Quality: Indicators: General: Chemical composition of water is probably = chemical formula (H2O).
Water can be gaseous/liquid/solid state
Physical indicator: Suspended Solids SS: Amount, size and type of solids depend on the type of water and discharge rate or flow velocity.
May be organic/inorganic measured in mg/L.
Temperature may also be important in rivers, as increased water temperature reduces the amount of oxygen in the water column, thereby
making rivers less desirable for fish. Sewage discharge = elevation in river water temp. Decay rate according to Streeter-Phelps formulation
= Kt = K20Theta^( T - 20). where kT = value of decay rate constant at local water temp, k20 = value of decay rate at standard temp (i.e. 20°C),
T = local water temp, and = empirical constant for water quality indicator. Taste & Odor: caused by dissolved impurities, often organic in
nature. Colour: pure water not colourless it has a blue-green tint Natural yellow colour in water from upland catchments is due to organic
acids which are not harmful Radioactivity: potentially a very serious, rare, constituent in water. Chemical Indicators: pH: a measure of the
concentration of H+ ions & indicates the degree of acidity or alkalinity of water.
pH is expressed on a scale of 0 to 14 with 7 being neutral, below 7 being acidic & above 7 being alkaline. Highly acidic or highly alkaline waters
are undesirable due to corrosion hazards and possible difficulties in water treatment. Drinking Water requires: 6.5 < pH < 9.5 Dissolved
Oxygen DO (mg/l): Its presence is essential to maintain higher forms of biological life & the effect of a waste-water discharge on a river is
highly dependent upon the oxygen balance in the system. Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD (mg/l): a measure of oxygen required by micro-
organisms as they break down organic matter. Clean waters have BOD5 < 1 mg/l. Nitrogen N (mg/l): imp nutrient needed by all organisms for
basic processes of life: to make proteins, to grow, & to reproduce. High levels of nitrate, can overstimulate the growth of aquatic plants and
algae, resulting in high dissolved oxygen consumption, causing the death of fish
and other aquatic organisms = eutrophication Water w high nitrogen = not safe Phosphorus P (mg/l): Phosphorus is a natural element found
in rocks, soils and organic material a) Organic Phosphorus (P1) - normally as a filterable solid, or in particulate form. b) Dissolved Phosphorus
(P2) -determined from filtration through a membrane. Total phosphorous (or phosphate) is the sum of the dissolved and
organic phosphorus in the water column. Drinking Water Directive requires Phosphorus < 5 mg/l Chloride Cl (mg/l): an indicator of sewage
pollution due to chloride content in urine. Drinking Water Directive requires Chlorides < 250 mg/l. Metals (mg/l): can accumulate in the food
chain and cause toxicity problems. Metals can be present in dissolved or particulate form. Biological Indicators: Pathogens Primary agents
of disease are called pathogens - which are disease producing organisms which grow and multiply. If Total Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms
indicator organisms are present in water, then pathogens are also likely to be present. Main sources of faecal coliform include Wastewater
Effluent, animal waste, and Sediment load. Swimming in waters with high levels of faecal coliform increases the chance of developing illness,
and can be killed by boiling water or treating it with chlorine. Bacteria grow at higher temps and slows at low temp. Growth rate is also
dependent on light penetration & turbidity. EU Drinking Water Directive requires TC< 1 MPN/100ml and FC < 1 MPN/100ml. EU Bathing
Water Directive requires for designated coastal bathing waters (approximately 500 in U.K.): Intestinal enterococci < 100* cfu/100 ml is
excellent quality and < 185** cfu/100 ml is sufficient. Escherichia coli < 250* cfu/ 100 ml is excellent quality and < 500** cfu/100 ml is
sufficient. (*) Based upon a 95‐ percentile evaluation. (**) Based upon a 90‐ percentile evaluation.
Other Biological Organisms include algae, which form a large group of non-vascular plants. Certain species of algae produce toxins if
consumed in large quantities and can be harmful. Emerging pollutants: aka contaminants: Microplastics: chemically stable and take years to
decay. sources of microplastics are effluents of Wastewater Treatment Works and inappropriate waste management. Cause aesthetic
problems, clog feeding digestive systems of organisms, and transfer toxic additives. Measured In items/volumes of water (items/m^3)
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): accumulate along the food chain, acute toxicity, disruption of fish reproductive
tissues. Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs): Human-made chemicals, great repellants
Flow classification: 1. Principle of mass conservation – Continuity (or Conservation of Mass) Equation 2. Principle of momentum
conservation – Momentum Equation 3. Principle of energy conservation – Energy (or Bernoulli) Equation Real fluid flows past a boundary,
the fluid immediately in contact with the boundary has the same velocity as the boundary BUT ideal fluid is assumed to have no viscosity
and is unaffected by the boundary, Uniform Flow occurs if velocity at a given instant in time is same at every point along a flow path. Non-
Uniform Flow occurs if velocity at a given instant changes from point to point along a flow path. Steady Flow occurs if conditions such as
velocity, pressure and area do not change with time at a point in flow. Unsteady Flow occurs if conditions change with time at a point in flow.
At low velocities dye remains intact & fluid particles move in parallel lines- LAMINAR/VISCOUS FLOW. At intermediate velocities dye the
oscillates giving TRANSITIONAL FLOW. At high velocities dye breaks up, colour diffuses completely over the entire cross-section of flow &
fluid particles no longer move in an orderly manner, giving = TURBULENT FLOW