Lesson #1 - Coordinated Parts of the Brain

Functions of the Nervous,

Endocrine and Reproductive
System

What happens if your Parietal Lobe is

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) damaged? Germann’s Syndrome – right-left
- Serves as the main processing center for the confusion, difficulty with writing (agraphia) and
entire brain difficulty with mathematics (acalculia). Can also
produce disorders of language (aphasia) and the
a. Brain – located within the skull; And is the inability to perceive objects normally (agnosia)
organizer and information for the body.
 3. Brain Stem – part that connects the
brain to the nervous system;
controls automatic function such as
the breathing, digestion, heart rate,
and blood pressure.

b. Spinal Chord – serves as the channel for

signals between the brain and the rest of
the body; controls musculoskeletal reflexes
without input of from the brain.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

- Connects the CNS to the organs and
limbs.

1. Somatic NS – associated with the

involuntary control of body
movements.

• Spinal Nerves – carry motor and

sensory signals between the
spinal chord and the body.
• Cranial Nerves – the nerve
fibers that carry information
into and out of the brain stem.

2. Autonomic NS – associated with the

involuntary control of the body
movements.

• Sympathetic – activated when

the body is in dynamic role or
stress. (eg: increased heart rate)
• Parasympathetic –maintains
body functions and restores to
normal and relaxed mode.

1. Cerebrum – a large part of the brain

that controls activity and thought
process.
2. Cerebellum – Part under cerebrum
that controls posture, balance, and
coordination.
 What are Hormones?

Hormones are chemical messengers that

travel through the bloodstream to tissues
Lesson #2 – Endocrine System:
and organs in the body, where they control
Glands and Hormones or regulate many biological processes.
1. Exocrine gland – with duct, exocrine
Produce small quantities but has a long
glands release their products via ducts
term effects.
to a surface,
2. Endocrine gland – no duct, secretes
hormones directly, endocrine glands What will happen if there is over-or under
secrete hormones directly into the activity of some endocrine glands?
bloodstream. Based on the production Can cause some functional disorders.
of chemical messenger called
hormones. Endocrine Glands functions and hormones:

(Found in the BRAIN AREA)

1. Hypothalamus
Location: Below the thalamus, near the
base of the [Link]: Acts as the
control center for autonomic functions, bones, absorption of calcium in the
linking the nervous system to the endocrine intestines, and retention of calcium by the
system via the pituitary gland. It regulates kidneys.
body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, 6. Thymus
emotional activity, and hormone release. Location: In the upper chest, behind the
Hormones: Produces hormones like CRH sternum and between the lungs.
stimulates the pituitary gland to release Functions: Plays a crucial role in the
ACTH and more. development and maturation of T-
2. Pineal Gland lymphocytes (T cells), which are essential
Location: Deep in the center of the brain, in for the adaptive immune system.
the epithalamus, near the thalamus. Hormones: Produces thymosin, which
Functions: Primarily responsible for stimulates the development of T cells.
regulating circadian rhythms (the body’s 7. Adrinal Glands
internal clock) and reproductive hormones. Location: The adrenal glands are located on
Hormone: Produces melatonin, which helps top of each kidney. They are triangular-
control sleep-wake cycles. shaped glands.
3. Pituitary Gland Functions: The adrenal glands are involved
Location: Found in the base of the brain in producing hormones that help regulate
Function: Often referred to as the "master metabolism, immune system, blood
gland" because it controls other endocrine pressure, response to stress, and other
glands and produces lots of hormones. essential functions.
Hormones: (ACTH): Promotes reabsorption Hormones: The adrenal glands produce
of water into the blood by kidneys. several important hormones, categorized
Prolactin which promotes milk production into two main parts: the adrenal cortex and
in breastfeeding women the adrenal medulla.
4. Thyroid Gland Adrenal Cortex:
Location: Below the voicebox Cortisol: Helps regulate metabolism,
Function: Regulates metabolism, growth, reduces inflammation, and assists with
and development. Located below the memory formulation. It’s often called the
voicebox "stress hormone" because it helps the body
Hormones: Thyroxine T4 – regulates the respond to stress.
rate of metabolism excess causes 8. Pancreas
hyperactivity deficiency causes weight gain Location: Between the kidneys
and sluggishness and more. Function: Regulates the blood level
5. Parathyroid Gland Hormones: Adrenaline (Epinephrine):
Location: Four small glands located on the Increases heart rate, muscle strength, blood
back of the thyroid gland. pressure, and sugar metabolism. It’s part of
Functions: Regulate calcium levels in the the body’s "fight or flight" response to
blood and bones, crucial for maintaining the stress.
proper functioning of the nervous and 9. Reproductive Glands (all can be
muscular systems. found in the lower abdomen)
Hormone: Produces parathyroid hormone Male: Testes
(PTH), which increases blood calcium levels Function: Control maturation and male
by stimulating the release of calcium from characteristics.
Hormnes: Androgen and Testerone Prostate Gland
Female: Ovaries
Function: Influence the female traits and ➢ Location: The prostate gland is a walnut-
support the reproductive function sized gland located below the bladder and
Hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone surrounding the urethra.
➢ Function: prostate produces a milky fluid
that makes up about 25-30% of the semen
Lesson #3 – Reproductive volume. This fluid is slightly acidic and
System contains enzymes, zinc, and citric acid. The
enzymes, particularly prostate-specific
The biological system made of all antigen (PSA), help to liquefy semen after
ejaculation, allowing sperm to swim freely.
anatomical organs involved in sexual
Additionally, the prostate fluid protects and
reproduction.
nourishes the sperm.

Importance of Reproductive Organs: Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper's Glands)

Creation of Offspring, Genetic Diversity,
Hormone Production, Role of Reproduction ➢ Location: The bulbourethral glands are two
Male Reproductive System small pea-sized glands located on either
➢ Testes: Production of sperm and side of the urethra, just below the prostate
testosterone gland.
➢ Epididymis: Maturation and storage of ➢ Function: These glands secrete a clear,
sperm slippery fluid that is released before
➢ Vas Deferens: Transport of sperm ejaculation, known as pre-ejaculate. This
➢ Seminal Vesicles: Production of seminal fluid helps to neutralize the acidity of any
fluid residual urine in the urethra and lubricates
➢ Prostate Gland: Production of prostate the urethra for the passage of sperm during
fluid ejaculation.
➢ Penis: Delivery of sperm to the female
reproductive system Female Reproductive System

Male Glands ➢ Ovaries: Production of eggs (ova) and

hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
Seminal Vesicles ➢ Fallopian Tubes: Transport of eggs from
the ovaries to the uterus
➢ Location: The seminal vesicles are a pair of ➢ Uterus: Site of implantation and
glands located just behind the bladder and development of the fetus
above the prostate gland. ➢ Cervix: Opening to the uterus, allows
Function: They produce a thick, alkaline
passage of sperm
fluid that makes up about 60-70% of the
total volume of semen. This fluid contains
➢ Vagina: Birth canal and site of sperm
fructose, which provides energy for the deposition
sperm, and prostaglandins, which help
stimulate muscle contractions in the female An ovary releases on egg cell every 28 days.
reproductive tract, aiding sperm
movement.
Lesson #4 – Feedback - During this time, the pituitary gland
releases follicle-stimulating
Mechanisms in Menstrual hormone (FSH), which stimulates
Cycle and during Pregnancy the ovaries to produce around 5-20
follicles. Each follicle contains an
Has two cycles: egg.
- Usually, only one follicle will mature
1. Ovarian Cycle – ncludes the events that into a dominant follicle that will
occur in the ovary. release an egg during ovulation.
Example: Ovulation – release an egg The follicular phase typically lasts
from your ovary into your fallopian about 14 days, but it can vary.
tube. 3. Ovulation
2. Uterine Cycle – events occur in the - Ovulation usually occurs around the
uterus middle of the cycle, around day 14
Example: Menstruation – when blood in a 28-dThe mature follicle releases
and tissue from your uterus comes out an egg from the ovary into the
from vagina. fallopian tube. This is the period
when a woman is most fertile.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle: 4. Luteal Phase
- After ovulation, the ruptured follicle
closes and forms the corpus
luteum, which produces
progesterone.
- This hormone prepares the uterus
for a possible pregnancy. If the egg
is not fertilized, the corpus luteum
breaks down, leading to a drop in
progesterone levels and the start of
menstruation. The luteal phase
- typically lasts about 14 days.

How does pregnancy happens? If the egg cell is

fertilized by a sperm cell, the fertilized egg will
1. Menstrual Phase be implanted in the endometrium of the uterus.
- Typically lasts from 1 to 5 days If not fertilized then the endometrium will
- This is when menstruation occurs break down, leading to menstruation (first
- Blood and endometrial tissues phase of the menstruation cycle)
detach from the inside of the uterus
to the vagina and then out of the What is Homeostasis? The state of steady
body. internal, physical and chemical conditions
- This is the phase when bleeding maintained by living organisms. Attained
occurs, marking the start of the through regulation of the bodily function of the
cycle. endocrine and nervous system.
2. Follicular Phase
- This phase begins on the first day of 2 types of Feedback Mechanism:
menstruation and lasts until
ovulation. ➢ Positive Feedback: This type of
feedback amplifies or increases
 the output of a system. For 1. Hypothalamus
example, during childbirth, the
release of oxytocin causes ➢ The hypothalamus secretes GnRH
contractions, which leads to (Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone) in a
more oxytocin release and pulsatile manner, stimulating the anterior
stronger contractions until the pituitary gland.
baby is born.
➢ Negative Feedback: This type of 2. Anterior Pituitary Gland
feedback reduces or dampens
the output of a system to ➢ In response to GnRH, the anterior pituitary
maintain stability. For example, releases two key hormones:
when blood sugar levels rise, ➢ LH (Luteinizing Hormone): Stimulates
the pancreas releases insulin to ovulation and the production of
lower blood sugar levels. Once progesterone.
blood sugar levels are back to ➢ FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone):
normal, insulin release Promotes follicle growth in the ovaries and
decreases. estrogen production.

3. Ovaries

➢ The ovaries produce:

➢ Estrogen: Secreted primarily by
developing follicles. Estrogen promotes
the thickening of the endometrium.
➢ Progesterone: Produced after ovulation
by the corpus luteum. Progesterone
maintains the thickened endometrium
in preparation for potential
implantation of an embryo.

Example: The Feedback Mechanism in the

Menstrual Cycle 4. Feedback Mechanisms

➢ Negative Feedback:
➢ High levels of estrogen and
progesterone inhibit the release of
GnRH from the hypothalamus and
LH/FSH from the anterior pituitary,
preventing overstimulation of the
ovaries.
➢ This feedback helps maintain hormonal
balance.
➢ Positive Feedback (Mid-cycle):
➢ Just before ovulation, a surge in
estrogen levels triggers a positive
feedback loop, causing a spike in LH
 secretion (the LH surge), which induces 2. Oxytocin Release Begins
ovulation.
➢ The hypothalamus signals the posterior
5. Endometrium of Uterus pituitary gland to release oxytocin into
the bloodstream.
➢ Estrogen and progesterone regulate the ➢ Oxytocin travels to the uterus, causing
endometrium: uterine contractions.
➢ Estrogen: Thickens the endometrium
during the follicular phase. 3. Positive Feedback Loop Intensifies
➢ Progesterone: Increases vascularization Contractions
and maintains the endometrium during
the luteal phase. ➢ Each contraction pushes the baby
➢ If fertilization does not occur, further down, increasing the pressure
progesterone and estrogen levels drop, on the cervix.
leading to shedding of the ➢ The increased cervical pressure sends
endometrium (menstruation), and the more signals to the hypothalamus,
cycle resets. prompting:
➢ More oxytocin release.
Feedback Mechanism during Labor ➢ Stronger and more frequent uterine
contractions.
➢ This forms a positive feedback loop
where contractions intensify until
delivery.

4. Prostaglandins Amplify Contractions

➢ Uterine contractions stimulate the

release of prostaglandins by uterine
tissues.
➢ Prostaglandins:
➢ Further strengthen and coordinate
uterine contractions.
➢ Help soften and dilate the cervix for the
baby’s passage.

5. Baby’s Delivery
1. Uterus Stretching Triggers Hormonal
Response ➢ The strong contractions and cervical
dilation lead to the expulsion of the
➢ As the baby grows and labor begins, the baby from the uterus.
uterus stretches, causing the baby's ➢ Once the baby is delivered, the pressure
head to press against the cervix. on the cervix decreases, ending the
➢ This stretching stimulates sensory positive feedback loop.
nerves in the cervix, sending signals to
the hypothalamus.
6. After Birth (Placenta Delivery and Uterus
Recovery)

➢ After the baby is born, oxytocin

continues to be released, helping to:
➢ Deliver the placenta.
➢ Contract the uterus to reduce bleeding
and aid in its return to pre-pregnancy
size.

Lesson #5 – DNA, Genes and

Chromosomes Genes - A gene is a length of DNA that codes for
a specific protein. Basic unit of genetics.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – the blueprint/
textbook of your life as it is the carrier of the all Chromosomes – If you took all the DNA from
your genetic information. And is unique in every your body and lined it up. It is called the
individual. Identical twins share the same DNA. chromosomes. A histone is a protein that
And DNA is passed down or inherited from provides structural support for a chromosome.
parent to offspring. Which are tightly packed around the proteins.

DNA Structure ➢ Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes

in every cell. And the 23rd pair are the
The DNA is a biomolecule that is long and sex chromosomes which determines a
double helix strand. person’s sex.
➢ Karyotyping – a photograph of a
Contributors : person’s chromosomes arranged to its
size.
• Friedrich Miescher – DNA was first
identified by him in the late 1860s. Central Dogma – Describes the flow of the
• Rosalind Franklyn – applied x-ray diffraction genetic information in cells from DNA to
method to study DNA. And discovered that messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein through the
the DNA existed in a helical or spiral process also called as the transcription and
structure. translation.
• James Watson and Francis Crick – suggested
that the structure of DNA is double helix RNA and Protein Synthesis:
strand.
Ribonucleic Acid – is almost the same with DNA
2 Main DNA Components but is a single strand.
1. Sugar and Phosphate – create the
supportive backbone of the DNA Nitrogenous bases of RNA:
2. Nitrogenous Bases – (Adenine, Thymine
Guanine and Cytosine) responsible for
genetic instructions
 Protein Synthesis – the process which cell make
protein. Which occurs in two stages:
Transcription and translation.
3 types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) – is a RNA
version of the gene that leaves the cell
nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm
where proteins are made.

2. Ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid (rRNA) –

responsible in binding to messenger
But why Protein so important?
RNA and transfer RNA to ensure that
the codon sequence of the mRNA is
➢ Building Blocks of Life – Proteins make up
translated accurately into amino acid
muscles, skin, hair, nails, and even the
sequence in proteins.
internal structure of cells.
➢ Enzymes – Many proteins act as enzymes,
which speed up chemical reactions
necessary for digestion, energy production,
and metabolism.
➢ Hormones – Some hormones, like insulin
and growth hormone, are proteins that
regulate bodily functions.
➢ Immune System – Antibodies, which help
3. Transfer Ribonucleic Acid (tRNA) – fight infections, are proteins.
helps decode mRNA sequence into a ➢ Transport and Storage – Hemoglobin (which
protein. carries oxygen in blood) and ferritin (which
stores iron) are protein-based.
➢ Cell Signaling – Proteins help cells
communicate, ensuring that the body
responds appropriately to changes.

Why Does the Body Need a Special Process for

Protein Synthesis?

Protein synthesis is highly regulated because:

• The body needs specific proteins at
specific times and in specific amounts.
• DNA stores the blueprint for making
proteins, and the body carefully
transcribes and translates this genetic
code to ensure accuracy.
• Misfolded or malfunctioning proteins
can lead to diseases, so the body must
ensure precise protein production.

THE PROCESS OF CENTRAL DOGMA:

Lesson #6 – Genetic
Mutations
Mutations – are changes made to an organism’s
genetic material. Change may be due to errors
in replication, errors during transcription,
radiation, viruses and many other things.

TYPES OF MUTATIONS:
1. Point Mutations – large category of
mutation that describe a change in
single nucleotide of DNA that causes
that DNA to be different from the
normal type gene sequence.
• Insertion • Jacobsen Syndrome - a rare
extra base pair is added to a sequence chromosomal disorder that occurs
bases. when part of chromosome 11 is
o Genetic Mutation missing.
➢ Thalassemia - causes your body to have • Klinefelter Syndrome – presence of
less hemoglobin than normal. extra copy of x chromosome in each
Hemoglobin enables red blood cells to cell. Typically causes a boy's testicles to
carry oxygen. grow at a slower rate than those of
other boys.
• Deletion • Turner Syndrome – for females the last
extra base pair is deleted in a sequence pair has only one x instead of xx.
bases.
o Genetic Mutation Lesson #7 – Evidences of
➢ Cystic Fibrosis – Hereditary disease that
affects the lungs and the digestive Evolution
system. The body produces thick and
sticky mucus that can clog the lungs and Evolution – The change in inherited traits over
obstruct the pancreas. successive generations in populations of
organisms. This changes aloe the organisms to
• Substitution adapt and survive in their organisms.
base are swapped into different one.
o Genetic Mutation Evidences of Evolution
➢ Sickle Cell Anemia - In sickle cell 1. Fossil Records – Traces of organism that
anemia, some red blood cells are lived in the past and were preserved by
shaped like sickles or crescent moons. the natural process or catastrophic
These sickle cells also become rigid and events. Fossil document the existence
sticky, which can slow or block blood of now extinct past species that are
flow. related to present day species.

2. Genetic Disorders – Caused by an 2 TYPES OF FOSSILS

abnormality in the genetic makeup of • Imprints – shallow external molds left
an individual. Can be caused by a by the organism with no organic
chromosomal abnormality. materials present.
• Compressions – organism preserved in
Genetic Mutation sedimentary rocks and is formed with
• Cri-Du-Chat Syndrome – has a problem more organic material.
in chromosome no. 5 (missing) affected
individuals have distinct facial feature. How are the fossils determined?
• Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) – has ➢ Relative Dating – the age of rock is
intellectual disability, a characteristic compared to other rock layer.
appearance,weak muscle in infancy. ➢ Radiometric Dating – Used the
• Edward’s Syndrome (Trisomy 18) – has isotope carbon 14. Which is present
abnormalities in their body. They died in rocks when the organisms died.
easily.
• Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13) – disrupts 2. Comparative Anatomy – study of the
normal development causing multiple similarities of an organisms in their
and complex organs to be defected. structures.
3 TYPES OF STRUCTURES
• Homologous – body parts of the
organisms that may perform different
function but are part of the same origin.
Organisms has different ancestors which
can be said that is related but they
adapt different traits. (Divergent
Evoution)

3. Embryonic Development – The portion

of a life cycle that begins just after
fertilization. Many organisms have
similar embryos, supporting the idea of
common ancestors.

• Analogous – body parts of the organism

that may perform the same function but
came from different origins. When
unrelated organisms evolve similar
features or behaviors in response to
similar environmental pressures
(Convergent Evolution)

4. Genetic Information – Small mutations

or changes in the DNA may lead to the
evolution of new species.

• Vestigial Structures - body parts that

are useless or left over from a previous
ancestors in which they were useful.
 ❖ Giraffes needed longer necks to reach
food on tall trees because lower
Lesson #8 – Theories of vegetation was scarce.
Evolution ❖ To satisfy this need, they stretched
their necks over generations.
HISTORY OF EVOLUTION THOUGHT: ❖ As a result, their necks gradually
became longer, and these acquired
1. Catastrophism (Werner/Cuvier) characteristics were passed down to
States that the earth and geological events had their offspring.
formed suddenly as a result of some great
catastrophy. The Theory of Need by Lamarck is incorrect
because an organism’s needs do not
2. Uniformitarianism directly cause biological changes that can
(Hutton/Lyell) be inherited. Here’s why:
Idea that the Earth has always changed in
uniform ways that the present is the key to the 1. Acquired Traits Are Not Inherited
• Lamarck believed that if an organism
past.
needed a trait (like a longer neck for a
John Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829) giraffe), it could develop that trait over
its lifetime and pass it on to its
• He concluded that organisms of higher offspring.
• Modern genetics has proven that only
complexity had evolved from pre-
existing, less complex organisms. genetic traits (DNA) are passed down,
• Developed one of first theories how not characteristics acquired during life.
• Example: If a giraffe stretches its neck
species changed.
throughout its life, its offspring will not
LAMARKC’S THEORIES ON EVOLUTION be born with a longer neck.

Theory of Need 2. Evolution Happens Through Natural

Selection, Not Need
• Evolution does not occur because an
• Organisms change because they need
to. organism “needs” something; instead,
• For an organism to evolve a structure, it random genetic mutations happen
must be need the structure naturally.
• In a population of giraffes, some
Lamarck's Theory of Need states that organisms naturally had slightly longer necks due
develop new traits or modify existing ones to genetic variation. These giraffes had a
because they need them to survive in their survival advantage (reaching higher
environment. According to this idea, if an food), reproduced more, and passed
organism repeatedly faces a challenge, it will down their genes. Over generations,
develop adaptations to overcome that challenge long-necked giraffes became more
over time. common.

Application to Giraffes (Theory of Need) 3. Scientific Evidence Disproves It

• Experiments and studies in genetics
Lamarck believed that:
(like Gregor Mendel’s work on heredity)
have shown that traits are inherited
based on genes, not use or need.
 • The discovery of DNA and mutations Theory of Acquired Characteristics
explains that changes in traits happen • If a parent acquires a body structures
randomly, and those that help survival during its lifetime, it could pass on that
are passed on through natural characteristics structure to its offspring.
selection, not because an organism
actively changes itself. Lamarck’s Theory of Acquired Characteristics
(also called the Inheritance of Acquired Traits)
suggests that traits an organism develops during
Theory of Use and Disuse its lifetime can be passed on to its offspring.
• If you don’t use it, you lose it!
• Organisms develop specialize Application to Giraffes
characteristics by the use of and disuse 1. Original Giraffes Had Short Necks –
of organs According to Lamarck, early giraffes had
short necks.
Lamarck’s Theory of Use and Disuse states that 2. Stretching to Reach Leaves – Because
body parts that are used frequently become food was found high in trees, giraffes
stronger and more developed, while those that stretched their necks regularly.
are not used gradually weaken and disappear 3. Necks Became Longer Over a Lifetime –
over generations. Through continuous stretching, a
giraffe’s neck gradually became longer
Application to Giraffes during its lifetime.
❖ Use of the Neck – Early giraffes had 4. Passing the Trait to Offspring – Lamarck
shorter necks. However, because they believed that the longer neck, acquired
constantly stretched their necks to through stretching, was inherited by
reach leaves on tall trees, their necks the next generation. Over many
became longer over time. generations, this led to modern long-
❖ Disuse of Short Necks – Since giraffes necked giraffes.
no longer needed short necks, those
that did not stretch their necks saw Why the Theory Is Incorrect
their necks become less developed over Lamarck’s theory was later proven wrong
generations. because:
❖ Passing on Traits – According to
Lamarck, these acquired longer necks • Acquired traits are not inherited –
were inherited by offspring, leading to Changes that happen during an
modern giraffes with long necks. organism’s life (like muscle growth or a
stretched neck) do not get passed down
Why This Theory Is Incorrect since they do not affect DNA.
Lamarck's idea was later disproven because: • Genetics and natural selection explain
• Physical changes during an organism’s evolution – Instead of inheritance of
lifetime are not inherited (e.g., if a person acquired traits, we now know that
lifts weights and gets stronger, their children evolution happens through random
are not born muscular). genetic mutations and natural
• Instead, natural selection explains giraffe selection.
evolution—those born with naturally longer
necks had a survival advantage, reproduced • Example – If a person learns to play the
more, and passed on their genes, leading to piano, their child is not born knowing
longer-necked giraffes over millions of how to play. Likewise, if a giraffe
years. stretches its neck, its baby is still born
 with a neck length based on its genetic Darwin’s Response to Lamarck’s Theory on
code, not its parent’s stretching habits. Giraffes

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Lamarck believed that giraffes stretched their

• Proposed an entirely different necks to reach high leaves, and this acquired
mechanism to account for the evolution trait was passed down. Darwin disagreed,
of species. arguing that:
• His theories if evolution by natural
selection became the foundation of 1. Natural Variation Exists – In every
modern evolutionary studies. giraffe population, some individuals
naturally have slightly longer necks due
Natural Selection to random genetic variation.
• Individuals within a population with the 2. Survival Advantage – Giraffes with
most favorable traits for an longer necks had a better chance of
environment survive and pass on those survival because they could reach more
traits. food, especially during droughts when
• Survival of the Fittest! lower leaves were scarce.
3. Reproduction and Inheritance – The
CONCEPTS OF NATRUAL SELECTION: longer-necked giraffes survived more
often and passed their genes to their
1. Species Overproduction – offspring. Over many generations, the
Organisms tend to over average neck length in the population
reproduce increased.
2. Competition – Theres is still a 4. No Need for Stretching – Unlike
struggle of existence and the Lamarck’s idea that giraffes actively
survival of the fittest. Living stretched their necks and passed on
space and food are limited. that change, Darwin showed that only
3. Variation – No two individuals inherited genetic traits could be passed
are the same. Plants and down, not acquired characteristics.
animals differ in size, strength,
and adaptive structures
4. Adaptation – It is a process of
becoming better suited to the
environment. Improves the
organisms chance of survival.
5. Natural Selection –
Environment selects organisms
that survived to be the parents
of succeeding generation. Why Darwin’s Theory Was Correct
6. Speciation – Favorable ❖ Genetics (discovered later) confirmed
adaptations gradually his idea – Traits are inherited through
accumulate in the species and DNA, not through stretching or use.
unfavorable ones disappear. ❖ Scientific evidence supports natural
selection – Fossils, DNA studies, and
real-world observations show that
species evolve due to survival
advantages, not because they “need” to
change.