationships within the family. Children who are raised by 2 parents,
who are both responsible and dedicated, usually perform well in school. Affection and protection
are evidently crucial for the health of a child. Thus children need to receive love and protection
for their healthy emotional development. Critical to emotional needs of children is the nature of
family structure.

There are more families with a single head of household or 2 working parents and fewer
multigenerational households in which grandparents and extended family members can watch
the children. Therefore, fewer families have available adult supervision in the home during the
workday, which makes it necessary for children to be in child care or other settings in which they
can be monitored by adults throughout the day. Organized after-school activities and academic
enrichment opportunities offer valuable alternatives to children who might otherwise be left with
minimal or no adult supervision.

8.3.2 The Function of the Family

The organization of the family has direct effect on the children. The first social relationship of
children is familial, where children acquire their first experiences of being treated as persons in
their own right. Children receive care for their dependency and attention for their sociability. The
kind of care and attention children receive during their early years of life affect their handling of
important issues, such as trust [Link] and autonomy [Link]. This ability equips children
for establishing later ties with people outside the family. Newborns are unaware that they are
separate and distinct persons. However, as time goes by they become aware that they are
separate from their mothers and that there are other members of the household. Children learn
that others have interests, wishes, and ways of their own. Children growing up in a household

58
shared with other siblings learn that they have to share the resources of the household. Children
learn the ways in which their cooperation is sought and welcomed and the ways in which they
may compete for what they want (Elkin and Handel, 1978).

59
8.3.3 Family Circumstances and Children’s Outcomes
Children’s inability to cope without the social support of their families can stem from social
strains such as parental mental illness, substance abuse, violence, and divorce (Family Pediatrics
Report, 2003). According to Goldsmith (2000), parental abusive behavior results from "poor
problem solving, negative interpretations of a child behavior, poor impulse control, poor social
skills, and poor stress coping" Goldsmith (2001) further suggested that stress leads to problems
of parental feelings of depression, helplessness, anger, exhaustion, and marital tension. Parents
who develop better management skills can help the family deal with stress and that well-
developed management skills bring a sense of mastery and a feeling of being in control. A
parent who develops such skills will find it easy to form strategies, solve problems, and adjust to
change.

8.3.4 Birth order

The order in which a child is born can have a direct impact on his early development. For
example, first-born children in typical families tend to be more controlling and more likely to
attend college, while the youngest often has difficulty giving up the baby status in the family.
Middle children can turn out to be very flexible and easily adapt to new situations or become
frustrated and angry.

8.4 POVERTY AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Poverty creates long-term disadvantages for children. The consequences of poverty include
emotional issues, delayed development and lower academic achievement, among others.

8.4.1 Poverty and Cognitive development

In relation to academics, poverty makes it more likely that children will do poorly in school.
Children that live in poor neighborhoods may have families that are not able to provide
appropriate developmental stimulation that helps them overcome poverty. The negative impact
of being poor starts at birth and continues throughout a child’s educational development. Poverty
may lead to malnutrition which can lead to poor brain development. This can lead to porr
academic ability of a child.

60
8.4.2 Poverty and Social/Emotional development
Poor children may also have challenges with social and emotional development. They are at risk
for developing both behavior and emotional problems like impulsiveness, disobedience and
difficulty getting along with peers. Family poverty is also correlated with lower self-esteem. In
general, poverty makes it harder for children to develop normal emotions to cope with a stressful
environment.

8.4.3 Poverty and Health

Poor children are more likely to have health problems. They may have a low birth weight, which
may cause early health issues. Without a foundation of good health, it is difficult for a child
reach key developmental goals everything from learning to talk to reading in school.

8.5 IMPACT OF COMMUNITY VIOLENCE ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Community violence includes many events. It might be a stranger using physical threat or direct
violence to take something or hurt someone. It can also be violence between family members,
close partners, or peers. These events may include cruel acts such as being shot, raped, stabbed,
or beaten. A child's exposure to community violence affects the whole family. Parents are often
very worried about their child's health and well-being. The factors that influence the child’s
exposure to community violence include:
 Living in poor, inner-city areas/slums
 Being in a gang or using alcohol or drugs.
 Living in a home with domestic (family) violence.
 Males see more community violence than do females and are at more risk for physical
attacks.
 Females are at more risk for sexual assault.
Below examines the cognitive, emotional, behavioral and social effects of violence exposure,
and highlights the ways in which these effects can disrupt children's adaptation to school and
academic competence.

61
8.5.1 Cognitive Effects
Exposure to violence, particularly parent-to-child violence, has been associated with problems in
children's cognitive processes and poor academic functioning. Researchers have linked exposure
to chronic abuse and violence with lower IQ scores, poorer language skills, decrements in visual-
motor integration skills and problems with attention and memory. Deficits in attention
regulation, language skills, and memory undermine the child's ability to accomplish the
requirements of academic achievement and school adaptation, namely to encode, organize,
recall, and express understanding of new information. Children exposed to violence have lower
academic achievements.

8.5.2 Emotional Effects

Exposure to violence almost always carries emotional consequences for children. Children's
exposure to intra-familial violence has been linked to depression and more negative self-concept.
Studies have shown that both witnessing and/or being a victim of community violence may put
children at risk for increased anxiety and depressive symptoms. Violence exposure can be
interpreted by the child to mean not only that the world is unsafe but also that the child is
unworthy of being kept safe. Whether related to violence in the home or in the community, these
attitudes can undermine children's school adjustment and academic achievement by contributing
to negative self-perceptions and problems with depression and anxiety.

8.5.3 Behavioral and Social Effects

Childhood exposure to violence is associated with a variety of aggressive and otherwise

maladaptive behaviors that can disrupt children's school adaptation and academic competence.
Such behavior problems not only interfere with classroom learning, they also hamper children's
efforts to make friends, another essential task of childhood and an important dimension of school
adaptation. Exposure to intra-familial violence has been linked with increased aggression,
fighting, "meanness," and generally disruptive behavior. Children exposed to intra-familial
violence are reported to have more disciplinary problems at school than their non-exposed peers,
and are more likely to be suspended. Likewise, exposure to community violence has been
associated with increases in antisocial behavior and aggression, as reported by teachers and
parents.

62
8.6 CULTURAL AND MATURATIONAL INFLUENCES

Culture shapes experiences and influences children’s development. Through their culture
children learn which behaviors and temperaments are preferred or discouraged. For example,
independence and self-esteem are valued in some cultures; interdependence and the strong
connections are preferred in other cultures. One universal trend is that children who are pro-
social and non-aggressive are liked by other children.

Child maturation refers to the genetic, biological and physical development from conception
through adolescence. There are several developmental milestones that occur in healthy children.
Although there are normal patterns of maturation in child development, individual and
environmental factors make it impossible to pinpoint exact time frames, as no two children
develop in the same way. The timing of physical maturation can affect the child's social and
emotional adjustment. Research indicates that the effects for late-maturing boys and early-
maturing girls are largely negative. In general, the impact of the timing of puberty is best
understood in the context of other transitions, such as school transitions and family disruptions,
which may help or hinder the child's ability to cope with biological changes.

There are wide individual differences in rates of maturation. However, in general, girls mature
earlier than boys; on average, major changes occur two years earlier for girls. Although early
maturation is usually seen as advantageous for boys, girls sometimes find early maturation
stressful, developing poor body images and engaging in so-called adult behaviors such as
drinking and smoking at an early age.

8.7 SUMMARY

Ecological factors that affect child development include:

 Family structure and function

 Poverty
 Community Violence
 Culture and maturation

63
 NOTE

Early childhood is the most important phase for overall development throughout the lifespan.
Therefore establishing safety and security promotes a sense of normalcy and enhances the
psycho-social well-being of children and adolescents.

8.8 FURTHER READING

Brown, K. W., &Cozby, P. C. (1999). Research methods in human development.

Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Elkin, K. & Handel, G. (1978).The child and society: The process of socialization. New York:
Random House.
Family pediatrics report of the task force on the family. (2003). Pediatrics, 111(6), 31- 1541.

8.9 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss the effects of community violence on children

8.10 GLOSSARY

Violence- is an extreme form of aggression, such as assault, rape or murder.

It has many causes, including frustration, exposure to violent media, violence in the home
or neighborhood and a tendency to see other people's actions as hostile even when they're
not. Certain situations also increase the risk of aggression, such as drinking, insults and
other provocations and environmental factors like heat and overcrowding.

64
 LECTURER NINE
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES

9.1 INTRODUCTION

The term childhood mental disorder means all mental disorders that can be diagnosed and begin
in childhood. Mental disorders among children are described as serious changes in the way
children typically learn, behave, or handle their emotions. Some examples of childhood mental
disorders are:

 Attention-Deficit Disorder

 Autism

 Conduct disorder

 Enuresis

 Encopresis

9.2 LECTURE OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss the development of some childhood disorders
 Discuss Risk and Resilience of the childhood disorders
 Explain the prevention and treatment of the childhood disorders.

9.3 DEVELOPMENT OF SOME CHILDHOOD DISORDERS

The etiology of child psychopathology has many explanations which differ from case to case.
Many psychopathological disorders in children involve genetic and physiological mechanisms,

65
though there are still many without any physical grounds. Some of disorders are discussed
below:

 Attention-Deficit Disorder

Attention-deficit disorder (ADD) affects a child's ability to concentrate, learn and maintain a
normal level of activity. Excessive activity, impatience, constant distraction, shifting from one
activity to another and restless sleeping are common to ADD. But these behaviors may develop
as a result of other problems, like an inability to see or hear adequately, or another physical or
emotional illness. A physician should conduct a thorough medical examination to diagnose ADD
and/or rule out other possible problems.

 Autism

Autism is the most disabling of pervasive development disorders, a series of disorders that affect
intellectual skills; responses to senses; and the ability to communicate. Autistic children fail to
develop normal relationships with anyone, including parents. As infants, they may resist
affection or consistently cling to someone. As they grow older, they may not seek comfort if they
are hurt, and they generally like to play alone. Autistic children have difficulty communicating
because they don't develop language skills.

 Conduct disorder

The essential feature of Conduct Disorder is a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior by a
child or teenager in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or
rules are violated. These behaviors fall into four main groupings: aggressive conduct that causes
or threatens physical harm to other people or animals, nonaggressive conduct that causes
property loss or damage, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules time and time
again.

 Enuresis

The essential feature of Enuresis is repeated voiding of urine during the day or at night into bed
or clothes. Most often this is involuntary but occasionally may be intentional.

 Encopresis

66
The essential feature of Encopresis is repeated passage of feces into inappropriate places (e.g.,
the child’s clothing or on the floor). Most often this is involuntary but occasionally it may be
intentional. When the passage of feces is involuntary rather than intentional, it is often related to
constipation, impaction, and retention with subsequent overflow. The constipation may develop
for psychological reasons (e.g., anxiety about defecating in a particular place or a more general
pattern of anxious or oppositional behavior) leading to avoidance of defecation.

9.4 RISK AND RESILIENCE OF THE CHILDHOOD DISORDERS

Risk factors increase the likelihood of experiencing psychological difficulties. Family risk
factors include child maltreatment, parental rejection, lax supervision, inconsistent or harsh
discipline practices, parental conflict, unsupportive family relations, and parental mental illness
and substance use. However, exposure to even the most harmful risk factors does not doom all or
even most children to a life of psychological problems. Also, children exposed to the same risk
factor may have a range of healthy and maladaptive psychological outcomes. For example,
although parental depression is one of the most robust risk factors, children of depressed parents
exhibit a wide range of adaptive and maladaptive outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety,
aggression, academic problems) (Cummings and Davies 1994).

Developmental psychopathologists use the term resilience to refer to children who develop
competently and adapt successfully to life's challenges under adverse conditions (Cummings,
Davies, and Campbell 2000). Resilience, by definition, cannot occur without some appreciable
risk. Thus, a primary challenge is to distinguish between two general groups of competent
children: (a) the relatively "normal" children, who experience minimal or no adverse conditions,
and (b) the resilient children, who developed relatively normally in the face of considerable risk
(Garmezy 1985; Luthar 1993). For example, it cannot be assumed that children of depressed
parents who experience healthy development are resilient. Some of these children may, in fact,
experience benign contexts of development characterized by parental warmth, consistent
discipline, safe and supportive neighborhoods, and high quality schools. Thus, the competence of
some of these children may result from the absence of risk rather than the presence of resilience.

67
Rutter (1990) has proposed a list of protective mechanisms which can help understand how a
child may become resilient. These include;

 Reduction of risk impact

This applies to children who are from a risky situation such as having a caring and a trusted older
sibling may lessen negative impact of unemotionally unavailable and distanced parent

 Reduction of negative chain reactions

This refers to ways in which a vicious cycle can be cut short such as poverty, living in
underprivileged area, crime etc. Identifying with positive peer group can prevent the link to
crime.
 Fostering of self-esteem
Helps children to feel like they can deal with their problems and have the confidence to see that
parts of their lives may not be okay but they still are.
 Emergence of opportunities
These are turning points that come in every one’s life. One should take advantage of such
opportunities such as staying at school instead of dropping out.
Resilience is not an all-or-nothing concept covering all aspect of functioning. Children may be
protected in one context and not in another. E.g a child may perform poorly in school but do well
in another area e.g. in interaction with peers. One may be resilient at one stage of their life and
not in another. Resilient children do not completely escape negative effects of their adversity
hence they require support.

9.5 PREVENTION AND TREATMENT

Primary prevention refers to any interventions that stop the onset of disease. They could block
early environmental insults or mitigate the effects of genetic vulnerability. For example,
improving the pre-, peri- and post-natal care of children born to families at risk for
psychopathology might limit the impact of genes and spare children from the onset of disorders.
They could also block later environmental insults in early childhood. For example, having
identified a child at high risk for depression, we might use a family intervention program to help

68
the family reduce stressors known to trigger depression. Secondary prevention does not prevent
illness, but mitigates its course.

Treatment differs according to the disorder or the problem that is the focus of intervention. [Link]
treating depression a combination of anti-depressant drugs, correcting the child’s negative
thinking and increasing chances of positive reinforcement may be employed. In contrast
children with conduct disorder, a behavioral family intervention where parents are trained in
such areas as child management, problem solving and family communication may be effective.

Medication is commonly prescribed for childhood disorders and has been proved an increasingly
effective tool. After extensive evaluation of the child through school, psychologists, and
physicians a medication can be prescribed. The medicines can take as little as a day to achieve
effectiveness or as long as four to eight [Link] addresses the emotional response
to childhood disorders. Coping with life's stressful events is especially difficult for children with
mental or emotional illness. Psychotherapists help children understand their emotions and deal
with their problems in a more confident,healthy way.

9.6 SUMMARY

The disorders with physical or biological mechanisms are easier to diagnose in

children and are often diagnosed earlier in childhood. However, there are some disorders, no
matter the mechanisms, that are not identified until adulthood. There is also reason to
believe that there is co-morbidity of disorders, in that if one disorder is present, there is
often another.

NOTE
Mental health in childhood means reaching developmental and emotional milestones, and
learning healthy social skills and how to cope when there are problems. Mentally healthy
children have a positive quality of life and can function well at home, in school, and in
their communities.

69
9.7 FURTHER READING

Carbonell, D. M., Reinherz, H. Z., &Giaconia, R. M. (1998). Risk and resilience in

late adolescence. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15, 251-272.
Gilligan, R. (2000). Adversity, resilience and young people: The protective value of positive
school and spare time experiences. Children and Society, 14, 37-47.

9.8 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Discuss some of the behaviors displayed by children who suffer from

emotional/mental disorder.

9.9 GLOSSARY

Child psychopathology-refers to the manifestation of psychological disorders in

children.
Stressors-refers to “Environmental events or chronic conditions that objectively threaten the
physical and/or psychological health or well-being of individuals of a particular age in a
particular society.”
Resilience -This is a person’s ability to rise above an adverse or stressful situation to
function both competently and successfully (Rutter 1990).
Risk factors- are characteristics or circumstances that, if present, increase the likelihood of
an individual developing an emotional or behavioral problem (Keogh &Weisner, 1993) when
under stress.

70
ANSWERS TO SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Lecture 1
Medieval writers thought of childhood differently from how it is viewed today. They dwelt on
the status and duties of children and on the rights accorded them at various stages of maturity
(Shahar 1990). Childhood was defined primarily as a social status rather than as a psychological,
developmental stage. The modern Western conception of childhood is historically and culturally
specific. Philippe Ariès (1962) was one of the first to suggest that childhood is a modern
discovery. Children were excluded from the adult world of work and the period of dependent
childhood lengthened.

Lecture 2
Piaget and Vygotsky were contemporaries and shared some similarities in their ideas. However,
there were some significant differences:

 Vygotsky did not break down development into a series of predetermined stages, as Piaget
did.
 Vygotsky stressed the important role that culture plays, suggesting cultural differences can
have a dramatic effect on development. Piaget’s theory suggests that development is largely
universal.
 Piaget’s theory focuses a great deal of attention on peer interaction while Vygotsky’s theory
stressed the importance of more knowledgeable adults and peers.

Lecture 3
Cross Sectional Method-where researcher compares groups that differ in age or background.

Longitudinal Method-where researcher Observe one group at different times.

Lecture 4

There are many specific social and emotional skills that children must possess to be comfortable
at school, including:
 Separating easily from parents.
 Sharing materials and taking turns.
 Helping others.

71
  Demonstrating empathy and caring.
 Respecting people and their personal materials.
 Staying focused and on task during a lesson.

Lecture 9
Children who suffer from mental or emotional disorders may display one or more of the
following behaviors:
 Talk of suicide or threats to others
 Prolonged feelings of intense tension or anxiety
 Sudden changes in eating and/or sleeping habits
 Atypical thoughts and speech
 Sudden and/or extreme changes in mood and behavior
 Withdrawal from friends and family
 Loss of interest in favorite activities Loss of energy.

72
 REFERENCES
Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development. HarperCollins College Publishers.
Berk, L. E. (2003).Child development (6thed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Berk, L.E., &Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning” Vygotsky and early childhood
education. , DC: National Association for the Education of Young [Link]
Bredekamp, S., &Copple, S. (1997).Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.
Brown, K. W., &Cozby, P. C. (1999). Research methods in human development. Mountain
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.
Carbonell, D. M., Reinherz, H. Z., &Giaconia, R. M. (1998). Risk and resilience in late
adolescence. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 15, 251-272.
Elkin, K. & Handel, G. (1978).The child and society: The process of socialization. New York:
Random House.
Family pediatrics report of the task force on the family. (2003). Pediatrics, 111(6), 31- 1541.
Freeman, R., Swim, T.J., Norton-Smith, L., & White, B. (2003). Study Groups as Tools for
Reflective Practice and Professional Development. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Gay, R. (1992). Education research: competencies for analysis and application (4 th ed.). New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company
Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women's conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard
Educational Review, 47(4), 481-517.
Gilligan, R. (2000). Adversity, resilience and young people: The protective value of positive
school and spare time experiences. Children and Society, 14, 37-47.
Goldsmith, E. (2000). Resource management for individuals and family. United States:
Wadsworth.
Marion, M. (2003).Guidance of young children(6thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill
Prentice Hall.
Phelan, G. (1979). Family relationships. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Company.
Piaget, J. (1929) The Child’s Conception of the World, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner& Co.
Rest, J. R. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. University of Minnesota Press.
Rutter, M. (1981) Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, New York, NY, Penguin.

73
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., Ouston, J., & Smith, A. (1979). Fifteen Thousand
Hours. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
Waller, M. A. (2001). Resilience in ecosystemic context: Evolution of the concept. American
Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 290-297.
Werner, E. E. (1993). Risk, resilience, and recover: Perspectives from the Kauai longitudinal
study. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 503-515.
Wolin, S., &Wolin, S. (1993). The Resilient Self. New York: Villard Books.

74