In geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which

stress applied to a soil causes densification as air is displaced from

the pores between the soil grains. When stress is applied that causes
densification due to water (or other liquid) being displaced from
between the soil grains, then consolidation, not compaction, has
occurred. Normally, compaction is the result of heavy machinery
compressing the soil, but it can also occur due to the passage of, for
example, animal feet.
In soil science and agronomy, soil compaction is usually a
combination of both engineering compaction and consolidation, so
may occur due to a lack of water in the soil, the applied stress being
internal suction due to water evaporation[1] as well as due to passage
of animal feet. Affected soils become less able to absorb rainfall, thus
increasing runoff and erosion. Plants have difficulty in compacted soil
because the mineral grains are pressed together, leaving little space
for air and water, which are essential for root growth. Burrowing
animals also find it a hostile environment, because the denser soil is
more difficult to penetrate. The ability of a soil to recover from this type
of compaction depends on climate, mineralogy and fauna. Soils with
high shrink3swell capacity, such as vertisols, recover quickly from
compaction where moisture conditions are variable (dry spells shrink
the soil, causing it to crack). But clays such as kaolinite, which do not
crack as they dry, cannot recover from compaction on their own
unless they host ground-dwelling animals such as earthworms4
the Cecil soil series is an example.
Before soils can be compacted in the field, some laboratory tests are
required to determine their engineering properties. Among various
properties, the maximum dry density and the optimum moisture
content are vital and specify the required density to be compacted in
the field.[2]
 A 10 tonne excavator is here equipped with a narrow sheepsfoot
roller to compact the fill over newly placed sewer pipe, forming a stable support for a new road surface.

A compactor/roller fitted with a sheepsfoot drum, operated by U.S.

Navy Seabees Vibrating roller with plain drum as used for

compacting asphalt and granular soils Vibratory rammer in action

In construction
[edit]

Soil compaction is a vital part of the construction process. It is used for

support of structural entities such as building foundations, roadways,
walkways, and earth retaining structures to name a few. For a given
soil type certain properties may deem it more or less desirable to
perform adequately for a particular circumstance. In general, the
preselected soil should have adequate strength, be
relatively incompressible so that future settlement is not significant, be
stable against volume change as water content or other factors vary,
be durable and safe against deterioration, and possess
proper permeability.[3]
When an area is to be filled or backfilled the soil is placed in layers
called lifts. The ability of the first fill layers to be properly compacted
will depend on the condition of the natural material being covered. If
unsuitable material is left in place and backfilled, it may compress over
a long period under the weight of the earth fill, causing settlement
cracks in the fill or in any structure supported by the fill. [4] In order to
determine if the natural soil will support the first fill layers, an area can
be proofrolled. Proofrolling consists of utilizing a piece of heavy
construction equipment to roll across the fill site and watching for
deflections to be revealed. These areas will be indicated by the
development of rutting, pumping, or ground weaving.[5]
To ensure adequate soil compaction is achieved, project
specifications will indicate the required soil density or degree of
compaction that must be achieved. These specifications are generally
recommended by a geotechnical engineer in a geotechnical
engineering report.
The soil type4that is, grain-size distributions, shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals,
present4has a great influence on the maximum dry unit weight and
optimum moisture content.[6] It also has a great influence on how the
materials should be compacted in given situations. Compaction is
accomplished by use of heavy equipment. In sands and gravels, the
equipment usually vibrates, to cause re-orientation of the soil particles
into a denser configuration. In silts and clays, a sheepsfoot roller is
frequently used, to create small zones of intense shearing, which
drives air out of the soil.
Determination of adequate compaction is done by determining the in-
situ density of the soil and comparing it to the maximum density
determined by a laboratory test. The most commonly used laboratory
test is called the Proctor compaction test and there are two different
methods in obtaining the maximum density. They are the standard
Proctor and modified Proctor tests; the modified Proctor is more
commonly used. For small dams, the standard Proctor may still be the
reference.[5]
While soil under structures and pavements needs to be compacted, it
is important after construction to decompact areas to be landscaped
so that vegetation can grow.
Compaction methods
[edit]

There are several means of achieving compaction of a material. Some

are more appropriate for soil compaction than others, while some
techniques are only suitable for particular soils or soils in particular
conditions. Some are more suited to compaction of non-soil materials
such as asphalt. Generally, those that can apply significant amounts
of shear as well as compressive stress, are most effective.
The available techniques can be classified as:

1. Static 3 a large stress is slowly applied to the soil and then

released.
2. Impact 3 the stress is applied by dropping a large mass onto the
surface of the soil.
3. Vibrating 3 a stress is applied repeatedly and rapidly via a
mechanically driven plate or hammer. Often combined with
rolling compaction (see below).
4. Gyrating 3 a static stress is applied and maintained in one
direction while the soil is a subjected to a gyratory motion about
the axis of static loading. Limited to laboratory applications.
5. Rolling 3 a heavy cylinder is rolled over the surface of the soil.
Commonly used on sports pitches. Roller-compactors are often
fitted with vibratory devices to enhance their effectiveness.
6. Kneading 3 shear is applied by alternating movement in adjacent
positions. An example, combined with rolling compaction, is the
'sheepsfoot' roller used in waste compaction at landfills.