AGNI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

THALAMBUR,CHENNAI.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

YEAR/SEMESTER - II/IV

CE8381 – Strength of Materials & Fluid

Mechanics and Machinery
LAB OBSERVATION

1
 VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To be a renowned school for Mechanical Sciences by imparting the best

practices in teaching, learning and research to produce Mechanical Engineers
with global competency
MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT
As a department, we are committed

• To impart quality technical education to acquire career and professional

skills to compete at the global level.
• To foster the entrepreneurial spirit for managing global business
ventures.
• To extend support to the industries of all domains by collaborative
research and consultancy services.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO's)

PEO 1: To impart fundamentals of Engineering and Technology and applied

Mathematics to transform the students as Mechanical Engineers.
PEO 2: To nurture design, analysis and implementation skills to innovate the
process or system in Mechanical Engineering with global context.
PEO 3: To imbibe domain related technical and aptitude skills to offer best
solution to industrial and societal problems.
PEO 4: To teach contemporary issues and advancements in Mechanical
Engineering along with computational skills to involve in research and
development.
PEO 5: To develop skills and characters to initiate and sustain entrepreneurial
activities with ecological impact.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
Program Specific Outcome (PSOs)
Mechanical graduates will be able to:

PSO 1: An ability to understand, analyze and solve engineering problems pertaining to mechanical
components and systems.
PSO 2: An ability to fit-in professionally in industries or as an entrepreneur by applying
manufacturing and managerial skills.

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 INDEX

[Link] Name of the Experiment Mark Sign

5
Ex No : Date :

Tension Test on Mild Steel Rod

Aim:
1. To find the Young’s Modulus of the specimen.
2. To find the Yield stress, Ultimate stress and Breaking stress.
3. To determine Percentage elongation and Percentage reduction in area of the
specimen.
4. To plot the stress-strain diagram.
Specification of the Machine:
Name : Universal Testing Machine.
Capacity : 100 Tonnes
Apparatus Required:
1. Extensometer 2. Vernier Caliper, 3. Scale
Formula:
1. Yield stress = Yield Load / Original cross-section area.
2. Ultimate stress = Ultimate Load / Original cross-section area.
3. Breaking stress = Breaking Load / Original cross-section area.
4. % Elongation = Increase in length / Original Length × 100
5. % Reduction in area = (π / 4) (D2 − d2)) / (π D2 ) / 4
6. Stress = Load / Area.
7. Strain = Change in length / Original length
8. Young’s Modulus (E) = Stress / Strain
Theory:
A tension test is the most applied test of all the mechanical tests. In this test the ends of
the specimen are fixed into the grips, of the universal testing machine and an extensometer is
fixed at a particular ‘gauge length’. When the machine is started it begins to apply a gradually
increasing load upon the specimen. At regular intervals the load and elongation of the
specimen are recorded. When the applied load is small enough, the deformation is entirely
elastic. As the rate of loading increase and crosses a certain limit known as ‘Elastic limit’ the
material experiences a permanent deformation. When a stress-strain curve is drawn as shown
in the figure, the initial part of the curve represents the elastic nature. Hook’s law states that,
within the elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain. The initial straight line
in the curve represents this. Beyond the elastic limit the specimen undergoes plastic
Observation:
Diameter of specimen at top :
Middle :
Bottom :
Average diameter of specimen :
Length of the specimen :
Extensometer gauge length :
Least count of extensometer :
Tabulation:

Extensometer Young’s
Load Strain
Reading (mm) Extension Stress Modulus
in
[Link]. in in in
× 10-4
(mm) (N/mm2) × 105
KN N Left Right
(N/mm2)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Yield point load :

Ultimate load :
Breaking load :
Diameter at neck :
Final length of rod :
Where,
D = Original diameter of the rod
d = Neck diameter of the rod

7
deformation. In mild steel the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by sudden drop in the
load, indicating both upper and lower yield point. As the load increases, it passes through a
maximum value and then begins to decrease. This gives the ultimate load. Further loading
will eventually cause reduction in cross-section area or neck formation and then the specimen
breaks into two pieces, which gives the breaking load. Tension test is conducted at room
temperature.
Graph:
1. Load Vs Elongation
Load Elongation
S. No.
KN mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

2. Stress Vs Strain
Stress Strain
S. No.
N/mm2 × 10−
−5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Model Calculations:

1. Yield stress = Yield Load / Original cross-section area.

2. Ultimate stress = Ultimate Load / Original cross-section area.

3. Breaking stress = Breaking Load / Original cross-section area.

4. % Elongation = Increase in length / Original Length × 100

5. % Reduction in area = (π / 4) (D2 − d2)) / (π D2 ) / 4

9
6. Stress = Load / Area.

7. Strain = Change in length / Original length

8. Young’s Modulus (E) = Stress / Strain

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the specimen at top, middle and bottom and determine the
average diameter.
2. Leaving a clear space of 70mm at either ends, measure the length of the specimen and
mark.
3. Assume 500KN as the average ultimate tensile stress of steel, and calculate the
maximum load the specimen will take. Choose a range at a higher order accommodate
the calculated load.
4. Switch on the machine. Fix the specimen between the jaws and set the pointer at zero.
5. Fix the extensometer at the middle of the rod.
6. Start the machine and apply the load gradually.
7. Record the load and extensometer readings at regular intervals and at the elastic limit
remove the extensometer.

8. Obtain the yield point load when the pointer drops back, or stands still for a few
seconds.
9. Increase the rate of loading and record the ultimate load.
10. Record the breaking load, observed at the time of hearing the breaking sound.
11. Remove the specimen and measure the ’neck’ diameter and total elongation.
12. Plot a graph connecting stress and strain.
Graph:
1. Load Vs Elongation
2. Stress Vs Strain
Inference:
Student can obtain knowledge practically about Young’s Modulus of a material.
Application:
This knowledge can be used while designing element for particular purpose.
Result:
1. Yield stress :
2. Ultimate stress :
3. Breaking stress :
4. Percentage Elongation :
5. Percentage Reduction in area :
6. Young’s Modulus (E)

11
Ex No : Date :

Torsion Test on Mild Steel

Aim:
To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen to find out modulus of rigidity.
Apparatus Required:
1. Torsion testing machine. 2. Standard specimen of mild steel.
3. Steel rule 4. Vernier caliper.
Formula Used:
Where
D = Diameter J = Polar M.I.
J = πd4 / 32
1. Modulus of Rigidity (C) = Tl /Jθ
2. Stress at limit of Proportionality (fs) = T×R/J
Theory:
A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus or rigidity (ratio
of shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be
found out through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation.
T Cθ fs
 =  = 
J I R
Where,
T = torque applied. I = length of the specimen.
J = polar moment of inertia. fs = shear stress.
C = modulus of rigidity. R = radius of rod.
θ = angle of twist (radians).
Observations:
1. Gauge length :
2. Dia of rod Top :
Middle :
Bottom :
Tabulation:
Angle of twist Modulus of
Torque Shear stress
Dial Readings (θ) Rigidity
[Link]. (T) ( fs )
(Kgf cm) (in degrees) (C)
(N mm) (N/mm2)
Degree radians (N/mm2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Model Calculations:

Where
D = Diameter J = Polar M.I.

πd4
J = 
32

1. Modulus of Rigidity (C) = Tl /Jθ

2. Stress at limit of Proportionality (fs) = T×R/J

13
Procedure:
1. Select the driving dogs to suit the size of the specimen and clamp it in the machine
by adjusting the length of the specimen by means of a sliding spindle.
2. Measure the diameter at about three places and take the average a value.
3. Choose the appropriate range by capacity.
4. Fix the specimen between the center.
5. Set the initial torque to zero and note the dial reading.
6. Load the machine in suitable increments, observing and recording strain readings.
7. Record the ultimate torque.
8. Plot the graph angle of twist (θ) Vs Torque T (N)
Graph:
Angle of Twist Vs Torque
Inference:
Student can differentiate Modulus of Elasticity and modulus rigidity
Application:
This knowledge used during designing of elements.
Result:
1. Shear stress (fs) =
2. Modulus of Rigidity =

Viva Questions:
1. What is torsional bending?
2. What is axial load?
Ex No : Date :

Impact Test (Izod)

Aim:
To determine the Impact toughness of the given specimen by Izod impact test.
Specification of the machine:
Name : Impact testing machine
Capacity : 168 Joules.
Least count : 2 Joules.
Apparatus Required:
1. Vernier caliper 2. Scale
Formula:
Impact Strength = Energy absorbed / Area of cross- section
Theory:
A simple tensile test does not reveal the brittle nature of the metals. The tensile test data
alone is not perfectly reliable for a material, because a material may be capable of carrying
heavy loads when it is gradually applied and the same material may fail when subjected to a
less but sudden load. Hence it is necessary to test the material under shock or sudden load. A
heavy load applied suddenly at a very small period of time is impact.
A swinging hammer is made to strike the specimen held firmly in the specimen holder.
The pendulum weight is lifted and clamped to a particular height and when it is released it
carries an energy of 168 Joules. When it strikes the specimen some energy is absorbed by the
material specimen. This energy absorbed gives a count of the toughness strength. Toughness
is the property of the material by which it is capable of withstanding heavy shock. Brittle
fracture tendency in the material develops due to i) The triaxial state of stress at the notch. ii)
Low temperature and iii) Rapid rate of loading.
The test specimen shall be 75 mm long and of square section with 10 mm sides. At a
distance of 28 mm from one end a notch shall be carefully prepared for a depth of 2mm, at an
angle of 45°.

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Observation:
Size of the specimen : 75 × 10 × 10 mm
Position of ‘V’ notch : 28 mm from one end of the specimen

Energy Energy Residual

absorbed by absorbed energy Impact
Behaviour
S. No. Specimen bearing by the in the strength
of specimen
friction specimen pendulum (J/m2)
(J) (J) (J)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Model Calculations:

1. Area of cross- section = 10 × 8 = 80 mm

2. Impact Strength = Energy absorbed / Area of cross- section

Procedure:
1. Raise the hammer and lock it.
2. Set the pointer to the maximum energy of the dial.
3. Release the trigger and allow the pendulum to swing, which in turn actuates the
pointer in the dial.
4. Record the energy absorbed by friction in bearing, as shown by the pointer in the dial.
5. Raise the pendulum hammer and lock it in position.
6. Place the specimen in the support and clamp it as cantilever, keeping the 45° V –
notch horizontally in the direction of the striking edge of the hammer.
7. Set the pointer to read the maximum energy marked in the dial.
8. Release the pendulum to strike the specimen.
9. Record the energy absorbed by the specimen and the Residual energy in the
pendulum.
Inference:
Student can understand the difference between shear strength and Impact strength
Application:
This knowledge can be utilized while designing.
Result:
The impact strength of the given specimen:

Viva Questions:
Impact test - Izod and charpy test
1. What is resilience? How is it different from proof resilience and toughness?
2. What is the necessity of making a notch in impact test specimen ?

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Ex No : Date :

Impact Test (Charpy)

Aim:
To determine the Impact toughness of the given specimen by Charpy impact test.
Specification of the Machine:
Name : Impact testing machine
Capacity : 300 Joules.
Least count : 2 Joules.
Apparatus Required:
1. Vernier caliper 2. Scale
Formula:
Impact Strength = Energy absorbed / Area of cross- section
Theory:
A simple tensile test does not reveal the brittle nature of the metals. The tensile test data
alone is not perfectly reliable for a material, because a material may be capable of carrying
heavy loads when it is gradually applied and the same material may fail when subjected to a
less but sudden load. Hence it is necessary to test the material under shock or sudden load. A
heavy load applied suddenly at a very small period of time is impact.
A swinging hammer is made to strike the specimen held firmly in the specimen holder.
The pendulum weight is lifted and clamped to a particular height and when it is released it
carries an energy of 300 Joules. When it strikes the specimen some energy is absorbed by the
material specimen. This energy absorbed gives a count of the toughness strength. Toughness
is the property of the material by which it is capable of withstanding heavy shock. Brittle
fracture tendency in the material develops due to i) The triaxial state of stress at the notch. ii)
Low temperature and iii) Rapid rate of loading.
The test specimen shall be 75 mm long and of square section with 10 mm sides. At a
distance of 28 mm from one end a notch shall be carefully prepared for a depth of 2mm, at V
− type.
Observation:
Size of the specimen : 75 × 10 × 10 mm
Position of ‘V’ notch : 28 mm from one end of the specimen
Energy Energy Residual
Behavior absorbed by absorbed energy Impact
S. No. Specimen of bearing by the in the strength
specimen friction specimen pendulum (J/m2)
(J) (J) (J)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Model Calculations:

1. Area of cross- section = 10 × 8 = 80 mm2

2. Impact Strength =

19
Procedure:
1. Raise the hammer and lock it.
2. Set the pointer to the maximum energy of the dial.
3. Release the trigger and allow the pendulum to swing, which in turn actuates the
pointer in the dial.
4. Record the energy absorbed by friction in bearing, as shown by the pointer in the dial.
5. Raise the pendulum hammer and lock it in position.
6. Place the specimen in the support and clamp it as cantilever, keeping the V – notch
horizontally in the direction of the striking edge of the hammer.
7. Set the pointer to read the maximum energy marked in the dial.
8. Release the pendulum to strike the specimen.
9. Record the energy absorbed by the specimen and the Residual energy in the
pendulum.
Inference:
Student can understand the difference between shear strength and Impact strength
Application:
This knowledge can be utilized while designing.
Result:
The impact strength of the given specimen =
Viva Questions:
Impact test - Izod and charpy test
1. What is the necessity of making a notch in impact test specimen ?
2. If the sharpness of V-notch is more in one specimen than the other, what will be its effect
on the test result?
3. What is difference between Izod and Charphy test?
Ex No : Date :

Brinell Hardness Test

Aim:
To find the Brinell Hardness Number for the given specimen.
Name of the machine:
Brinell Hardness Testing Machine
Apparatus required:
1. Brinell micrometer, 2. 10 mm diameter ball indenter.
Formula used:
 
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = P / (π D/2)  D - D 2 - d 2 
 
When,
P − Load.
D − Diameter of the steel ball indenter.
d − Diameter of the indentation.
Reference Table:
Value of Load Select
S. No. Material
P × D2 P×D×D

1. Hard materials like steel 30

2. Bross 10
3. Copper, Aluminium 5

Theory:
Hardness is the property of a material by which it offers a great resistance to scratch,
wear, abrasion or indentation. If the hardness of a material is more, the resistance to
indentation is more. Therefore depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the hardness
of the material.
The indenter is first placed upon the surface and the specific load is applied gradually.
When the load is removed an indentation is left upon the surface.
The diameter of the indentation is measured by a low power microscope. Using the
diameter of indentation and the diameter of indenter, the area of indentation can be
calculated. The ratio of the load to the area of the indented surface is defined as the Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN)
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Tabulation:

Diameter of Indentation
Load Brinell
Indenter
[Link]. Material applied Hardness
used
(Kgf) d1 d2 d3 Avg. Number

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Model calculations:

1. Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = P / (π D/2)  D - D 2 - d 2 

 
23
25
27
Procedure:
1. Polish the specimen with 0 – 0 emery paper.
2. Place the specimen on the anvil of the machine.
3. Select the load depending on the specimen material and the diameter of ball indenter.
4. Insert the ball indenter into the holder.
5. Rotate the work table and raise it till the specimen is brought in contact with the
indenter.
6. Apply the proper load for a particular time ( 6 – 8 sec.).
7. Release the load and remove the specimen.
8. Measure the diameter of the impression in two perpendicular directions D1 and D2 by
micrometer.
9. Repeat the same procedure to obtain three more readings for each specimen.
10. Tabulate the observations.
Inference:
Student can obtain knowledge about hardness. Different types of Hardness Numbers can
be learnt.
Application:
This knowledge can be used during Heat – Treatment.
Result:
The hardness of the given specimen is BHN =
Viva Questions:
1. What is the limitation of Brinell hardness test and why ?
2. What is the unit of B.H.N?
3. Which ball size is recommended for Brinell test?
Ex No : Date :

Rockwell Hardness Test

Aim:
To determine Rockwell hardness number for the given specimen.
Name of the machine:
Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.
Apparatus required:
1. 1/16 “ Ball Indenter, 2. Diamond Indenter.
Theory:
Hardness is the property of a material by which it offers a great resistance to scratch,
wear, abrasion or indentation.
If the hardness of a material is more, the resistance to indentation is more. Therefore
depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the hardness of the material.
Rockwell hardness test gives a direct reading. A small pointer indicates the application
of the minor load of 10 Kgf. The anvil with the specimen placed on it is lifted upwards and as
the indenter touches the specimen the small pointer comes to the red dot. The main pointer is
set to zero. Then the load is applied and the hardness is found.
The common indenter used in Rockwell Hardness test are 1/16” hardened steel ball and
120° conical shaped diamonds with a 0.2mm diameter spherical indenting tip. When the
former indenter is used, the major load is maintained at 100 Kgf and the hardness values are
read in the ‘B’ scale. When the diamond cone indenter is used, the major load is maintained
at 150 Kgf and the hardness values are read in the ‘C’ scale.
Tabulation:
Dial Dial Dial
Load
Indenter Gauge Gauge Gauge
[Link]. Material applied Avg. HRB
used Reading Reading Reading
(Kgf)
(1) (2) (3)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

29
Procedure:
1. Polish the specimen with emery sheet, and place it on the anvil of the machine.
2. Depending on the specimen material, select the indenter and the corresponding load.
3. Insert the indentor into the holder.
4. Raise the anvil until the specimen touches the indenter and apply the minor load.
5. The major load to be applied is 100Kgf for HRB tests and 150Kgf for HRC tests.
6. The time of application of the load is as follows:
7. HRC test 5 to 6 seconds after application of the minor load.
8. HRB test 6 to 8 seconds after application of the minor load.
9. The hardness number is read from the B scale and C scale, after releasing the load.
10. Repeat the procedure to obtain 3 readings for a specimen.
Inference:
Student can obtain knowledge about hardness. Different types of Hardness Numbers can
be learnt.
Application:
This knowledge can be used during Heat – Treatment.
Result:
The hardness of the given specimen is = HRB.

Viva Questions:
1. Can we predict the tensile strength of a material if its hardness in known ?
2. Which is the hardest material? and why ?
Ex No : Date :

Bending and Deflection Test on steel

Aim:
To determine the Young’s modulus by performing Bending and Deflection test.
To find the bending stresses developed.
To plot the graph between load and deflection and find the value of Young’s modulus
from the graph.
Specifications of Machine:
Name : Wood Testing Machine
Range : 0 − 50 KN.
Apparatus Required:
1. Bending apparatus with simple supports. 2. Deflect meter.
3. Scale 4. Vernier caliper.
Formula:
1. Young’s modulus (E) = WL3 / 48 δ I
2. I − Moment of inertia = bd3 / 12
3. Maximum bending stress (σmax) = (WL / 4I) × (d / 2)
Where,
I − Moment of inertia in mm4. W − load in N.
d − depth of the beam in mm. L − length in mm.
b − breadth of beam in mm. δ − deflection in mm.
Theory:
When a beam is loaded, it is bent and subjected to bending moments. Bending stresses
are induced in the cross-section and varies along the depth of the beam. Bending stresses are
maximum at the external fibers of the cross-section. The bending equation establishes a
relation between the Radius of curvature to which the beam bends, the bending moment, the
bending stresses and its cross-section dimensions.
M σ E
Bending equation =  =  = 
I y R
Where, M − moment or resistance.
I − moment of inertia of the section about the Neutral axis (NA).
E − Young’s modulus of elasticity.
R − Radius of curvature of NA.
σ − Bending stress.
Observation:

31
 Length of the specimen :
Cross-section dimensions :
Breadth (b) :
Depth (d) :
Least count of Deflect meter :
1.

Tabulation:

Max. Bending
Load Load Young’s Modulus
[Link]. Deflection stress
(Kgf) N (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Deflection
[Link]. Load Average
Load Unload
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Calculation:

1. I − Moment of inertia = bd3 / 12

2. Young’s modulus (E) = WL3 / 48 δ I

3. Maximum bending stress (σmax) = (WL / 4I) × (d / 2)

As a result of the bending moment or couple, the length of the beam will take up a
curved shape, which may be treated as a part of the arc of a circle. At the outer radii the
material will be in tension and at the inner radii in compression and at some radius there will
be no stress. This layer of the material is the Neutral Axis (NA).
Procedure:
1. Measure the length and cross-section dimensions of the specimen.
2. Keep the ends of the specimen resting over the simple supports.

33
 3. Fix the deflectometer under the specimen at mid span.
4. Bring the loading unit in contact with the specimen vertically at mid span.
5. Set the load dial and deflectometer dial to zero, by zero adjustment initially.
6. Apply the load gradually and record the deflectometer readings at regular intervals.
7. After that, start unloading gradually and record the deflectometer readings at the
specified intervals.
8. Plot the graph between load and deflection.

Inference:
Student can understand the knowledge bending stress of wood
Application:
This knowledge can be utlised during designing.
Result:
1. Young’s modulus of wood =
2. Maximum Bending stress at load =
3. From graph, Young’s modulus of wood =

Viva Questions:
1. What is mean by deflection?
2. Types of beam?
3. Explain the each type of beam?
Ex No : Date :

Test on Spring (Open Coil)

Aim:
a. To determine the modulus of Rigidity of the given specimen.
b. To find the shear stress, strain energy and stiffness of the given specimen.
Specifications of Machine:
Name : Spring Testing Machine
Capacity : 1000 Kg.
Apparatus Required:
1. Vernier caliper. 2. Scale.
Formula Used:
1. Pitch = Free length of the spring / No. of turns
2. tan θ = Pitch / π Dm
3. Mean radius (R) = External diameter + Internal diameter / 4
1
4. Rigidity modulus (G) =
(δd )
4
−
2 tan 2 θ
64 WR 3 nCosθ E

5. Stiffness (K) = W/ δ
6. Shear stress = (16WR) / π d3
7. Strain Energy = 1/2Wδ
Where,
θ − helix angle d − diameter of the wire
Dm − mean diameter of the coil G − modulus of rigidity
W − load applied R − mean radius of the coil
E − Young’s modulus = 2 x 105 N/mm2.
Theory:
A coil in a open coil helical spring is inclined at considerable angle with the plane
normal to the axis. These springs are often loaded under axial compression. The effect of
open-ness of the coil is that any section of the wire of the spring is subjected to torque T and
bending moment M, which are given by
T = WR cos θ
M = WR sin θ

35
Observation:
External diameter of the spring :
Internal diameter of the spring :
Thickness of the spring wire (d) :
Number of turns in the coil (n) :

Tabulation:
Rigidity
Shear Strain Stiffness
Load Load Modulus
[Link]. Deflection Stress Energy (k)
(Kgf) N (G)
(N/mm2) (N mm) (N/mm)
(N/mm2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Deflection
[Link]. Load Average
Load Unload
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Model Calculations:
1. Pitch = Free length of the spring / No. of turns

2. Mean radius (R) = External diameter + Internal diameter / 4

3. tan θ = Pitch / π Dm

1
4. Rigidity modulus (G) =
(δd )
4
−
2 tan 2 θ
64 WR 3 nCosθ E

5. Stiffness (K) = W/ δ

37
6. Shear stress = (16WR) / π d3

7. Strain energy = 1/2Wδ

Procedure:
1. Measure the outer and inner diameter of the coil of the spring.
2. Measure the thickness of the spring wire (d).
3. Count the number of turns in the coil.
4. Fix the specimen in the spring testing machine. Apply an axial compressive load and
read the deflection.
5. Record the load and the deflection at regular intervals.
6. Plot the graph between load and deflection.

Inference:
Student can understand spring is a Energy-storage device.
Application:
Student can design simple springs for a particular purpose.
Result:
1. Modulus of rigidity (G) =
2. Spring Constant (k) =
3. Strain energy at a load of =
4. Shear stress at a load of =
Viva Questions:
1. Types of spring?
2. Define stiffness?
3. Define shear modulus?

39
Ex No : Date :

Test on Spring (Closed Coil)

Aim:
To determine the modulus of rigidity and Young’s of the specimen material.
To find the stiffness, shear stress and strain energy.
Specifications of the Machine:
Name : Spring Testing Machine
Capacity : 1000 Kg
Apparatus Required:
1. Vernier Caliper. 2. Scale.
Formula:
1. Stiffness = W /δ
2. Mean radius (R) = External diameter + Internal diameter / 4
3. Shear stress = 16 WR / π d3
4. Strain energy = 1/2Wδ
5. Rigidity modulus (G) = 64 W R3 n / δ d4
6. Young’s modulus (E) = 2G (1+ 1/m)
Where
W − Load applied G − Modulus of Rigidity
R − Mean radius of coil 1/m − Poisson’s ratio.
n − No. of turns of coil E − Young’s modulus
d − Diameter of the wire

Theory:
Energy can be stored in a spring. In closed coil helical spring, the coils arc close to each
other such that each turn is practically at right angles to the axis of the spring and the helix
angle is less than 30°. Stiffness of the spring is defined as the force per unit deflection and
Resilience is the energy stored in the spring. A close coiled helical spring is used under axial
pull. It is subjected to a torsional shear stress and also a direct shear stress. The stiffness of
and also a direct shear stress. The stiffness of the spring is otherwise known as spring
constant (K).
Observation:
External diameter of the spring :
Internal diameter of the spring :
Thickness of the spring wire (d) :
Number of turns in the coil (n) :
Poisson’s ratio (1/m) : 0.33

Tabulation:
Rigidity
Shear Young’s Strain Stiffness
Load Load Modulus
[Link] Deflection Stress Modulus Energy (k)
(Kgf) N (G)
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (N mm) (N/mm)
(N/mm2)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Deflection
[Link]. Load Average
Load Unload
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

41
Model Calculations:

1. Stiffness = W /δ

2. Mean radius (R) = External diameter + Internal diameter / 4

3. Shear stress = 16 WR / π d3
4. Strain energy = 1/2Wδ

5. Rigidity modulus (G) = Rigidity modulus (G) = 64 W R3 n / δ d4

6. Young’s modulus (E) = 2G (1+ 1/m)

43
Procedure:
1. Measure the outer and inner diameter of the coil of the spring.
2. Measure the thickness of the spring wire (d).
3. Count the number of turns in the coil.
4. Fix the specimen in the spring testing machine. Apply the load, and read the
deflection.
5. Record the load and deflection at regular intervals.
6. Plot the graph between load and deflection.
Inference:
Student can understand spring is a Energy-storage device.
Application:
Student can design simple springs for a particular purpose.
Result:
1. Modulus of rigidity (G) =
2. Spring Constant (k) =
3. Strain energy at a load of =
4. Shear stress at a load of =
5. Young’s modulus (E) =

Viva Questions:
1. Difference between open coil and closed coil spring?
2. What is mean by strain energy?
3. Define shear stress?
 Viva Questions

1. Define Stress.
When an external force acts on a body, it undergoes deformation. At the same time the body
resists deformation. The magnitude of the resisting force is numerically equal to the applied
force. This internal resisting force per unit area is called stress.
2. Define strain.
When an external force acts on a body, there is some change of dimension in the body.
Numerically the strain is equal to the ratio of change in length to the original length of the body.
3. State Hooke’s law.
It states that when the material is loaded, within its elastic limit, the stress is directly

proportional to the strain. Stress α Strain

4. Define Modulus of Elasticity.

The ratio of tensile stress to the corresponding tensile strain is constant within its elastic
limit. The ratio is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity.
5. State Bulk Modulus.
The ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is constant within elastic
limit. The ratio is known as Bulk Modulus.
6. Define poison’s ratio.
When a body is stressed, within its elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal
strain is constant for a given material.
7. Define buckling factor and buckling load.
Buckling factor:
It is the ratio between the equivalent length of the column to the minimum radius of gyration.
Buckling load:
The maximum limiting load at which the column tends to have lateral displacement or tends
to buckle is called buckling or crippling load. The buckling takes place about the axis having
minimum radius of gyration, or least moment of inertia
8. Define safe load.
It is the load to which a column is actually subjected to and is well below the buckling load.
It is obtained by dividing the buckling load by a suitable factor o f safety (F.O.S).
Safe load = Buckling load /Factor of safety

45
9. Define Factor of Safety.
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the permissible stress (working stress).

10. State the tensile stress & tensile strain.

When a member is subjected to equal & opposite axial pulls the length of the member is
increased. The stress is included at any cross section of the member is called Tensile stress & the
corresponding strain is known as Tensile strain.
11. Define: Strain Energy
When an elastic body is under the action of external forces the body deforms and work is
done by these forces. If a strained, perfectly elastic body is allowed to recover slowly to its
unstrained state. It is capable of giving back all the work done by these external forces. This work
done in straining such a body may be regarded as energy stored in a body and is called strain
energy or resilience.
12. Define: Column and strut.
A column is a long vertical slender bar or vertical member, subjected to an axial compressive
load and fixed rigidly at both ends
A strut is a slender bar or a member in an y position other than vertical, subjected to a
compressive load and fixed rigidly or hinged or pin jointed at one or both the ends.
13. What are the factors affect the strength column?
1. Slenderness ratio: Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness ratio, it is
increased the compressive strength of the column decrease as the tendency to buckle is
increased.
2. End conditions: Strength of the column depends upon the end conditions also
14. Define principal stresses and principal plane?
Principal Stresses:
The magnitude of normal stress, acting on a principal plane is known as principal stresses.
Principal Plane:
The planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes.
15. Define beam?
Beam is a structural member which is supported along the length subjected to external loads
acting transversely. ie., perpendicular to the centre of the beam. Beam is sufficiently long as
compared to external load.
16. How do you classify the beams according to its supports?
The beam may be classified according to the support
1. Cantilever
2. Simply supported beam
3. Over hanging beam
4. Fixed beam
5. Continuous beam
17. What is cantilever beam?
A beam with one end free and other end fixed is called Cantilever beam
18. What is simply supported beam?
A beam supported or resting freely on the supports at its both ends the its is called simply
supported beam.
19. What is over hanging beam?
If beam one or both end extend beyond the support limit then it is called as over hanging
beam.
20. Define shear force
Shear force
SF at any cross section of is defined as the algebraic sum of all the forces acting either side of a
beam.
21. Define Bending Moment at a section.
BM at any cross section if the algebraic sum of the moments of all forces which are
placed either side from the support.
22. Define hardening.
It is a heat treatment process to increase the strength and hardness.
23. Name some quenching mediums.
Air, water, oil.
24. Define tempering.
It is a heat treatment process to reduce the stress and brittleness.

47
Observation and Tabulation:
Diameter of Inlet of Orificemeter = m
Diameter of Orifice = m
Internal dimensions of collecting tank,
Length = m
Breadth = m

Time for H rise in the collecting

Manometric Reading in cm
tank T in sec
Reading
No. Left limb Right limb
(h1 ~ h2 ) Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
reading h1 reading h2

5
Ex No: Date :

Flow Through Orificemeter

Aim:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of given Orificemeter.
Apparatus Required:
1. Orificemeter 2. Differential “U” tube Manometer
Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve
Theory:
Orificemeter is a device used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through it.
The pressure difference between the inlet and the diaphragm of the orificemeter is recorded
using a U tube manometer and the time is recorded for a measured discharge.

Formula :
a1 a 2 2gh
Theoretical Discharge (Q )
t = m3 / sec
2 2
a1 - a 2
where,
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 in m / sec2
h = Orificemeter’s Pressure Head difference in m
S - S 
 m f 
1. Difference head in pressure , h =  h ~ h  ×   in m
 1 2   S 
 
 f 
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm= Specific gravity of manometric fluid (Mercury) = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid (Water) = 1

2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A ×H) / T = m3 / sec

A = Area of the collecting tank in m2

H = Rise of liquid in collecting tank in m
T = Time of collection for H rise of liquid in collecting tank in sec

3. Co – efficient of Discharge (Cd ) = Qa / Qt

49
Calculation Table:

Discharge in m3 / sec
Pressure difference
Reading Coefficient of
between inlet and
No. Actual Theoretical discharge Cd
throat in m
(Qa ) (Qt )

Mean =

Model Calculation:
a1 a 2 2gh
1. Theoretical Discharge (Q )
t = 2 2
m3/sec.
a 1 - a2

2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A × H) / T = m3/sec.

3. Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd ) = Qa / Qt

Procedure:
 1. The dimensions of the inlet and the throat are recorded and the internal dimensions of
the collecting tank are measured.
2. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is opened fully and inlet valve is opened fully.
3. Due to pressure difference of flowing fluid between inlet and throat, the difference in
the level of the manometric fluid in the manometer limbs h1 and h2 are noted.
4. The difference in the pressure head h is calculated using the formula.
5. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time T required for H
rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a Stop watch. The readings are
taken for two trials.
6. The experiment is repeated by gradually closing the outlet valve.
7. The time taken and the difference in pressure head for various positions of the outlet
valve are observed.
8. The observations are tabulated and the co-efficient of discharge of the orificemeter is
computed.
Graph:
A graph of Qa vs h and Qa vs √ h are drawn, taking h and √h on X – Axis.
Observation from the Graph:
Actual Discharge Qa = in m3 / sec
Difference head in pressure √h = in m
Graph Calculation:
Difference head in pressure h = in m
Theoretical Discharge Qt = in m3 / sec
Co-efficient of discharge Cd =
Result:
The Co-efficient of discharge of the Orificemeter
By Calculation =
By Graph =
Inference:
Orificemeter is another application of Bernoulli’s equation. Orificemeters are preferred
for measuring discharge of single phase continuous fluid flow.
Applications:
Orifice plates are most commonly used to measure flow rates in Pelton wheel and Francis
turbines.

51
Observation and Tabulation:
Diameter of Inlet of Venturimeter = m
Diameter of Throat = m
Internal dimensions of collecting tank,
Length = m
Breadth = m

Time for H rise in the collecting

Manometric Reading in cm
tank T in sec
Reading
No. Left limb Right limb
(h1 ~ h2 ) Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
reading h1 reading h2

5
Ex No: Date :

Flow Through Venturimeter

Aim:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of given Venturimeter.
Apparatus Required:
1. Venturimeter 2. Differential “U” tube Manometer
2. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and Gate valve.
Theory :
Venturimeter is a device used to measure the discharge of any liquid flowing through it.
The pressure difference between the inlet and the throat of the venturimeter is recorded using
a U tube manometer and the time is recorded for a discharge.
Formula:

Theoretical Discharge (Q1) = a a 2 gh

1 2
m3 / sec
2 2
a −a
1 2

where,
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 in m / sec2
h = Orificemeter’s Pressure Head difference in m
S - S 
 m f 
1. Difference head in pressure , h =  h ~ h  ×   in m
 1 2   S 
 f 
 
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm= Specific gravity of manometric fluid (Mercury) = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid (Water) = 1

2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A ×H) / T = m3 / sec

A = Area of the collecting tank in m2

H = Rise of liquid in collecting tank in m
T = Time of collection for H rise of liquid in collecting tank in sec

3. Co – efficient of Discharge (Cd ) = Qa / Qt

53
Calculation Table:

Discharge in m3 / sec
Pressure difference
Reading Coefficient of
between inlet and
No. Actual Theoretical discharge Cd
throat in m
(Qa ) (Qt )

Mean =

Model Calculation:

1. Theoretical Discharge (Q1) = a a 2 gh

1 2
m3/sec.
2 2
a −a1 2

2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A × H) / T = m3/sec.

3. Co-efficient of Discharge (Cd ) = Qa / Qt

Procedure:
1. The dimensions of the inlet and the throat are recorded and the internal dimensions of
the collecting tank are measured.
2. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is opened fully and inlet valve is opened fully.
3. Due to pressure difference of flowing fluid between inlet and throat, the difference in
the level of the manometric fluid in the manometer limbs h1 and h2 are noted.
4. The difference in pressure head h is calculated using the formula.
5. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time T required for H
rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a Stop watch. The readings are
taken for two trials.
6. The experiment is repeated by gradually closing the outlet valve.
7. The time taken and the difference in pressure head for various positions of the outlet
valve are observed.
8. The observations are tabulated and the co-efficient of discharge of the venturimeter is
computed.
Graph:
A graph of Qa vs h and Qa vs √h are drawn, taking h and √ h on X – Axis.
Observation from the Graph:
Actual Discharge Qa = in m3 / sec
Difference head in pressure √h =
Graph Calculation:
Difference head in pressure h = in m
Theoretical Discharge Qt = in m3 / sec
Co-efficient of discharge Cd =
Result:
The Co-efficient of discharge of the Venturimeter
By Calculation =
By Graph =
Inference:
Venturimeter is based on the principle of Conservation of mass (Bernoulli’s
Equation).Venturimeter is preferred over orificemeter since the head loss in the venturimeter
is less compared to the orificemeter.
Applications:
Venturimeters are used to measure the flow rate in Kaplan turbines.
55
Ex No: Date:

Performance Study of Rotameter

Aim :

To determine the percentage error by using rotameter test and study its operation.

Apparatus Required:

1. Rotameter

Theory:

Rotameter consists of a gradually tapered glass tube mounted vertically in a frame with
the large end up. The fluid flows upward through the tapered tube and suspends freely a float
(which does not actually float but is completely submerged in the fluid). The float is the
indicating element and the greater the flow rate, the higher the float rides in the tube. The
entire fluid stream must flow through the annular space between the float and the tube wall.
The tube is marked in divisions, and the reading of the meter is obtained from the scale
reading at the reading edge of the float, which is taken at the largest cross section of the float.
Rotameters can be used for either liquid or gas flow measurement.

Formula :
 Rotameter Discharge − Actual Discharge 
1. % of error =   × 100
 Rotameter Discharge 

Where,
2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A ×H) / T = m3 / sec
A = Area of the measuring tank in m2.
H = Rise of water level (say 10 cm) in m.
T = Time in sec for raise of water level (say 10 cm)

3. Actual Discharge (Q A in lpm) = Q A in m3 / sec 1000 60 in lpm.

57
Observation and Tabulation:

Internal dimensions of collecting tank,

Length = m

Breadth = m

Actual Actual
Rotometer Time for H rise
Reading Discharge Discharge
discharge in in the collecting % Error
No (QA) (QA)
lpm tank in sec
in m3 / sec in lpm

Model Calculation:

 Rotameter Discharge − Actual Discharge 

1. % of error =   × 100
 Rotameter Discharge 

2. Actual Discharge (Qa) = (A × H) / T = m3 / sec

3. Actual Discharge (Q A in lpm) = Q A in m3 / sec 1000 60 in lpm.

Procedure:
1. The internal dimension of the collecting tank, and datum head (hdt ) is measured.
2. The delivery valve is partially opened and the bypass valve is fully closed.
3. By adjusting delivery valve and by adjusting bypass valve the float is kept to required
flow rate and the discharge readings are noted.
4. For the particular flow rate, the drain cock is closed and the time taken (T) for “h” rise
in the collecting tank is noted.
5. The drain valve is opened and the procedure is repeated.
6. From the time taken the actual discharge is calculated.
Graph:
A graph of
Actual Discharge (QA in lpm ) vs Error ( % )
are drawn , taking QA in lpm on X – Axis.
Result:
Rotometer experiment is conducted and flow rate is found and the percentage of error is
determined.
The Minimum % error =
The Maximum % error =
Inference:
The float is in equilibrium position when the rising force, buoyancy and viscous float
suffered gravity lift are equal. The float rises as the flow rate increases.
Application:
Rotameter can be used to measure the flow rates of corrosive and non-corrosive liquids
since the float can be made of any material like aluminum, stainless steel etc.,

59
Ex No. : Date :

Flow Through Pipes

Aim :
To determine the friction factors (f) of the pipes.
Apparatus Required:
1. A pipe provided with inlet and outlet valves and pressure tapping cocks.
2. Differential “U” tube Manometer
3. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and Gate valve
Theory:
When the liquid is flow through a pipe line, it is subjected to the frictional resistance.
The frictional resistance depends upon the roughness of the inner surface of the pipe line.
More the roughness greater is the frictional resistance.
The loss of head between selected lengths of the pipes is observed for a measured
discharge. The friction factor (f) is calculated by using the following expression.
Formula:
 S − Sf 
1. Head loss due to friction, hf = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 
Where,
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm = Specific gravity of manometric fluid = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid = 1

 AT×H 
2. Velocity of flow in pipe, v =  a  m / sec
 
A = Area of the collecting tank in m2
H = Rise of liquid in collecting tank in m
T = Time of collection for H rise of liquid in collecting tank in sec
a = Cross sectional area of the pipe in m2

61
Observation and Tabulation :
Diameter of Pipe (GI) = in m
Diameter of Pipe (PVC) = in m
Length of Pipe between pressure cock = in m
Internal dimensions of collecting tank,
Length = in m
Breadth = in m

Time for H rise in the collecting

Reading Manometric Reading in cm
tank T in sec
No.
h1 h2 x = ( h1 ~ h2 ) Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
GI Pipe

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

PVC Pipe

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
  h 2gd 
3. Friction Factor, f =  f 2 
 1 V 

hf = Head loss due to friction

g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / sec2
d = Diameter of pipe in m
l = Length of pipe (between pressure tapping cock) in m
v = Velocity of flow in pipe in m / sec
Procedure:
1. The dimension of the pipe is recorded and the internal dimensions of the collecting
tank and length of the pipe line between the two pressure tapping cocks are measured.
2. With the outlet valve in fully open condition for the required Pipe. And open its
manometer valves also.
3. The inlet valve is opened slightly and the manometer heads in both the limbs (h1 and
h2) are noted.
4. The outlet valve of the collecting tank is closed tightly and the time T required for H
rise of water in the collecting tank is observed using a Stop watch.
5. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow rate and the
readings are observed.
6. The observations are tabulated and the friction factor (f) of the pipe is computed.

63
Calculation Table:

Head loss due to Discharge Velocity of

Reading Friction factor
friction (hf) (Q) Flow (v) in
No. (f)
in m in m3 / sec m/Sec
GI Pipe

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean Value of GI Pipe’s Friction factor ( f )

PVC Pipe

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean Value of PVC Pipe’s Friction factor ( f )

Model Calculation:
 S − Sf 
1. Head loss due to friction , hf = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 

 AT×H 
2. Velocity of flow in pipe , v =  a  m / sec
 

 h 2gd 
3. Friction Factor , f =  f 2 
 1 V 

Graph:
A graph of hf Vs v2 is drawn, taking hf on X – Axis.
Result:
The friction factor (f) of the given
GI pipe =
PVC pipe =
Inference:
From this experiment it is understood that friction factor of PVC pipe is less than GI
pipe and this due to surface roughness of the pipe.
Applications:
Friction factor (f) is used in pipe designing

65
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of Centrifugal Pump

Aim:
To study the performance of the Centrifugal pump and to draw the characteristics curves
of the Centrifugal pump.
Apparatus Required:
1. Centrifugal pump 2. Energy meter
3. Pressure Gauge 4. Vacuum Gauge
5. Digital Tacho Meter 6. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve
Theory:
Centrifugal pump is a device used to lift liquids from a lower level to higher level. The
rotary motion imparted to the liquid by the blades of the impeller, causes a centrifugal force
to act on it. The centrifugal force forces the liquid to flow radially outward with a very high
velocity. The kinetic energy of the leaving liquid is then converted to pressure energy, as a
result, the liquid is lifted to the required level.
Formula:
1. Total Head = (Delivery Pressure gauge reading +
Vacuum gauge reading + Datum head) in mm
2. Datum Head = Distance between center of the pump and the point at
which the Pressure gauge is connected in the delivery pipe
in m.
A×H
3. Discharge (Q) = m3 / sec
T
where,
A = Area of the measuring tank in m.
h = Rise of water level (say 10 cm) in m.
T = Time for raise of water level (say 10 cm) in sec
4. Output Power (Po) = 9.81 x H x Q kW
where ,
w = Specific weight of water in N / m3 = 9.81 kN / m3
H = Total Head in m
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec

67
Observation and Tabulation:
Suction Head ( hs ) = in m
Datum Head ( hdt ) = 0.3 in m
Energy meter constant ( E ) = 3200 in impulse / kW.h
Internal dimensions of collecting tank,
Length = in m
Breadth = in m
Vacuum Time for 5
Delivery pressure Time for h rise in the
pressure Gauge revolutions /
Reading Gauge reading collecting tank T in sec
reading impulse of
No.
Energy meter
in kg /cm2 in m in kg/cm2 in m Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
disc (t) in sec
1

Calculation Table:

Total Head
Reading Discharge (Q) Input power Output power Efficiency (η)
(H)
No. in m3 / sec (Pi) in kW (Po) in kW in%
in m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 X 1
5. Input Power (Pi) = × 3600 × × 0.8 kW
t E
where,
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc (say 5 Rev.)
t = Time for energy meter revolution disc (say 5 Rev.)
E = Energy meter constant
= Efficiency of the motor

Po
6. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi
Procedure :
1. The internal dimension of the collecting tank and datum head (hdt) is measured.
2. The pump is primed and started with the delivery valve and the gauge cocks in the full
opened position.
3. The delivery valve is slowly closed and adjusted it to the required delivery head up to
1 kg/cm2.
4. The delivery pressure gauge reading is noted.
5. For the delivery pressure gauge reading, the time taken (T) for “h” rise in the
collecting tank is noted. The readings are taken for two trials.
6. The time taken (t) for 5 revolutions / impulse of the energy meter disc is noted.
7. Theabove procedure is repeated for various delivery pressures and the performance
characteristics curves are drawn.
8. Multispeed can be achieved by adjustment of belt drive and the same procedure is
repeated.
9. The efficiency of the centrifugal pump is calculated using the formulae.

69
Model Calculation:

1. Total Head = (Delivery Pressure gauge reading

+ Vacuum gauge reading + Datum head) in mm

2. Datum Head = Distance between center of the pump and the point at which the
Pressure gauge is connected in the delivery pipe in m.

A×H
3. Discharge (Q ) = m3 / sec
T

4. Output Power (Po) = 9.81 x H x Q kW

X 1
5. Input Power (Pi) = × 3600 × × 0.8 kW
t E

Po
6. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi
Graph :
A graph of
i. Total Head ( H ) vs Efficiency ( η )
ii. Total Head ( H ) vs Discharge ( Q )
iii. Total Head ( H ) vs Input power ( Pi ) are drawn , taking H on X – Axis.
Result :
Thus the performance of centrifugal pump test is studied and the characteristics curves of
centrifugal pump are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference:
The discharge is continuous and smooth. The centrifugal pump can handle large quantity
of fluid through small heads.
Applications:
1. In Energy and Oil - refineries, power plants
2. In Building Services - pressure boosting, heating installations, fire protection sprinkler
systems, drainage, air conditioning
3. In Industry and Water engineering - boiler feed applications, water supply (municipal,
industrial), wastewater management, irrigation, sprinkling, drainage and flood
protection
4. In Chemical and Process Industries - paints, chemicals, hydrocarbons,
pharmaceuticals, cellulose, petro-chemicals, sugar refining, food and beverage
production
5. In Secondary systems - coolant recirculation, condensate transport, cryogenics,
refrigerants

71
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of a Reciprocating Pump

Aim :
To study the performance of the Reciprocating pump and to draw the characteristics
curves of the Reciprocating pump.
Apparatus Required :
1. Reciprocating pump 2. Energy meter
3. Pressure Gauge 4. Vacuum Gauge
5. Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve
Theory :
A Reciprocating pump consists primarily of a piston or a plunger reciprocating inside a
close fitting cylinder thus the performing the suction and delivery strokes. Movement of the
piston or plunger creates a vacuum and atmospheric pressure forces the water up through the
suction pipe into the cylinder. Suction pipe and clearance volume of the cylinder are first
filled with water to replace the air. This is done with the help of air vessel. With the help of
air vessel, water follows closely the piston or the plunger on its forward stroke. As a matter of
fact, with the movement of piston this water column moves up from the water sump though
the suction pipe with the forces of cohesion ( i.e. molecules of water of suction pipe
attracting the molecules of water in the sump ) and the water moves with this piston with the
forces of adhesion ( i.e. molecules of water in the cylinder attracting the molecules of piston
material ). In the return of backward stroke water is pushed upwards into the delivery pipe.
Suction and delivery pipes are connected to the cylinder as shown in fig. Each of the two
pipes is provided with a non-return valve the suction pipe valve allows the water only to enter
the cylinder while the delivery pipe valve permits only its discharge from the cylinder.
Formula:
1. Total Head = (Delivery Pressure gauge reading +
Vacuum gauge reading + Datum head) in mm
2. Datum Head = Distance between center of the pump and the point at
which the Pressure gauge is connected in the delivery pipe in m.

73
Observation and Tabulation:
Datum Head (hdt) = 0.30 in m
Energy meter constant (E) = 3600 in impulse / kW.h
Internal dimensions of collecting tank,
Length = in m
Breadth = in m
Time for 5
revolutions
Delivery Vacuum
Time for h rise in the / impulse
pressure Gauge pressure Gauge
Reading collecting tank T in sec of Energy
reading reading
No. meter disc
(t) in sec
in in
in m in m Trial 1 Trial 2 Average
kg / cm2 kg / cm2
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Calculation Table:

Discharge Input power Output Efficienc

Reading Total Head
(Q) (Pi) power y
No. ( H ) in m
in m3 / sec in kW (Po) in kW (η) in %

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
 A×H
3. Discharge (Q) = m3 / sec
T
where,
A = Area of the measuring tank in m.
h = Rise of water level (say 10 cm) in m.
T = Time for raise of water level (say 10 cm) in sec
4. Output Power (Po) = 9.81 x H x Q kW
where ,
w = Specific weight of water in N / m3 = 9.81 kN / m3
H = Total Head in m
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
X 1
5. Input Power (Pi) = × 3600 × × 0.8 kW
t E
where,
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc (say 5 Rev.)
t = Time for energy meter revolution disc (say 5 Rev.)
E = Energy meter constant
= Efficiency of the motor

Po
6. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi
Procedure :
1. The internal dimension of the collecting tank, suction head (hs) and datum head ( hdt )
is measured.
2. With the delivery valve fully opened position and the gauge cocks in the full opened
position the pump is started.
3. The delivery valve is partially closed and adjusted it to the required delivery head up
to 1 kg/cm2.
4. The delivery pressure gauge reading is noted.
5. For the delivery pressure gauge reading, the time taken (T) for “h” rise in the
collecting tank is noted.
6. The time taken (t) for 5 revolutions / impulse of the energy meter disc / LED in the
energy meter is noted.
7. The above procedure is repeated for various delivery pressures, and the performance
characteristics curves are drawn.

75
Model Calculation:

1. Total Head = (Delivery Pressure gauge reading +

Vacuum gauge reading + Datum head) in mm

2. Datum Head = Distance between center of the pump and the point at
which the Pressure gauge is connected in the delivery pipe in m.

A×H
3. Discharge (Q) = m3 / sec
T

4. Output Power (Po) = 9.81 x H x Q kW

X 1
5. Input Power (Pi) = × 3600 × × 0.8 kW
t E

Po
6. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi
Graph :
A graph of
Total Head ( H ) vs Efficiency ( η )
Total Head ( H ) vs Discharge ( Q )
Total Head ( H ) vs Input power ( Pi )
are drawn , taking H on X – Axis.
Result :
Thus the performance of reciprocating pump test is studied and the characteristics curves
of reciprocating pump are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference:
From this experiment the performance of reciprocating pump is studied. It is understood
that as the head increases input power increases, discharge increases and efficiency increases.
Applications :
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps are widely used in chemical, petrochemical,
refinery, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food industry and water treatment industry where a high
degree of accuracy and reliability under a range of conditions are required. Various types are
available to meet the diverse demands of many processes which include Windmill, oil pump
Hand pump, feeding small boilers condensate return and light oil pumping.

77
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of Gear Oil Pump

Aim :
To study the performance of the gear oil pump and to draw the characteristics curves of
the Gear oil pump.
Apparatus Required:
Gear oil pump
Energy meter
Pressure Gauge
Collecting tank fitted with piezometer and control valve
Theory :
The Gear pump is a rotary pump in which two gears mesh to provide the pumping action.
This type of pump is mostly use for cooling water and pressure oil to be applied for
lubrication to motors , turbines , machine tools etc. Although the gear pump is rotating
machinery, yet its action on liquid to be pumped is not dynamic and it merely displaces the
liquid from one side to the other. The flow of liquid to be pumped is continuous and uniform.
One of the gears is keyed to a diving shaft. The other gear revolves due to driving gear.
The space between teeth and the casing is filled with oil. The oil is carried round between the
gears from the suction pipe to the delivery pipe. The mechanical contact between the gears
does not allow the flow from a part of moving oil. The oil pushed into the delivery pipe,
cannot come back into the suction pipe due to the meshing of the gears.
Formula :
1. Total Head ( H ) = hs + hd + h in m
Where,
hs = Suction head , It is the distance from the level of water in the sump to the center
of the pump in m.
hd = Delivery head. hd = ( Pressure gauge reading (p) in kg / cm2 × 10 ) in m.
h = Datum head. i.e. Distance between center of the pump and the point at which
the pressure gauge is connected in the delivery pipe in m.

79
Observation and Tabulation:
1. a. Length of the Collecting tank (L) = m.
b. Breadth of the Collecting tank (B) = m.
Area of the Collecting tank (L x B) = m2
2. Suction head (hs) = 0.55 m
3. Datum head (h) = 0.15 m
4. Energy meter Constant (E) = 600 rev / kW.h.

Time for 5 cm Time for 5

Delivery pressure Delivery pressure
rise in the revolutions of the
gauge reading gauge reading
S. No. collecting tank energy meter disc
(hd) (hd)
(T) (t)
in Kg / cm2 in m
in sec in sec

Calculation Table:

Discharge Total Head Input Power Output Power Efficiency

S. No
(Q) in m3 / sec (H) in m (Pi) in kW (Po) kW (η) in %
 A×H 3
2. Discharge ( Q ) = m / sec
T
A = Area of the collecting tank in m2
H = Rise of liquid in collecting tank in m
T = Time of collection for H rise of liquid in collecting tank in sec
3600 × N
3. Input Power ( Pi ) = in kW
t×E

N = no. of revolutions made by the energy meter disc in the energy

meter say 5 revolutions.
t = Time taken for 5 revolutions of energy meter disc in sec.
E = Energy meter constant in rev / [Link]
wQH
4. Output Power ( Po ) = in kW
1000

Fluid used = SAE 40

ρ = Density of flowing fluid in kg/m3 = 860 kg/ m3
w = Specific weight of flowing fluid in N / m3 = 8436.60 N / m3
Q = Discharge in m3 / s
H = Total Head in m
Po
5. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi

81
Model Calculation:

1. Total Head ( H ) = hs + hd + h in m

A×H 3
2. Discharge ( Q ) = m / sec
T

3600 × N
3. Input Power ( Pi ) = in kW
t×E

wQH
4. Output Power ( Po ) = in kW
1000

Po
5. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Pi
Procedure:
1. The internal dimension of the collecting tank, suction head (hs) and datum head (h) is
measured.
2. The pump is switched on with the delivery valve in fully opened condition.
3. Then the delivery valve is partially closed and adjusted to the required delivery head up
to 2.5 kg/cm2.
4. The delivery pressure gauge reading is noted.
5. For the delivery pressure gauge reading, the time taken (T) for “H” rise in the collecting
tank is noted.
6. The time taken (t) for 5 revolutions of the energy meter disc is noted.
7. The above procedure is repeated for various delivery pressures and the performance
characteristics curves are drawn.
Graph:
A graph of
Total Head ( H ) vs Efficiency (η)
Total Head ( H ) vs Discharge (Q)
Total Head ( H ) vs Input power (Pi)
are drawn , taking H on X – Axis.
Result:
Thus the performance of Gear oil pump test is studied and the characteristics curves of
Gear oil pump are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference:
It is inferred that gear pump is a rotary positive displacement pump. Small external gear
pumps operate at relatively higher rpm than larger model gear pumps.
Applications:
Gear pumps are used in machine tools, fluid power transfer units and in precise transfer
of polymers, fuels and chemical additives.

83
Ex No: Date :

Performance Characteristics of Pelton Wheel Turbine (Constant Speed)

Aim :
To study the performance of Pelton Wheel Turbine and draw the characteristic curves of
the Pelton Wheel Turbine.
The experiment is conducted to:
Obtain Constant Speed characteristics
Apparatus Required :
The Pelton wheel turbine test rig.
Theory:
Hydraulic (Water) turbines are the machines that use the energy of water (Hydro –
Power) and convert it into Mechanical Energy. Thus the turbines become the prim over to run
Electric Generators to produce electricity, viz. Hydro Electric Power. That means the
produced mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy. At present the generation of hydroelectric power is the cheapest as compared by the
power generated by other sources such as oil, coal etc.
Turbines are classified as Impulse and Reaction types. In impulse Turbine, the head of the
water is completely converted into a jet, which impulse the force on the Turbine. Pelton
Wheel requires high Heads and Low Discharge
Pelton wheel turbine consists of following main parts
1. Mono block Centrifugal Pump
2. Turbine Unit
3. Sump Tank
4. Orifice Meter with Inlet and Outlet pressure tapping and “U” tube manometer
arrangements
5. Brake drum with Flat belt and Spring balancers
6. Provision for measurement of Head on Turbine (by Pressure gauge)

85
Technical specifications:
UTE Pelton Turbine
1. Rated supply head = 30 m
2. Discharge = 450 1pm
3. Rated Speed = 800 rpm
4. Runner outside Diameter = 250 mm
5. No. of Pelton cups = 18 Nos.
6. Mean Brake drum diameter = 200 mm
7. Power Output = 1HP
Formula
Input Power (Pi) = w × Q × H in Watts
Where
w = Specific weight of water = 9810 in N / m3
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
H = Total Head of the flow (or) Delivery pressure of the pump in m
C d a 1a 2 2gh
Discharge (Q) = m3 / sec.
2 2
a −a
1 2

Where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of Orifice Meter
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 in m / sec2
h = Orifice Meter’s Pressure Head difference in m
 S − Sf 
Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm = Specific gravity of manometric fluid / Mercury = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid / Water = 1

87
 2× π× N×T
Output Power (PO) = in Watts
60
Where,
N = Speed of the Turbine in rpm
T = Produced Torque on Brake Drum in Nm
Torque (T) = Force (F) x Perpendicular Distance (R)
F = Mass (m) × g
Perpendicular Distance (R) = Mean radius of Brake Drum
= (Radius of Brake Drum (D / 2) + Half of the flat belt
Thickness (T/2)
Output Power (PO )
Turbine Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )

Procedure:
1. The delivery valve is kept closed before switching “ON” the pump,.
2. The pump is started.
3. The delivery valve is gradually opened until to reach the turbine speed is 900 rpm.
4. The nozzle is opened with the help of hand wheel.
5. The turbine speed is kept constant by operating the delivery valve.
6. The required mechanical load is applied on the brake drum using screw rod.
7. The spring balance reading is noted for the applied load.
8. The delivery of the turbine is adjusted to maintain the constant speed of 900 rpm
9. The pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading are noted for the applied load.
10. The difference in head levels h1 and h2 in the manometer, connected to the
orificemeter are noted.
11. The experiment is repeated and the readings are noted.
12. Using the observations the efficiency is calculated by using the formulae.

89
Model Calculation:

1. Input Power (Pi) = w × Q × H in Watts

C d a 1a 2 2gh
2. Discharge (Q)= m3 / sec.
2 2
a −a
1 2

 S − Sf 
3. Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 

2× π× N×T
4. Output Power (PO) = in Watts
60

5. Perpendicular Distance (R) = Mean radius of Brake Drum

= (Radius of Brake Drum (D / 2) + Half of the flat belt
Thickness (T/2)

Output Power (PO )

6. Turbine Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )
Graph:
The graphs are drawn for
Characteristics Analysis:
Total Head (H) vs Discharge ( Q )
Total Head (H) vs Input power ( Pi )
Total Head (H) vs Efficiency ( η )
taking H on X – Axis.
and
Performance Analysis:
Brake Power ( Po ) vs Efficiency ( η )
Torque ( T ) vs Total Head ( H )
Torque ( T ) Vs Discharge ( Q )
taking Po , T on X – Axis.
Result:
Thus the performance of Pelton wheel turbine test is studied and the characteristics
curves of turbine are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference:
It is inferred that discharge and efficiency increases with the head at constant speed
condition.
Applications:
Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power, when the available water source
has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates, where the Pelton wheel is most efficient.
It is used in Aliyar Power House, Pykara Singara Power House, Suruliar Power House and in
Idukki Power House

91
Ex No: Date :

Performance Characteristics of Pelton Wheel Turbine(Constant Head)

Aim :
To study the performance of Pelton Wheel Turbine and draw the characteristic curves of
the Pelton Wheel Turbine.
The experiment is conducted to:
Obtain Constant Head characteristics
Apparatus Required :
The Pelton wheel turbine test rig.
Theory:
Hydraulic (Water) turbines are the machines that use the energy of water (Hydro – Power)
and convert it into Mechanical Energy. Thus the turbines become the prim over to run
Electric Generators to produce electricity, viz. Hydro Electric Power. That means the
produced mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy. At present the generation of hydroelectric power is the cheapest as compared by the
power generated by other sources such as oil, coal etc.
Turbines are classified as Impulse and Reaction types. In impulse Turbine, the head of the
water is completely converted into a jet, which impulse the force on the Turbine. Pelton
Wheel requires high Heads and Low Discharge
Pelton wheel turbine consists of following main parts

1. Mono block Centrifugal Pump

2. Turbine Unit
3. Sump Tank
4. Orificemeter with Inlet and Outlet pressure tapping and “U” tube manometer
arrangements
5. Brake drum with Flat belt and Spring balancers
6. Provision for measurement of Head on Turbine (by Pressure gauge)

93
Technical specifications:
UTE Pelton Turbine
1. Rated supply head = 30 m
2. Discharge = 450 1pm
3. Rated Speed = 800 rpm
4. Runner outside Diameter = 250 mm
5. No. of Buckets = 18 Nos.
6. Mean Brake drum diameter = 200 mm
7. Power Output = 1HP
Formula
1. Input Power (Pi) = w × Q × H in Watts
Where
w = Specific weight of water = 9810 in N / m3
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
H = Total Head of the flow (or) Delivery pressure of the pump in m
C d a 1a 2 2gh
2. Discharge (Q)= m3 / sec.
2 2
a −a
1 2

Where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of Orifice Meter
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 in m / sec2
h = Orifice Meter’s Pressure Head difference in m
 S − Sf 
3. Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm = Specific gravity of manometric fluid / Mercury = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid / Water = 1

95
4. Perpendicular Distance (R) = Mean radius of Brake Drum
= (Radius of Brake Drum (D / 2) + Half of the flat belt
Thickness (T/2)
Output Power (PO )
5. Turbine Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )
Procedure :
1. The delivery valve is kept closed before switching “ON” the pump,.
2. The pump is started.
3. The delivery valve is gradually opened until to reach the full open condition.
4. The turbine head is kept constant by operating the nozzle.
5. The required mechanical load is applied on the brake drum using screw rod.
6. The spring balance reading is noted for the applied load.
7. The pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading are noted for the applied load.
8. The turbine speed is noted for the applied load.
9. The difference in head levels h1 and h2 in the manometer, connected to the
orificemeter are noted.
10. The experiment is repeated and the readings are noted.
11. Using the observations the efficiency is calculated by using the formulae.

97
Model Calculation:

1. Input Power (Pi) = w × Q × H in Watts

C d a 1a 2 2gh
2. Discharge (Q) = m3 / sec.
2 2
a −a
1 2

 S − Sf 
3. Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 

2× π× N×T
4. Output Power (PO)= in Watts
60

5. Perpendicular Distance (R) = Mean radius of Brake Drum

= (Radius of Brake Drum (D / 2) + Half of the flat belt
Thickness (T/2)

Output Power (PO )

6. Turbine Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )
Graph :
The graphs are drawn for
Characteristics Analysis :
Turbine Speed ( N ) vs Discharge ( Q )
Turbine Speed ( N ) vs Input power ( Pi )
Turbine Speed (N) vs Efficiency ( η )
taking N on X – Axis.
and
Performance Analysis :
Brake Power ( Po ) vs Efficiency ( η )
Torque ( T ) vs Turbine Speed ( N )
taking Po , T on X – Axis.
Result :
Thus the performance of Pelton wheel turbine test is studied and the characteristics
curves of turbine are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference:
As speed increases, the efficiency increases. The discharge and power input remains
constant at constant head.
Applications of pelton wheel:
Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power, when the available water source
has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates, where the Pelton wheel is most efficient.
It is used in
Aliyar Power House, Pykara Singara Power House, Suruliar Power House and in Idukki
Power house.

99
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of Francis Turbine (Constant Speed)

Aim :
To study the performance of Francis Turbine and draw the characteristic curves of the
Francis Turbine. The experiment is conducted to obtain Constant Speed characteristics.
Apparatus Required :
1. Francis turbine test rig.
Theory:
Hydraulic (Water) turbines are the machines that use the energy of water (Hydro –
Power) and convert it into Mechanical Energy. Thus the turbines become the prim over to run
Electric Generators to produce electricity, viz. Hydro Electric Power.
Turbines are classified as Impulse and Reaction types. Francis turbine comes into the
category of Reaction Turbines. In Reaction Turbine, it is the pressure of the flowing water,
which rotates the runner of the Turbine. Francis (Reaction Turbines) requires low Heads and
high Discharge.
The Francis turbine consists of the following major parts
1. Mono block Centrifugal Pump
2. Turbine Unit
3. Sump Tank
4. Orificemeter with Inlet and Outlet pressure tapping and “U” tube manometer
arrangements
5. Brake drum with Flat belt and Spring balancers
6. Provision for measurement of Head on Turbine (by Pressure gauges)
Technical specifications:
UTE Francis Turbine
1. Rated supply head = 7 meters.
2. Discharge = 1200 lpm
3. Rated speed = 800 rpm.
4. Power Output = 1 HP
5. Mean Brake drum diameter = 200 mm.

101
Formula:
Input Power (Pi) = W × Q × H in Watts
Where,
w = Specific weight of water = 9810 in N / m3
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
H = Total Head of the flow (or) the sum of Delivery pressure of the pump and
Vacuum pressure of turbine in m

Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh m3 / sec.

1 2
2 2
a −a1 2

Where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of Orificemeter
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 in m / sec2
h = Orificemeter’s Pressure Head difference in m
 S − Sf 
Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 
h1 = Manometric head in one limb of the manometer in m
h2 = Manometric head in other limb of the manometer in m
Sm = Specific gravity of manometric fluid / Mercury = 13.6
Sf = Specific gravity of flowing fluid / Water = 1
Procedure:

1. The delivery valve is kept closed before switching “ON” the pump,.
2. The pump is started.
3. The delivery valve is gradually opened until to reach the turbine speed is 900 rpm.
4. The turbine speed is kept constant by operating the delivery valve.
5. The required mechanical load is applied on the brake drum using screw rod.
6. The spring balance reading is noted for the applied load.
7. The delivery valve of the turbine is adjusted to maintain the constant speed of 900 rpm
8. The pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading are noted for the applied load.
9. The difference in head levels h1 and h2 in the manometer, connected to the orificemeter
are noted.
10. The experiment is repeated and the readings are noted.
11. Using the observations the efficiency is calculated with the formulae.

103
Model Calculation:
 S − Sf 
1. Difference head in pressure, h = (h1 ~ h 2 ) ×  m  in m
 Sf 

2. Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh m3 / sec.

1 2
2 2
a −a1 2

3. Total Head (H) = Pressure Gauge Reading + Vacuum Gauge Reading in m

4. Input Power (Pi) = W × Q × H in Watts

5. Force (F) = mass (m) × gravity (g)

6. Perpendicular Distance (R) = Mean radius of Brake Drum

= (Radius of Brake Drum (D/2) + Half of the flat belt
Thickness (T/2)

105
 7. Torque (T) = Force (F) x Perpendicular Distance (R)

2× π× N×T
8. Output Power (PO) = in Watts
60
Where,
N = Speed of the Turbine in rpm
T = Produced Torque on Brake Drum in Nm

Output Power (PO )

9. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )

Calculation Table:
Orifice Output
Input
meter Discharge Torque Power
Reading Power Efficiency
Pressure (Q) (T) (PO)
No (Pi) in (η) in %
head in m3 /sec. in Nm in
Watts
(h) in m Watts
Graph:
The graphs are drawn for
Characteristics Analysis:
Total Head ( H ) vs Discharge ( Q )
Total Head ( H ) vs Input power ( Pi )
Total Head ( H ) vs Efficiency ( η )
taking H on X – Axis.
And
Performance Analysis :
Brake Power ( Po ) vs Efficiency ( η )
Torque ( T ) vs Total Head ( H )
Torque ( T ) vs Discharge ( Q )
taking Po , T on X – Axis.
Result:
Thus the performance of Francis turbine test is studied and the characteristics curves of
turbine are drawn.
Inference:
It is inferred that as head increases, efficiency and discharge increases.
Applications:
Francis turbines may be designed for a wide range of heads and flows. This, along with
their high efficiency, has made them the most widely used turbine in the world. Francis
turbine is used in Periyar power house, Sholayar Power House, Sarkarpathy Power House,
Papanasam Power House, Indira Sagar Power House, Bhakra Left Bank Power House and in
Mettur Dam Power House.

107
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of Kaplan Turbine (Constant Speed)

Aim :
To study the performance of Kaplan Turbine and to draw the characteristic curves of the
Kaplan Turbine.
The experiment is conducted to:
Obtain Constant Speed characteristics
Apparatus Required :
Kaplan turbine test rig.
Theory:
Hydraulic (Water) turbines are the machines that use the energy of water (Hydro –
Power) and convert it into Mechanical Energy. Thus the turbines become the prim over to run
Electric Generators to produce electricity, viz. Hydro Electric Power.
Turbines are classified as Impulse and Reaction types. Kaplan turbine comes into the
category of Reaction Turbines. In Reaction Turbine, it is the pressure of the flowing water,
which rotates the runner of the Turbine. Kaplan (Reaction Turbines) requires low Heads and
high Discharge.
Kaplan turbine test rig consists of the following major parts
1. Mono block Centrifugal Pump
2. Turbine Unit
3. Sump Tank
4. Venturimeter with Inlet and Outlet pressure tapping & Gauge arrangements
5. DC power generator
6. Provision for measurement of Turbine speed ( digital RPM indicator ) , Head on Turbine
a. (Pressure gauge) and digital Volt, Ammeters are built in on the control panel.

109
Formula:
1. Total Head = Delivery pressure head reading + vacuum gauge reading

2. Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh
1 2
m3 / sec
2 2
a −a 1 2

where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / sec2
h = Venturimeter’s Pressure Head in m
3. Input Power (Pi) = 9.81 × H × Q kW
Where,
w = Specific weight of water in kN / m3 = 9.81 kN / m3
H = Total Head in m.
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
V×I
4. Output Power (Po) = kW
ηT × η A ×1000
Where,
V = Voltmeter Reading in volts
I = Ammeter Reading in amps
ηT = Transmission Efficiency (Belt Transmission) = 0.75

ηA = Alternator Efficiency = 0.65

111
Calculation Table:

Discharge Input power Output

Reading Total Head Turbine Efficiency
( Q ) in (Pi) power (Po)
No. ( H ) in m (η) in %
m3 / sec in kW in kW

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Model Calculation:

1. Total Head = Delivery pressure head reading + vacuum gauge reading

2. Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh
1 2
m3 / sec
2 2
a −a 1 2

3. Input Power (Pi) = 9.81 × H × Q kW

V×I
4. Output Power (Po) = kW
ηT × η A ×1000

Output Power (PO )

5. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )
Procedure:
1. The Vane position is set to partial open condition.
2. The delivery valve is adjusted to the maximum discharge.
3. The turbine speed is kept constant by operating the delivery valve.
4. The electrical loading is applied.
5. The delivery valve of the turbine is adjusted to maintain the constant speed.
6. Turbine speed, vacuum head, venturimeter readings and power output (voltage and
current) are noted.
7. The above procedure is repeated for various electrical loads and the efficiency of the
turbine is calculated.
Graph:
A graph of
Total Head ( H ) vs Efficiency ( η )
Total Head (H) vs Discharge ( Q )
Total Head (H) vs Input power ( Pi )
are drawn , taking H on X – Axis.
Result :
Thus the performance of Kaplan Turbine test is studied and the characteristics curves of
Turbine are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference :
Discharge, efficiency of the turbine increases with the increase of head, at constant speed
condition. Input remains the same for the increase of head.
Applications:
Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production. It
is used in Mettur Tunnel Power House, Ghataprabha Power House, Kadra Power House.

113
Ex No : Date :

Performance Characteristics of Kaplan Turbine (Constant Head)

Aim :
To study the performance of Kaplan Turbine and to draw the characteristic curves of the
Kaplan Turbine.
The experiment is conducted to:
Obtain Constant Head characteristics
Apparatus Required :
Kaplan turbine test rig.
Theory:
Hydraulic (Water) turbines are the machines that use the energy of water (Hydro –
Power) and convert it into Mechanical Energy. Thus the turbines become the prim over to run
Electric Generators to produce electricity, viz. Hydro Electric Power.
Turbines are classified as Impulse and Reaction types. Kaplan turbine comes into the
category of Reaction Turbines. In Reaction Turbine, it is the pressure of the flowing water,
which rotates the runner of the Turbine. Kaplan (Reaction Turbines) requires low Heads and
high Discharge.
Kaplan turbine test rig consists of the following major parts
1. Mono block Centrifugal Pump
2. Turbine Unit
3. Sump Tank
4. Venturimeter with Inlet and Outlet pressure tapping & Gauge arrangements
5. DC power generator
6. Provision for measurement of Turbine speed ( digital RPM indicator ) , Head on
Turbine
7. (Pressure gauge) and digital Volt , Ammeters are built in on the control panel.

115
Formula:
1. Total Head = Delivery pressure head reading + vacuum gauge reading

2. Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh
1 2
m3 / sec
2 2
a −a 1 2

where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter
a1 = Area of the inlet in m2
a2 = Area of the Throat in m2
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m / sec2
h = Venturimeter’s Pressure Head in m
3. Input Power (Pi) = 9.81 × H × Q kW
Where,
w = Specific weight of water in kN / m3 = 9.81 kN / m3
H = Total Head in m.
Q = Discharge in m3 / sec
V×I
4. Output Power (Po) = kW
ηT × η A ×1000
Where,
V = Voltmeter Reading in volts
I = Ammeter Reading in amps
ηT = Transmission Efficiency (Belt Transmission) = 0.75

ηA = Alternator Efficiency = 0.65

117
Calculation Table:

Discharge Input power Output

Reading Total Head Turbine Efficiency
( Q ) in (Pi) power (Po)
No. ( H ) in m (η) in %
m3 / sec in kW in kW

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Model Calculation :

1. Total Head = Delivery pressure head reading + vacuum gauge reading

2. Discharge (Q) = a a 2 gh
1 2
m3 / sec
2 2
a −a 1 2

3. Input Power (Pi) = 9.81 × H × Q kW

V×I
4. Output Power (Po) = kW
ηT × η A ×1000

Output Power (PO )

5. Efficiency (η) = × 100 in %
Input Power (Pi )
Procedure:
1. The Vane position is set to partial open condition.
2. The Delivery valve is opened at the partial open condition.
3. The turbine head is kept constant by operating the delivery valve.
4. The electrical loading is applied.
5. The delivery valve of the turbine is adjusted to maintain the constant head.
6. Turbine speed, vacuum head, venturimeter readings and power output (voltage and
current) are noted.
7. The above procedure is repeated for various electrical loads and the efficiency of the
turbine is calculated.
Graph :
A graph of
Total Speed(N) vs Efficiency ( η )
Total Speed (N) vs Discharge ( Q )
Total Speed (N) vs Input power ( Pi )
are drawn , taking N on X – Axis.
Result :
Thus the performance of Kaplan Turbine test is studied and the characteristics curves of
Turbine are drawn.
Maximum Efficiency =
Inference :
Discharge, efficiency of the turbine increases with the increase of speed, at constant head
condition. Input remains the same for the increase of speed.
Applications:
Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production. It
is used in Mettur Tunnel Power House, Ghataprabha Power House, Kadra Power House.

119