Origins and Kings of Regal Rome
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aibhajenningsOrigins and Kings of Regal Rome
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aibhajenningsRegal Rome
Dionysus of Halicarnassus, lived
from 60-7 BCE
There are multiple stories of
Rome, with the most famous
coming from Virgil’s Aeneid.
This is the one that gave credence
to Augustus’ rule, as it allowed
him to trace his origins back to
the god.
A Composite Story
Romulus and Remus are born and
abandoned together in a basket,
rather than just being killed. They
are then taken in and suckled by a
wolf.
The twins were then found by the shepherd, Faustulus, and brought them home to his wife,
Larentia, to rear, as the couple had no other children.
Altar from Ostia → dedicated October 1st, 124 CE. Now in the Museo Nazionale in Rome
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Mirror of Bolsena → c. 340-300, Italian Etruscan. Picturing the Romulus and Remus story,
however some details, like Hercules do not fit the story.
The twins then discover their origins and return to Alba Longa, overthrow Amuliu and round a
colony for themselves in Rome, the place they were initially saved.
Remus is killed by Romulus → either by birds or by leaping to his death, the story varies (as
seen below)
Thus, the city was called Rome.
Romulus then set about trying to bring people into his city. He consecrated a space from the
capitol hill to the arch, and makes it a place of asylum for people to flee to. If those refugees then
chose to remain there with him, he would give them citizenship and land as appropriate.
So, we get the story that Rome was founded by criminals and outcasts. This notion carries on
through Roman society, in that they are more about giving citizenship to people than other places
are.
The rape/abduction of the Sabine women:
So they had no women, they needed to fix that. They threw a party for the Sabine women, and
then half way through started to take them for their own. Fighting breaks out but half way
through the women intervene and say that actually! they really like their new Roman husbands!
So everything is solved and they have the Sabine women now.
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The 7 kings of Rome:
Their reigns are very long, and each are given
characteristics that kind of contrast with each
other. They seem to be more of a story than a
fact.
1. Romulus
Attributed with the founding of the oldest institutions such as..
Lictors → 12 lictors following him in relation with the 12 birds that he saw
Pomerium → sacred boundary of the city of Rome
Senate → created the distinction of the Patricians
Decides to acquire many traditions from the Etruscans, and appointed 100 senators (because the
number just seemed sufficient)
He had no sons, and it’s thought that he either disappeared or was murdered by the Senators.
Perhaps foreshadows the demise of Julius Caesar
2. Numa Pompilius
He was perhaps of Sabine origins. Was elected as Romulus’ replacement, and initially declines,
but eventually agrees to avoid war.
His reign is known as the peaceful one. He sought to bring law, order, respect of
property, and respect of neighbors.
Credited with major religious institutions such as
colleges of Ponfices (priests); Pontifex Maximus and Refia
Vestal virgins, temple of Vesta
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Calender
He died of old age.
3. Tullus Hostilius
Acts as a sort of foil for Numa, being very warlike and focused on expansion.
He was the grandson of a nobleman who had defended Rome alongside Romulus during
the war with the Sabines
He is credited with the expansion of territory
4. Ancus Martius
Forgetable, sabine, related kind of to Numa
built first bridge over the tiber etc etc
5. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
Part Etruscan
Increased size of Senate and Cavalry etc etc
6. Servius Tullius
credited with Servian walls
Servile origins, as a slave boy in the palace
Servian Reforms - enfranchisement of the poor
fortifications and other public buildings
7. Tarquinius Superbus
Son of king 5.
Bad king!
Murders father in law Servius Tullius
He is a notorios tyrant
His son rapes Lucretia, the wife of Collantius, which leads to the expulsion of the last king
Making sense of Myth and Traditions
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What are the roles of tradition?
To make sense of politics and culture. Explains the contemporary state of Rome, her empire,
and her ethnic and cultural makeups.
Aeneas: Rome’s origins made comprehensible in the framework of Hellenic myth
Twins = consuls
Ethnic mix : Sabine women, different kings
Asylum and absorbtion: explaingin relativelt inclusive attitude towards neighbors
Livy 2.1.2: All the kings founders of distinct aspects of the city’s heritage
Cato (cicero rep 2.3): roman constitution superior because it is the collective wisdom of
generations
Correspondence to Greek history and myth?
Kings in Rome vs Tyrants in Greece
Twelve tables (c.450 BC) corresponding to the laws of Solon
Fluid circulation of traditions in the Mediterranean world and Italy
Emperor Claudius and Etruscan history → Lyon Tablet 48 CE
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Many scholars are engaging in suspicion of source reliability:
“generally agreed”
“some”
“many”
So how do we known what we know?
Archival material from the republic
Fasti (records of magistracies, droughts, etc.)
(Rare) Epigraphic evidence associated with cults
However some archival sources may have been lost during times of duress, like the
Gaelic sack of the city at the start of the 4th century BC
How are sources passed on?
Oral traditions were conveyed through…
Family traditions → funerary processions and eulogies)
Drama → first dramatic performances 374 BC, common during the time of the City
Songs → Cato, Origines (Cicero, Tusc. 4.3) “It was the custome amongst our
ancestors for guests at banquets to take turns to sing… the achievements an virtues
of famous men.”
Objects, buildings, landscapes → ex. Capitoline Wolf
There was also historical competition between scholars. For instance, Dionysius of Halicarnassus
states thar his version of events would be most reliable because he spoke both Latin and Greek.
Scholarly attitudes are generally…?
Hyper-critical
T. Mommson
Accepting
A. Carandini - mythical memory, very positivist approach
Closely analyzing tradition
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T. Cornell - more accepting, positivist approach
P. Wiseman - more skeptical
Archaeological evidence
^ a rough chronology
Settlements usually navigable to the sea, close to rivers, and on top of hills for natural defense.
Early sites in Rome…
Forum Necropolis : Early Iron age
Located in very marshy areas, used as burial places
The Palatine and surroundings
Evidence for cemeteries and settlements from C8th
The Murus Romuli (wall of Romulus) → short stretch of fortification running along the
hilltop
The Casa Romuli (house of Romulus) → iron age hut on the Palatine hill, considered
holy, and was consistently repaired
Archaic Houses
Circus Maximus
Used continually as racing tracks and embellished more and more as time went on, very
little survives
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Cloaca Maxima “Greater Sewer”
One of the earliest sewer systems in the world, still partially functioning
Originally was uncovered and drained down, but then was tunneled under the city (story
of man falling into the sewer and hurting his leg)
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus
Capitoline hill
Most important temple in all of Roman culture
Founded by last king but inaugurated at the start of the Republic
Lost in a fire and rebuilt in a Greek style, although the original would’ve been in an
Etruscan style.
Sant’ Omobono Area
Sanctuary of Fortuna and Mater Matua
Forum Romanum
Originally area of marshy wetland ( ‘Forum Basin’ )
Inhumations with grave-goods
Area drained in the C7th by the Cloaca Maxima, then filled in to build up to ground
level
Regia (on upper Via Sacra) → royal palace, traditionally assigned to Numa, though it
was more of a religious space. Etruscan style residence here in the C7th BC.
Comitium shrine / Lapis Niger → “The Black Stone… marks a place of ill-omen.” -
Festus 177. A very early cult site.
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Common questions
Powered by AIThe reliability of early Roman historical sources is often questioned due to the mix of myth and history within them. Scholars utilize various methods to interpret these sources, including analyzing archaeological evidence, archival material, and the context in which oral traditions were conveyed, such as family traditions and dramas. While sources like Dionysius of Halicarnassus claim to be the most reliable due to linguistic skills, modern scholarship remains critical, employing comparative analysis and cross-referencing with archaeological findings to separate myth from historical fact. The scholarly community exhibits differing attitudes, ranging from skeptical to accepting, often influenced by the available evidence and the interpretive frameworks used .
Romulus and Numa Pompilius contributed to Roman culture and institutions in contrasting ways. Romulus is credited with foundational elements such as the Senate, the pomerium of Rome, and traditions like the lictors, reflecting his integration of Etruscan traditions. His reign is associated with aggression and expansion, setting a cultural precedent for military prowess. In contrast, Numa Pompilius' reign is characterized by peace and religious establishment, credited with founding major religious institutions and emphasizing law and respect, thereby contributing to Rome's spiritual and social entrenchment. The comparative analysis of their reigns highlights the dual cultural legacy of Rome, combining martial prowess with religious and civic order .
Geographic and infrastructural developments during Rome's regal period greatly facilitated its growth and influence. Strategic settlements were established close to rivers and on hills for natural defense and maritime access. Infrastructure like the Cloaca Maxima improved urban sanitation, supporting population growth. The construction of the Circus Maximus and other public spaces encouraged social cohesion and cultural unity. These developments not only improved living conditions but also enhanced Rome's prestige and administrative capabilities, laying the groundwork for its subsequent expansion and consolidation as a power in the Mediterranean world .
Mythology played a crucial role in explaining Rome's political and cultural characteristics. Myths such as those of Aeneas, as well as the stories of the kings, offer explanations for Rome's inclusive attitude toward citizenship, her ethnic makeup, and her civic institutions. Mythic figures like Romulus and Remus and events like the abduction of the Sabine women underscore Rome's foundation as a city of immigrants and outcasts, promoting a narrative of diversity and integration. The myths are intertwined with actual political and social practices, such as granting asylum and absorbing neighbors, thus reflecting Rome's historical realities through a cultural lens .
Oral traditions and family narratives play a vital role in shaping the historical consciousness of Roman society by preserving and transmitting historical knowledge through generations. Practices such as funerary processions, where achievements and virtues of ancestors were recited, reinforced collective memory and societal values. These oral accounts preserved personal and communal history, bridging the gap between myth and recorded history, and ensuring that societal norms and cultural values were passed down, thus contributing to a shared identity and continuity in Roman culture .
The foundational myth of Romulus and Remus portrays Rome as a city founded by outcasts, providing them asylum and granting citizenship, a narrative which influenced Rome's relatively inclusive attitude towards neighbors. This story, along with Romulus creating a place of asylum, reinforced the idea of Rome as a refuge, fundamentally shaping Roman sociopolitical dynamics by emphasizing an open policy towards granting citizenship to outsiders, which is reflected in Roman history where expansion often included the integration of other peoples .
The reigns of the 'seven kings' are credited with the formation of many of Rome's foundational institutions and traditions. Romulus is attributed with creating the Senate and defining the sacred city boundaries. Numa Pompilius introduced key religious institutions and emphasized legal order. The successive kings continued to build upon these foundations: Tullus Hostilius expanded Roman territory; Ancus Martius developed infrastructure; Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius made political reforms and constructions, while Tarquinius Superbus' tyranny led to the establishment of the Republic. Collectively, these monarchs set institutional precedents and narratives that shaped Roman political and cultural legacy.
Numa Pompilius' reign had a profound impact on the religious and civic traditions of Rome. Known for his peaceful reign, he established major religious institutions such as the College of Pontifices, the office of Pontifex Maximus, the Vestal Virgins, and the Temple of Vesta. By embedding religious practices within Rome's civic structure, Numa integrated spiritual observance with governance, enriching the cultural fabric and moral compass of Roman society. His contributions not only reinforced divine sanction for civic duties but also laid the framework for religious cohesion and cultural development that defined Roman identity .
Monuments, buildings, and landscapes serve vital roles in preserving and transmitting Roman cultural heritage by embodying historical narratives and serving as physical reminders of Rome's past. Examples include the Murus Romuli, serving as a reminder of the city's legendary founders; the Casa Romuli, a symbol of Rome's foundational mythology; and public infrastructures like the Cloaca Maxima, showcasing Roman engineering prowess. These structures allow for continuous engagement with history and tradition, physically rooting the mythology within the city's geography, thus facilitating the transmission of cultural memories across generations .
The myth of the abduction of the Sabine women holds significant importance in illustrating Roman practices and values. It reflects themes of assimilation and integration critical to Roman expansionist policy, as the integration of Sabine women led to a blending of cultures and strengthening of communal ties. This myth metaphorically underscores Rome's capacity to incorporate outsiders into its social and civic fabric. Additionally, the narrative features themes of conflict resolution and gender roles, illustrating a complex interplay of aggression, negotiation, and eventual societal cohesion, thereby providing insight into early Roman values and societal mechanisms .