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A Textbook of English Lexicology I. Word Structure, Word-Formation, Word

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 Radoslav Pavlík

A Textbook of English Lexicology I.

Word Structure, Word-Formation, Word Meaning

Bratislava 2017
 1

© PhDr. Radoslav Pavlík, PhD., 2017

Recenzenti: prof. PhDr. Richard Repka, CSc.

doc. PhDr. Daniel Lančarič, PhD.

Vydal: Z-F Lingua, Bratislava

Náklad: 200 ks
Forma: brož.
Rok: 2017
ISBN: 978-80-8177-038-8
EAN: 9788081770388
 2

Contents
Introduction 4
1 The definition of lexicology 5
2 What is a word? 9
2.1 Types of words 9
2.2 Main features of lexemes 12
3 Structure of words 19
3.1 Morphemes and their types 19
3.2 Inflection versus derivation 21
3.3 Word-formation 24
4 Primary types of word-formation 28
4.1 Affixation 28
4.2 Compounding 34
4.3 Conversion 41
5 Secondary types of word-formation 48
5.1 Shortening 48
5.2 Blending 53
5.3 Back-formation 54
5.4 Reduplication 56
5.5 Lexical ellipsis 59
6 Marginal types of word-formation 63
6.1 Sound interchange 63
6.2 Eponymy 65
6.3 Shift of stress 67
6.4 Sound symbolism 69
6.5 Word manufacture 70
7 Word meaning 73
7.1 Grammatical and lexical meaning 73
7.2 Types of lexical meaning 74
7.3 Sentence and utterance meaning 80
7.4 Semantic changes 83

Answer key 94
References 108
 3

Abbreviations

OALD – Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary

CALD – Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
LDCE – Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
OC – Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students
BNC – British National Corpus
BrE – British English
AmE – American English
sb – somebody
sth – something
(n) – noun
(v) – verb
(adj) – adjective
(adv) – adverb
(prep) – preposition
(num) – number
(con) – conjunction
 4

Introduction

This textbook will provide the student with a survey of the fundamentals
of English lexicology. In this first volume, the focus is placed on word structure,
word-formation, and word meaning. The book is intended to be used as a study
text for a course on English lexicology for English undergraduate students.

The first three chapters of the textbook deal with the definition of
the word and its internal structure. Chapters four, five, and six are concerned
with the basic description of the various word-formation processes in English,
and the last chapter focuses on the semantic aspects of lexical units.
As far as the internal organization of the individual chapters is concerned,
every subchapter of the book starts with a brief theoretical description of the
topic and it is subsequently followed by a series of exercises and tasks. Most of
the exercises are supplemented with a key which can be found at the end of the
book.
Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues, students, and friends who
were kind enough to help me with the preparation of this book. I would also like
to acknowledge my debt to Paul McCullough for his detailed reading of the
manuscript. Special thanks go to both reviewers for their useful comments and
criticism.

Radoslav Pavlík
 5

1 The definition of lexicology

Lexicology is a linguistic discipline concerned with the nature, structure, origin,
relations, and use of words of language. It usually includes the following areas
of study:

Onomasiology /nmesld/
It is the study of naming the units of extra-lingual reality. It starts from a concept
(an object, idea, state, quality, etc.) and tries to name it – i.e. How do you say
this?, What do you call this?

Semasiology /smesld/
It is the study of meaning (lexical semantics). It represents an approach opposite
to onomasiology. It begins with a word and asks about its meaning(s) – i.e. What
does this word mean?

Word-formation /wɜ:dfɔ:meɪʃn/
This is the study of the synchronic processes involved in the creation of words.
It is concerned with the ways new lexical words are built (usually on the basis of
other words), e.g. heart, heart-y, heart-i-ly, etc.

Etymology /etɪmɒlədɪ/
It is the study of the history of words. It deals with the origin and change of the
form and meaning of words. For example, words like mother and commit cannot
be analysed synchronically in terms of word-formation, but they can be analysed
diachronically from the point of view of their etymology: mother: from Proto-
Indo-European mā (baby-talk form) + ter (kinship suffix); commit: from Latin
com (together) + mittere (to put, send).

Phraseology /freɪzɪɒlədɪ/
It is the study of lexical phrases. It is a discipline focused on the investigation of
formal and semantic aspects of various types of word combinations, such as
collocations (relatively literal word combinations) and idioms (metaphorical
phrases), e.g. heavy rain, at a disadvantage, pull sb’s leg, turn on the
waterworks, etc.
 6

Lexicography /leksɪkɒɡrəfɪ/
It is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Lexicographers are
concerned with the systematic selection, compilation, and description of words
in dictionaries. Word description and characterization usually include
pronunciation, meanings, grammatical structure, stylistic characteristics, word
usage, etc.

 EXERCISES:

1 Explain the difference between onomasiology and semasiology.

2 Look at these expressions. Which approach do they reflect –

onomasiological or semasiological?

(a) It’s on the tip of my tongue.

(b) How do you say this in English?
(c) Run that by me again.
(d) Where is that what’s-his-name?
(e) It’s one of those thingamajigs for keeping papers together.
(f) I need a sphygmomanometer. A what?
(g) It’s all Greek to me.
(h) What’s your point?
(i) Where’s the doodah to turn off the TV?
(j) See what I mean?

3 What is the difference between the synchronic and diachronic analysis of

words?

4 Analyse these words into smaller parts.

teacher, unable, disadvantage, similarly, relationship, arrangement, unhappiness,

station, hippopotamus, orthographically, antinationalistic
 7

5 Can you guess the etymology and original meaning of these Slovak words?
Consult the Stručný etymologický slovník slovenčiny (Králik 2015).

(a) zajtra (h) pondelok

(b) medveď (i) utorok
(c) predseda (j) sobota
(d) vesmír (k) mimochodom
(e) námestník (l) nocľah
(f) jedenásť (m) príbor
(g) doručiť (n) kôstka

6 Match these parts to create acceptable conventional phrases.

What’s I took my umbrella.

How’s it your wife/husband for me.
How work going?
Never you for ages.
Not too up?
I’m fine, while.
Good to see a bite?
I haven’t seen are you?
Long time like rain.
It’s been a up again sometime.
What have you to see you again.
So how’s your bad.
How’s business?
It looks better.
You wanna grab you again.
Good thing going?
It’s been great been up to lately?
Say hello to no see.
Let’s catch thank you.
 8

Now work in pairs and form a short dialogue using the above phrases.

Example:
A: How’s it going?
B: Great. How are YOU doing? I haven’t seen you for ages.
A: Yeah, I’ve been busy. Listen, you wanna grab a bite?
B: Sure.

A:

B:

A:

B:

 Chapter 1 – Further reading:

Ginzburg, et al. 1979: chapter 1
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapter 1
Kvetko 2009: chapter 1.1
Lančarič 2016: chapter 1
 9

2 What is a word?
2.1 Types of words

The definition of a word is a very difficult task, because it can be approached

from a number of perspectives. For example, one word in one language may be
two or more words in another, e.g. compare the Slovak word bežal with its
English counterpart he was running. Furthermore, should we consider the words
run, runs, running, ran as four separate words, or as one word? Or should we
treat the word bank with its different meanings (banka, breh) as one word or
more words? To solve this problem, linguists usually distinguish between the
following types of words:

Orthographic words
These are words with different spelling, e.g. scary and scarey.

Phonological words
Words with different phonological structure e.g. economic /eknmk/ and
/iknmk/ are considered to be different phonological words.

Lexical words (Lexemes)

Lexical words are abstractions consisting of a group of variant forms (word-
forms) with the same basic meaning, e.g.
shoot, shoots, shooting, shot = lexeme ‘shoot’(v.),
is, am, was, were, etc. = lexeme ‘be’,
hard, harder, hardest = lexeme ‘hard’.
On the other hand, the noun shoot and the verb to shoot are normally considered
to be two different lexemes.

Grammatical words
All forms with different grammatical categories and meanings are different
grammatical words, e.g. shoot, shoots, shooting, and shot. However, note that
one word-form can have several grammatical meanings. For instance, the word-
form shot can be either a past tense or a past participle (i.e. two different
grammatical words). Similarly, the word-form shooting can function as a noun
 10

or a verb. On the other hand, two different words-forms, e.g. dreamed and
dreamt, can have the same grammatical meaning – they count as one
grammatical word.

Semantic words (Sememes)

One word-form can have different (related or unrelated) meanings, e.g. the
word-form shoot means (1) to fire a gun, (2) to kill/injure, (3) to kick a ball, (4)
to film, etc.

 EXERCISES
1 What is the other possible spelling of these words?

(a) Johnny (k) analog

(b) program (l) disc
(c) acknowledgement (m) grey
(d) theatre (n) aesthetic
(e) adviser (o) whiskey
(f) colour (p) defense
(g) analyse (q) fiber
(h) curb (r) jewellery
(i) storey (s) pyjamas
(j) yogurt (t) tyre

2 Give at least two possible pronunciations of the following words (in BrE).

(a) because (g) again

(b) route (h) combat
(c) February (i) enlarge
(d) often (j) and
(e) have (k) false
(f) issue (l) of
 11

3 Read this text. How many lexemes can you find?

Kate Connolly, The Guardian, October 2016

“In Britain we use our history in order to comfort us to make us feel stronger, to
remind ourselves that we were always, always deep down, good people,” he
said. “Maybe we mention a little bit of slave trade here and there, a few wars
here and there, but the chapters we insist on are the sunny ones,” he said.

4 Give all word-forms of the following lexemes.

be:
see:
do:
antenna:
break:

5 Are the underlined words grammatically the same or not?

(a) a house built of stone – David built us a shed – She’s built a new career

(b) He had proved his point – They proved him innocent

(c) The tall building has spoiled the view – The incident has spoilt the positive
atmosphere between the opposing parties

(d) My feet are aching – We came on foot – Who will foot the bill?
 12

6 Fill in the appropriate noun. Use the words hand, head, and eye. How many
different meanings of these words can you identify?


(a) You dealt me an appalling hand in that game!
(b) I can’t get that tune out of my _______.
(c) She took the child by the _______ and led her away.
(d) He nodded his _______ in agreement.
(e) He has no sight in his left _______.
(f) Let me give you a _______ with those bags.
(g) The picture quality, to my _______, is excellent.
(h) They own a hundred _______ of cattle.
(i) I suspect John had a _______ in this.
(j) She sat at the _______ of the table.
(k) Mary will keep an _______ on the kids this afternoon.
(l) You should discuss the matter with your _______ of department.
(m) Go through the list with a critical _______.
(n) The letter was written in a neat _______.
(o) Teachers were turning a blind _______ to smoking in school.
(p) You must be off your _______ if you think that.
(q) The _______ of a storm is a circular area at the centre of tropical cyclones.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2.2 Main features of lexemes

Lexemes, being the result of mental analysis and categorization of the extra-
lingual reality, have the following main features:

Arbitrariness
This property describes the fact that a lexeme (a linguistic form) usually lacks
any physical correspondence with the objects, states, processes, etc. of the
reality to which it refers. For example, the word book does not tell us anything
 13

about the shape, colour, function, etc. of the object to which it refers. The
relationship between the sound form /bʊk/ and the concept of the book is
arbitrary. This is why we can have completely different linguistic forms in
different languages referring to the same concept (e.g. tree, strom, Baum,
дерево, etc.). Sometimes, however, the relation between the sound form and the
concept is not arbitrary (e.g. splash, ding-dong, miaow, etc.), and such words are
considered to be phonetically motivated.

Conventionality
Traditionally, the arbitrariness of words is also called conventionality. However,
conventionality can be thought of as a separate property of lexemes, and it will
be used here to refer to the fact that lexemes are a matter of agreement and
convention accepted by the members of a given community. For example, the
relationship between the sound form and the concept can be in some cases non-
arbitrary (e.g. woof-woof, miaow, etc.), but these non-arbitrary sound forms are
nonetheless conventional (established), because they represent particular forms
agreed upon by the members of a society. Put differently, individual English
speakers cannot form their own words referring to the sounds that dogs or cats
make (e.g. boof-boof or niaow) – such forms would not be conventional. Most
lexemes in languages are conventional, but there may be exceptions. These are,
for instance, newly coined words which are only used on one particular occasion
or by one particular person. When they are accepted and used by other members
of the society, they become conventional.

 EXERCISES
1 Find the words which do not completely lack physical correspondence with
the objects, states, etc. of the extra-lingual reality.

(a) He was wearing a faded pair of blue jeans and an old T-shirt.
(b) I heard the pitter-patter of tiny feet.
(c) He made a quick U-turn and sped away.
(d) Someone was screaming for help.
(e) Get the V-shaped body you always wanted!
(f) The water made a gurgling noise as it ran down the drain.
 14

2 Place the underlined words into the following 4 categories:

(a) arbitrary + conventional:

(b) non-arbitrary + conventional:
(c) arbitrary + non-conventional:
(d) non-arbitrary + non-conventional:

My little dog doesn’t go woof-woof, it goes chiff-chiff.

Some learners of English use the word importancy instead of importance.
Twas brillig and the slithy toves did gyre and gimble in the wabe.

The tendency towards universality and abstraction

Every object, action, state etc. of extra-lingual reality cannot have its own
lexeme associated with it, i.e. the individual lamps, windows, pencils, etc.
cannot have their own names. We must therefore always apply abstractions
when we name units of extra-lingual reality. According to their needs, language
users may coin words which represent different degrees of abstraction, e.g. an
animal > a vertebrate > a mammal > a carnivore > a dog > a setter, etc. Such
processes of abstraction may produce different results in different languages.
For example, in Hawaii they have no general word for weather (although they
supposedly have around 150 rain words), in some African languages they have
separate words for the left hand and the right hand, but no word for hand in
general, etc.
Furthermore, different languages may select different aspects of reality to
name the same/similar concepts. For example, the words table and stôl refer to
the same concept in both English and Slovak, but they are focused on different
aspects of the same reality: table = a square board, stôl = something that stands.

 EXERCISES

3 Arrange these words into groups and rank them according to the degree of
their abstraction:
 15

square, colour, move, quadrilateral, father, mammal, red, armchair, polygon,

scarlet, go, furniture, come, parent, arrive, human, chair, primate, shape, John

shape > polygon >

4 Which word of the pair is more abstract?

(a) an animal – a mammal (k) a phone – a mobile

(b) purple – violet (l) crimson – red
(c) a woman – a mother (m) a computer – a PC
(d) to stare – to look (n) to make – to bake
(e) beautiful – gorgeous (o) an emotion – a feeling
(f) a diamond – a gemstone (p) sad – depressed
(g) to leave – to depart (q) to eavesdrop – to listen
(h) a medicine – a cure (r) a duck – a drake
(i) old – ancient (s) to battle – to fight
(j) a battle – a war (t) chubby – overweight

5 Translate these words into Slovak. What is the difference between English
and Slovak in terms of the degree of their abstraction?

(a) foot (i) lend

(b) hand (j) spend
(c) finger (k) teacher
(d) power (l) car
(e) many (m) cousin
(f) spill (n) marry
(g) cut (o) between
(h) make (p) eat
 16

6 Translate these English words and phrases into Slovak. What aspects of
reality do they focus on in English and in Slovak?

(a) sitting room –

(b) headphones –
(c) half past four –
(d) tax return –
(e) upside down –
(f) bedside table –
(g) timetable –
(h) soup plate –
(i) coniferous tree –
(j) deciduous tree –

Motivation
Words in a language are often not formed as brand new semantic and structural
units. Many words are coined as a result of some kind of motivation, i.e. the
creation of a new word is motivated by (based on) some piece of reality. Such
motivation can be phonetic, morphological, or semantic.

(a) Phonetic motivation: the word imitates a sound existing in the extra-lingual
reality – buzz, boom, woof-woof.
(b) Morphological motivation: the new word is based on the morphemes
already existing in a language – rethink (based on re+think), writer (based on
write+er), bedroom (based on bed+room), photo (shortened from photograph),
etc.
(c) Semantic motivation: the new word (its meaning) is based on an already
existing word, and the new meaning is derived from the original one – a hand (a
human hand → a hand of a clock), to see (to perceive with eyes → to
understand), black (of dark colour → bad/illegal), etc.

 EXERCISES

7 Match the sound with the correct animal.

 17

parrot m
lion L
roar
coo
squawk owl !
cheep crow ,
sss dove p
chick H
snake (
caw-caw
tu-whit tu-whoo

8 Find the correct verb and sound that these animals make.

verb sound
cock (BrE)/rooster (AmE)
dog
cat
cow
pig
donkey
sheep
goat
frog
pigeon

9 Underline words which are motivated. Determine the type of motivation.

Has the secret of eternal youth been found? Researchers pinpoint chemical
they say ‘has the potential to postpone aging’

Cheyenne Macdonald, Daily Mail, October 2016

 18

Researchers have identified a key factor in the aging process they say
could one day lead to longer lives. In a new study on mice and
roundworms, researchers found that adding a chemical known as coenzyme
NAD+ postponed physical aging and extended the subjects’ lives.
‘Our new study shows an age-dependent decrease in the level of NAD+,
and this decrease is far greater for organisms with early aging and a lack of
DNA repairs,’ says Professor Vilhelm Bohr, from the Center for Healthy Aging
and the National Institute of Health.
The effects have not yet been investigated in humans, but researchers say
similar results are expected to be seen. This is based on the universal nature of
the cell repair mechanisms, which are found in all living organisms. The
findings uncover a major player in the aging process, which in many ways
remains a mystery.
According to the researchers, this new understanding could be a step
toward the goal of life extension and the postponing of physical aging, with
potential to one day prevent neurodegenerative diseases in humans.

 Chapter 2 – Further reading:

Bauer 1983: chapters 2.2 and 2.4
Cruse 2000: chapters 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 5.1.1
Ginzburg et al. 1979: chapters 2.17 – 2.19
Hladký and Růžička 1996: chapter 6
Huddleton and Pullum 2002: chapter 19.1.1
Jackson 1988: chapters 1 and 10
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapter 3.1
Kvetko 2009: chapter 2.1
Lančarič 2016: chapter 2.1.2
Plag 2003: chapter 1.1
Singleton 2000: chapter 1.3
Vachek 1990: part II (1)
 19

3 Structure of words
3.1 Morphemes and their types

Words consist of morphemes. Morphemes can be defined as the smallest

meaningful units into which words can be divided. Words can be mono-
morphemic (e.g. run, hand, nice, etc.) or poly-morphemic (e.g. like-ly, fam-
ous, un-able, etc.). Sometimes, morphemes may have different realizations in
different words. Such realizations are called allomorphs, e.g. fame – famous;
books /s/ – mugs /z/ – busses /ɪz/; wolf – wolves; omit – omission, etc.
Morphemes can be divided into free – bound, root – affixational, and
inflectional – derivational.
Free morphemes are units which can occur as separate words (e.g. rock, wait,
pretty, etc.), while bound morphemes cannot (e.g. enlarge, re-write, dangerous
etc.). A root morpheme is the base form of a word which remains when all
affixes are removed (e.g. heading, taller, omission, etc.). Affixational
morphemes, on the other hand, are normally non-autonomous units which are
added to roots to create new words and word-forms (e.g. nearly, overweight,
abnormal, bats, etc.). Finally, inflectional morphemes only signal grammatical
relationships and do not change the word-class of the roots to which they are
attached (e.g. sings, singing, worked, etc.), whereas derivational morphemes
always change the lexical meaning of a word and usually also its word-class
(e.g. disagree, teacher, restriction, etc.).

 EXERCISES
1 Form different word classes from the following root words by adding
affixes. Then circle all allomorphs and transcribe them.

ADMIT /ədmɪt/

(adv) The plan, admittedly /ədmɪt/, is not without difficulties.

(adj) Secretly recorded phone conversations are not ___________ / / as

evidence.
(n) Silence is often interpreted as an ___________ / / of guilt.
 20

ELECTRIC /ɪlektrɪk/

(n) Someone has turned off the __________ / / supply.

(n) We need to call in an __________ / / to sort out the wiring.

DESCRIBE /dɪskraɪb/

(n) A witness gave a detailed __________ / / of the man.

(adj) I felt a sense of in___________ / / relief.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Read this text. Mark all affixational morphemes.

Blunder as BBC Breakfast shows escaped gorilla instead of Nicola Sturgeon

Mark Molloy, The Telegraph, October 2016

There was a slightly awkward moment on BBC Breakfast this morning

when footage of the gorilla that escaped at London Zoo was shown during a
segment on Nicola Sturgeon. “We’re going to be joined by Scottish First
Minister Nicola Sturgeon,” explained Munchetty as Kumbuka the gorilla popped
up on screen. Her co-presenter Charlie Stayt then apologised for the error: “I’m
sorry we’ve … err… very clearly run the wrong pictures over that particular
sequence. My apologies there.
“The story we will be talking about later, as you’ve probably guessed from the
pictures, is about the escaped gorilla at London Zoo.
“We will be speaking to one of the gorilla keepers from the zoo. That’s coming
up a little later on.”
 21

3 Underline affixational morphemes in the following words. Determine

whether they are free or bound.

(a) counteract (h) director

(b) disagreeable (i) prehistoric
(c) underestimate (j) goodness
(d) decentralize (k) postman
(e) supersonic (l) childlike
(f) government (m) formally
(g) clockwise (n) impatient

3.2 Inflection versus derivation

Inflection can be defined as a grammatical process in which at least one root is

combined with an affix (in English it is always a suffix) to produce different
grammatical forms of words. Adding an inflectional suffix changes neither the
word class of the root, nor its lexical meaning. For example, adding -s to a verb
does not lexically change the verb in any way – he runs, she works, it seems, etc.
Derivation, on the other hand, is a lexical process which creates new words by
adding derivational affixes (prefixes or suffixes) to at least one root. For
instance, adding the suffix -ness to an adjective will change the word class as
well as the lexical meaning of the root – blindness, happiness, goodness, etc.
Certain suffixes, especially -s, -ing, -ed, and -en, can sometimes function as
inflectional suffixes and sometimes as derivational suffixes. Consider the
following examples:

Inflection Derivation
he works the works (factory)
he is building the building
he cooked it properly a properly cooked meal
they have broken their promises a broken promise
 22

In these cases, it is the context of the sentence that determines whether a

particular suffix is inflectional or derivational.

The suffixes -s, -ing, -ed, and -en are derivational in the following cases:
1. When adding them to the root changes the word class of the lexeme: to work
(v) – the works (n); to build (v) – a building (n); to cook (v) – cooked (adj), etc.

2. When adding them to the root changes the lexical meaning of the word: the
works of art (e.g. paintings) = inflection – the works (factory) = derivation;
vague notions (ideas) = inflection – notions (small items used for sewing) =
derivation, etc.

3. Lexemes with the suffix -s which do not have a singular form with the same
meaning: coffee grounds (sediment), hotel grounds (park, garden), give sb the
willies (nervous feeling), take great pains (effort), etc.

 EXERCISES

1 Look at these sentences. Determine whether the suffixes are inflectional or

derivational. Distinguish between regular and irregular inflection/derivation.

GROUND
(a) He retired from the job on health grounds.
(b) The snowstorm meant that all planes were grounded.
(c) We went for a walk around the hospital grounds.
(d) My parents grounded me for a week.
(e) This course will give drivers a grounding in car maintenance.

BREAK
(a) She dropped the plate and it broke into pieces.
(b) He’s always broke at the end of the month.
(c) We’ve had a few bad breaks along the way.
(d) We’ll bring you all the latest breaking news as it happens.
(e) My watch has broken.
(f) Charles is always breaking things.
 23

(g) Her nerves were at breaking point.

(h) Her voice breaks as she talks about her missing children.
(i) He was a broken man after the failure of his business.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Determine the function of the suffix -s in the underlined words

(inflectional or derivational). Translate them into Slovak.

(a)
Add the lamb chops and garlic and cook over moderately high heat.
The dog sat licking its chops.
The woman hit me right in the chops.
Has he got the chops to carry off such a big role?

(b)
She made several interesting points in the article.
The train rattled as it went over the points.
Tact is not one of her strong points.

(c)
She bought two steam irons last week.
It was common practice for the prisoners to be clapped in irons.

(d)
This movie is worth seeing for its special effects alone.
I could feel the effects of the thin mountain air.
The insurance policy covers all baggage and personal effects.

(e)
This word has many shades of meaning.
She was wearing a black leather jacket and shades.
The lamps all had matching purple shades.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

 24

3 Read this text. Circle all suffixes and determine whether they are
inflectional or derivational.

Fraudsters take six seconds to steal bank card details

Mark Bridge, The Times, December 2016

Criminals can find the card number, expiry date and security code for a
Visa debit or credit card in only six seconds using computer-powered
guesswork, researchers have warned.
Experts at Newcastle University said that fraudsters could figure out the
complete details starting with as little as the first six digits of the card number —
which cover the bank and the card type, and so are the same for every card from
a single provider.
They said the “frighteningly easy” attack could explain the raid on Tesco
Bank, when about 9,000 customers had a total of £2.5 million taken from their
accounts.
The technique involves a so-called distributed guessing attack, which is
designed to get round security features supposed to stop fraud.

3.3 Word-formation

Word-formation is a process of building new lexemes. This often means

combining morphemes already present in a language. In this process, a word-
formative element is added to a word-formative base. The word-formative base
normally consists of at least one root morpheme (free or bound), whereas the
word-formative element can be a root or a derivational morpheme.
 25

friend-ly friendli-ness un-friendliness

base element base element element base

The analysis of words from the point of view of word-formation will therefore
always be concerned with determining two parts – the base and the word-
formative element (inflectional morphemes do not create new lexemes and they
are thus disregarded). The morphological analysis of words, on the other hand,
is concerned with finding all possible morphemes of the word.

Morphological analysis: writers → write+er+s, likelier → like+ly+er

Word-formation analysis: writers → write+er(s), likelier → like+ly(er)

The word-formative base can be simple (friend-ly), derivative (dis-interest-ed),

or compound (gentle-man-ly).

It should be noted, however, that there are other ways to create new words –
other word-formation processes. For example, new words may be formed
without adding any element (e.g. an eye → to eye), by taking away a part of the
word (e.g. photograph → photo), by changing the vowels and/or consonants of
the root morpheme (e.g. blood → bleed), etc.

 EXERCISES

1 Analyse these words from the morphemic and word-formative points of

view.

Morphological Word-formation Morphological Word-formation

analysis analysis analysis analysis

artistic artistic followers followers

disagreement disagreement disinformation disinformation
backwards backwards luckiest luckiest
containers containers looks (n) looks (n)
 26

Morphological Word-formation Morphological Word-formation

analysis analysis analysis analysis

worked (v) worked (v) actresses actresses

odds odds photographers photographers
frightening (adj) frightening (adj) organizing (v) organizing (v)
encouragement encouragement unacceptably unacceptably
steelworks steelworks boxers boxers

2 Form as many lexemes as you can by adding the affixes en-, un-, -less, and -
ish, to the following bases. Explain their meaning.

(a) five (f) child

(b) sure (g) noon
(c) green (h) rich
(d) vision (i) able
(e) moon (j) pain

3 Analyse these words. Underline the base and determine whether it is

simple, derivative, or compound.

(a) hotshots (l) rock-hard

(b) misjudge (m) handbag
(c) goldfish (n) bedtime
(d) unfairly (o) singer-songwriter
(e) breath-taking (p) gate-crasher
(f) parental (q) unkind
(g) ex-girlfriends (r) fox-hunting
(h) chewing-gum (s) boot-licker
(i) unproductive (t) pricey
(j) city-dweller (u) two-year-old
(k) unmanageable (v) unbelievable
 27

 Now form 5 meaningful sentences using at least 3 of the above words in

each sentence, e.g. My unkind ex-girlfriends used to buy pricey handbags.

1._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

4._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

5._______________________________________________________________

 Chapter 3 – Further reading:

Bauer 1983: chapters 2.5, 2.6, and 2.10
Carstairs-McCarthy 2002: chapter 3
Finegan 2008: chapter 2
Ginzburg et al. 1979: chapter 4
Haspelmath and Sims 2010: chapter 2
Huddleton and Pullum 2002: chapter 19.1.2
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapters 4.2 – 4.4
Kvetko 2009: chapters 3.1 and 3.2
Lančarič 2016: chapters 5.1.1 and 5.1.2
Lipka 1992: chapter 2.3.1
Plag 2003: chapters 1.2 and 1.3
Singleton 2000: chapters 3.2 – 3.4
 28

4 Primary types of word-formation

We can distinguish between primary (major), secondary (minor), and marginal
word-formation types, according to how many new lexemes can be formed by a
particular word-formation process (i.e. how productive such a process is). The
most productive word-formation processes in English are affixation,
compounding, and conversion.

4.1 Affixation

Affixation is a productive word-formation process in which new lexemes are

produced by adding derivational affixes to at least one root lexeme. We
distinguish between prefixation and suffixation.
In the process of prefixation, a derivational morpheme is placed before
the word-formative base. Most prefixes do not change the word class of the
roots they are attached to, but there are some exceptions, e.g. sleep → asleep,
friend → befriend, slave → enslave, etc. In all cases of prefixation, however,
new lexemes are built.
Suffixation, on the other hand, is a process of adding a derivational
morpheme after the word-formative base. Suffixes usually change both the
lexical meaning of the word-formative base and its word class. There are some,
however, which do not change the word class, e.g. king → kingdom, mountain
→ mountaineer, child → childhood, etc.
There are special types of affixes which, unlike most affixes, can function
as free morphemes, i.e. they can be used as regular words. Such affixes are
called semi-affixes or affixoids. For example, words like over, super, proof,
man, etc. can also be used as prefixes/suffixes: overweight, supernatural,
bulletproof, postman, etc.

 EXERCISES

1 Add a negative prefix to form an acceptable word. Choose from the following:
un-, dis-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, non-, de-, mis-.
 29

(a) The letter was mis directed to our old address.

(b) His signature is totally ____ legible.
(c) As chairman, I must remain ____ partial.
(d) Changes in the patient’s condition may make surgery ____ advisable.
(e) Don’t let this ____ courage you from trying again.
(f) Forty-five people were injured when a passenger train ____ railed near
London.
(g) Harry and Tom ____ behaved themselves.
(h) The trains are notoriously ____reliable.
(i) Hospitals now tend to ____charge patients earlier than in the past.
(j) How long will it take to ____ frost this meat?
(k) Hubert was alone in a second-class ____-smoking compartment.
(l) I ____read the instructions on the packet.
(m) He’s an ____ curable romantic.
(n) I am ____ modest enough to think that I played an important part in her
decision.
(o) The evidence against the two men was ____conclusive.
(p) It is highly ____probable that the level of ____employment will fall.
(q) John was greedy, ____moral and ____honest.
(r) No one’s ____ replaceable in the workplace.
(s) She gave me one of those ____resistible smiles and I just had to agree.
(t) The legislation must be applied ____ respective of someone’s ethnic
origins.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Fill in the prefixes mis-, dis-, un-, in-, non-, and ab-. Discuss the
difference in the meaning of the prefixed words.

COUNT

The votes had been ____counted. We cannot ____count the possibility of further
strikes. A ____count noun has no plural form and refers to something which
cannot be counted.
 30

USE

Williams ____used his position as mayor to give jobs to his friends. The term
‘schizophrenia’ is often ____used. The house was left ____used for most of the
year. Many ____used railway tracks are now used by cyclists.

FLAMMABLE

These materials are highly ____flammable. Materials which are ____flammable

do not burn easily.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

3 Translate these verbs into English using a prefixed word.

(a) rozopnúť (košeľu) – unbutton (j) zneuctiť

(b) neposlúchnuť (k) presmerovať
(c) ubezpečiť sa (l) nazvať
(d) nemať rád (m) rozpútať
(e) vyložiť (náklad) (n) prepočítať sa
(f) ohroziť (o) obohatiť
(g) otvoriť (fľašu vína) (p) vyzliecť sa
(h) zotročiť (q) zauzliť
(i) odradiť (r) rozuzliť

4 Form nouns from the following words by adding an appropriate suffix.

weak He thought that crying was a sign of ________.

please It’s been a ________ to meet you.
bake She runs a small _______ in North London.
apply • Have you completed your ______________ form yet?
arrive We apologize for the late ________ of the train.
cover The allegations received widespread media ________.
explode• The _______ sent pieces of metal and glass hurtling through the air.
curious His answer did not satisfy my ________ at all.
 31

5 Form new words by using diminutive and familiar suffixes -y/-ie, -ette, -
let, -ock, -ling, and -o.

(a) Richard (n) pig

(b) eagle (o) sap
(c) bull (p) good
(d) aunt (q) kid
(e) rose (r) goal
(f) dear (s) disk
(g) bird (t) eye
(h) duck (u) sick
(i) fat (v) kitchen
(j) cute (w) hill
(k) combination (x) river
(l) book (y) goose
(m) hire (z) cheap

6  Form three sentences containing at least 2 words found in exercises 3, 4,

and 5, e.g. Rickie dislikes my curiosity.

1._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

7 What do we call the citizens of the following cities?

Oxford San Francisco

Cambridge Denver
Manchester Montreal
 32

Liverpool Ottawa
Brighton Canberra
Bristol Sydney
Glasgow Melbourne
Edinburgh Moscow
New York Rome
Washington Paris
Philadelphia Bratislava
Dallas Prague
Chicago Budapest
Las Vegas Vienna
Los Angeles Warsaw

8 Fill in the correct word. Use the suffixes -y, -like, -en, or no suffix.

DUST

______ particles floated in the sunlight. John cycled along the ______ road.
Some people would like to get rid of ______ jackets – those glossy outer covers
of hardcover books. The curtains had faded to a ______pink. The desk was
covered with fine ______ particles.

GOLD

He took his ______ watch out of his waistcoat pocket and snapped it open.
Businesses have a ______ opportunity to expand into new markets. She won a
______ medal at the last Olympics. A lot of people say she was nothing but
a ______ digger. Once upon a time there was a beautiful princess with ______
hair.

WOOD
Solid ______ furniture is sturdy and durable. The entrance to the tunnel was a
low ______ door. The garden was overgrown with ______ plants such
as hawthorn. He was a carpenter, and spent his spare time carving small ______
toys for his children. They lived in a remote house set high on a ______
hillside. This sort of open ______ shed keeps wood dry and easy to access.
 33

WOOL
She has recently bought three ______ blankets. He had grey, ______ hair.
______ mammoths are extinct relatives of today’s elephants. Despite previous
injections of capital, the American ______ industry exhibited signs of
instability. You should challenge any vague and ______ arguments.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

9 Fill in prefixes and suffixes to create acceptable words.

(a) ir resist ible/ibl-y (i) ______ digest ______

(b) ______ expected ______ (j) ______ sincere ______
(c) ______ appoint ______ (k) ______ critic ______
(d) ______ success ______ (l) ______ achieve ______
(e) ______ believe ______ (m) ______ formal ______
(f) ______ pure ______ (n) ______ beat ______
(g) ______ emotion ______ (o) ______ regular ______
(h) ______ act ______ (p) ______ logic ______

10 Translate these words into English. Compare the prefixes and suffixes in
English and Slovak.

-eľ -ič
riaditeľ neplatič
bádateľ holič
učiteľ vodič
hlásateľ volič

-ák -stvo
žobrák holičstvo
tulák členstvo
školák hrdinstvo
hlupák bratstvo
uterák náboženstvo
 34

z-/s- na-
zvýšiť naschvál
zhoršiť nahlas
sfalšovať načas
skrátiť nadol
zdediť nakoniec
skamenieť nateraz

4.2 Compounding
Compounding is a process of creating new words by combining at least two root
morphemes, e.g. household, highlight, etc. Compounds may be characterized
from the following points of view:

Structure
According to their structure, compounds may be divided into simple
(containing only two root morphemes) and complex (containing more than two
morphemes).

SIMPLE COMPLEX
sunlight (sun + light) backbencher (back + bench + er)
sugar-free (sugar + free) forget-me-not (forget + me + not)
head-first (head + first) abso-bloody-lutely (absolute + ly + blood + y)

Word-formation processes
Depending on how many word formation processes the compound entails, we
may distinguish between mono-formative compounds (exhibiting only one
word-formation process – compounding) and poly-formative compounds
(combining several word-formation processes).

MONO-FORMATIVE POLY-FORMATIVE
blacklist (n) backbencher (compounding + derivation)
mother-in-law blow-out (n) (compounding + conversion)
jack-in-the-box high-tech (adj) (comp. + clipping + conversion)
deaf-mute (adj) e-mail (comp. + initialism)
 35

Component relationship
According to the relationship between their components, compounds may be
divided into coordinative/copulative (both elements are equal, and equally
contribute to the overall meaning), and subordinative (one element determines
the other)

COORDINATIVE SUBORDINATIVE
deaf-mute downsize
bread-and-butter (adj) blue-eyed
walkie-talkie mother-in-law

Hyponymy
Depending on whether the meaning of the compound can be embedded in the
meaning of one of its components, we divide compounds into endocentric
/endəʊsentrɪk/ (the compound is a hyponym of one of its elements) and
exocentric /eksəʊsentrɪk/ (the compound is not a hyponym of one of its
elements).

ENDOCENTRIC EXOCENTRIC
classroom (= room) blackmail (≠ black, ≠ mail)
outrun (= to run) walkie-talkie (≠ walk, ≠ talk)
deaf-mute (= deaf, = mute) cut-throat (≠ cut, ≠ throat)

Transparency of meaning
Compounds may be divided into literal (the meaning of the morphemes is
compositional) and metaphorical (they cannot be interpreted literally),
according to how transparent they are.

LITERAL METAPHORICAL
classroom chatterbox
sunlight pickpocket
deaf-mute nightcap

 EXERCISES
 36

1 Combine the words on the left with the words on the right to create acceptable
compounds. Explain their meaning.

wash
book mark
bow
brain case
storm
water worm
child
rain proof
store
mill

2 Complete the compound adjectives in these sentences.

(a) She wears glasses because she’s very short-sighted.

(b) How can he afford to buy himself a __________-new car?
(c) They specialize in reselling second-__________ equipment.
(d) The college is also considering issuing passes to all full- _________
students.
(e) What is the most __________-effective way of reducing carbon dioxide
emissions?
(f) We should not be quite so narrow-__________, blinkered and xenophobic
about the rest of the world.
(g) He’s very __________-looking but not very bright.
(h) Being a kind-__________woman, she felt sorry for the poor child.
(i) He is a __________-famous scientist.
(j) The film had a __________-provoking message.
(k) The waitress came round with a tray of delicious, __________-watering
cream cakes.
(l) The court’s decision will have far-__________ implications for the health
industry.
(m) It’s a well-__________ fact that smoking can cause lung cancer.
 37

(n) I’d love an __________-cold beer.

(o) Snakes and lizards are cold-__________ animals.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

3 Translate these Slovak words into English. Compare their word formation.

(a) štrkáč (k) vykoreniť

(b) železnica (l) mihalnica
(c) slnečnica (m) povstanie
(d) hodinár (n) pevnina
(e) domácnosť (o) fúrik/táčky
(f) učebnica (p) závej (snehový)
(g) opaľovať sa (q) pásomnica
(h) drozd (r) mrakodrap
(i) palacinka (s) parník
(j) daňovník (t) pršiplášť

4 Analyse the following compounds. Distinguish between coordinative –

subordinative and endocentric – exocentric compounds.

(a) deep-fry (v) (j) jellyfish (n)

(b) slip-up (n) (k) south-east (n/adv)
(c) make-or-break (adj) (l) spacetime (n/adj)
(d) toolbox (n) (m) man-of-war (n)
(e) moonlight (n/v) (n) e-banking (n)
(f) bittersweet (adj) (o) brother-in-law (n)
(g) A-bomb (n) (p) has-been (n)
(h) pepper-and-salt (adj) (q) doctor–patient (adj)
(i) showbiz (n/adj) (r) nutcracker (n)

5 Translate these words into English. Distinguish between male- and female-
gender compounds.
 38

General term Male gender Female gender

mačka
králik
koza
líška
bažant
slon
srna

6 Underline compounds in the following sentences. Determine whether they are

literal or metaphorical.

(a) We went backstage after the show to meet the actors.

(b) They were having breakfast when I arrived.
(c) I don’t think there’ll be more than six people eating, so I wouldn’t go
overboard with the food.
(d) They try to teach teamwork, self-control, and how to deal with adversity.
(e) I found this information on their website.
(f) I hate doing housework so I pay someone to do it for me.
(g) He was killed in a hit-and-run.
(h) Wage increases will be negotiated on a case-by-case basis.
(i) So it’s the thumbs up for Brighton’s latest nightclub.
(j) Dad’s old pick-up was parked outside.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

7 Form acceptable compounds (nouns, adjectives) from the following phrasal

verbs. Use them in the sentences below and explain their meaning.

away
run down
stand in
break off
up
 39

(a) He made a fortune buying run-down (adj) houses and fixing them up to sell.
(b) A run________ (adj) horse caused chaos on the streets.
(c) After a prolonged legal battle, she is now ready to end her stand______ (n)
with state authorities.
(d) He became a stand-_____ (adj) comedian.
(e) Here’s a run_______ (n) on the activities of our ten biggest competitors.
(f) His work marks a break______ (n) from traditional building styles.
(g) I had a break________ (n) in the middle of the road.
(h) The break________ (adj) group formed a new political party.
(i) I took an unnecessarily long run-______ (n) and struck the ball well, but
high.
(j) The lecturer didn’t turn up, so we had to find a stand-______ (n).
(k) I was feeling too run-_______ (adj) to go for my morning jog.
(l) In a run-________ (n) for the presidency of the assembly, Santos beat
Gutiérrez.
(m) Michael got drunk and had a run-_____ (n) with the police.
(n) She should slow down a bit – I think she’s heading for a nervous
break_______ (n).
(o) The break_____ (n) of the oil tanker caused severe damage to animal and
plant life.
(p) There was a break-_____ (n) at the college last night – they took all the
computers.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

8 Find compounds in the following text. Classify them from these points of
view: simple vs complex, subordinative vs coordinative, and literal vs
metaphorical.

Italy earthquake: 6.6 magnitude quake hits centre of country near Norcia

Cameron Macphail, The Telegraph, October 2016

 40

A powerful earthquake with a preliminary magnitude of 6.6 has

sent already quake-damaged buildings crumbling after a week of temblors that
have left thousands homeless.
The US Geological Survey which measures seismic activity across the
globe, said the epicentre of the quake was 68 km southeast of the regional centre
of Perugia and close to the small town of Norcia.
The mayor of quake-hit Ussita said a huge cloud of smoke erupted from the
crumbled buildings. Another hard-hit city, Castelsantangelo sul Nera, also
suffered new damage.
The quake was felt throughout the Italian peninsula, with reports as far
north as Bolzano and as far south as Bari. Residents rushed into the streets in
Rome, where ancient palazzi shook, swayed and lurched for a prolonged spell.
In Norcia, nuns knelt in prayer and a firefighter appealed to a priest to
help maintain calm among dozens of residents gathered there, including some in
wheelchairs. The church, which had withstood the August earthquake in August
and last week’s aftershocks, still was standing, but television pictures showed
piles of stone had accumulated at the bottom of one wall.
The European-Mediterranean Seismological Center put the magnitude at
6.6 or 6.5 with an epicenter 132 km northeast of Rome and 67 km east of
Perugia, near the epicenter of last week’s temblors. The U.S. Geological Survey
put the magnitude at 6.6. The German Research Centre for Geosciences put the
magnitude at 6.5 and said it had a depth of 10 km, a relatively shallow quake
near the surface but in the norm for the quake-prone Apennine Mountain region.
 41

4.3 Conversion

Conversion is a very productive word-formation process in which a word is

converted into a different word-class without adding any affix. The new word is
completely identical to the original word in terms of the spelling and
pronunciation. This process is also called zero derivation, e.g. bottle (n) →
bottle (v), orange (n) → orange (adj), etc.
The most frequent cases of conversion are nouns which are converted to verbs
and vice versa.

NOUN → VERB VERB → NOUN

a hammer to hammer to call a call
a garage to garage to guess a guess
a badger to badger to listen a listen

We may distinguish between two types of conversion – direct conversion (a

smoke → to smoke) and indirect conversion, where a noun is not converted to a
verb directly, but it is pre-modified by verbs such as have, get, take, give, and
make (e.g. have a smoke = to smoke, take a shower = to shower, etc.)

The process of conversion can be applied not only to single root (free)
morphemes, but also to derived and compound words. In addition to this, other
word-formation processes may also be involved here, such as blending, clipping,
etc.

SINGLE ROOT CONVERSION DERIVATIVE CONVERSION

mother (n) → mother (v) counter-attack (n) → counter-attack (v)

black (adj) → black (n) dirty (adj) → dirty (v)
look (v) → look (n) monthly (adj) → monthly (n)

COMPOUND CONVERSION CONVERSION INVOLVING MULTIPLE

WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
nickname (n) → nickname (v)
honeymoon (n) → honeymoon (v) confidence trick (coll.) → con (n) → con (v)
build up (v) → build-up (n) high-fidelity (adj) → hi-fi (adj) → hi-fi (n)
 42

 EXERCISES
1 The following words can function as different word classes. Use them in
the sentences below. Translate them into Slovak (in each particular context).
Determine their word-class function.

about round in out

(a) He was outed as a supporter of the far-right party.

(b) Altogether, in _______ figures, there are about three thousand students
here.
(c) Exotic pets are the _______ thing right now.
(d) He _______ed the keeper and scored.
(e) I read _______ it in the paper.
(f) Her books were lying _______ on the floor.
(g) I’m busy on Sunday, so that gives me an _______.
(h) He quickly learned the _______s and _______s of the job.
(i) It costs _______ $10.
(j) Russia and America will hold another _______ of talks next month.
(k) The moon goes _______ the earth.
(l) It is a book _______ flowers.
(m) She opened the window and stuck her head _______.
(n) The bus is due _______ at six.
(o) We sat _______ the fire.
(p) The garden is _______ the back of the house.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Convert the following verbs into nouns. Use them in the sentences below.

know take
eat keep
make catch
feel go
 43

(a) "Do you want it back?" "No it’s yours, for keeps."
(b) Can I have a _______ on your new bike?
(c) He’s old enough now to earn his _______ and stop living off his parents.
(d) I doubt if he’ll listen to advice from me, but I’ll give it a _______.
(e) He was just a salesman on the _______.
(f) I knew he was on the ______, but I never had enough evidence to prove it.
(g) People in the _______ say that interest rates will have to rise again soon.
(h) She has a real _______ for language.
(i) There were plenty of _______s, but the bar soon ran out of drink.
(j) They ate the packet of biscuits all in one _______.
(k) She loved the _______ of silk against her skin.
(l) This deal looks too good to be true – there must be a _______ somewhere.
(m) We had to do six _______s for this particular scene.
(n) What _______ is your car?
(o) Hey! Nice _______ !

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

Now work in pairs and form a short dialogue, using the following phrases
(found in this exercise and in exercise 1): in round figures, the in thing, the ins
and outs of sth, give it a go, to earn one’s keep, on the take, in the know, to have
a feel for sth, in one go, have a go, there’s a catch.

Example:
A: People in the know say that you can drink a pint of beer in one go.
B: That’s not true.
A: Come on! Give it a go!
B: OK.

A:
B:
A:
B:
 44

3 Convert the following nouns into verbs. Use them in the sentences below.

doctor spoon
pencil elbow
floor chair
duck air

(a) A hearing has been pencilled in for September 17.

(b) _________ your head or you’ll bang it on the doorframe.
(c) Place meat in broiler pan and _________ some marinade over it.
(d) He _________ed his way through the crowd.
(e) The boys were splashing around and ________ing each other in the pool.
(f) I hung the blankets on the clothesline to _________ them out.
(g) I got into the car and _________ed it.
(h) _________ the mixture carefully into the bowls.
(i) The programme is due to _________ next month.
(j) He had _________ed his passport to pass her off as his daughter.
(k) He was _________ed by the first punch.
(l) Would you like to _________ tomorrow’s meeting?
(m) You should have your cat _________ed.
(n) I found her name _________ed inside the back cover of the book.
(o) We were _________ed that so many people came.
(p) Greene had to leave the game after being _________ed in the face.
(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

4 Translate these English words and compare them with their Slovak
equivalents in terms of the word-formation processes used.

MILK
a glass of milk
a milk bottle
milk chocolate
to milk a cow
 45

OFF
to drive off
the TV is off
to fall off a bike
to have an off day
to off someone

PAST
the past two weeks
it’s ten past nine
She waved as she drove past.
the distant past

(CALD, LDCE)

5 Read this text. Underline all words which can be converted into a different
word class.

World’s shortest flight celebrates its millionth passenger

The Guardian, November 2016

The world’s shortest flight, a tiny hop between two remote British islands,
celebrated Monday taking its millionth passenger on the route.
The 2.7km (1.7-mile) flight between Westray and Papa Westray in the
Orkney islands, off mainland Scotland’s northeast coast, holds the Guinness
World Record as the shortest scheduled service.
 46

The flight, in an eight-seater Britten Norman Islander aircraft, officially

takes two minutes but with favourable winds it can be done in 47 seconds.
It is part of a daily service route that leaves Orkney’s main town,
Kirkwall, and stops off around the archipelago.
Scottish regional airline Loganair has operated the route since 1967 and
on Monday honoured passenger Anne Rendall, presenting her with a bouquet of
flowers.

6 Look at these Slovak phrases and identify the cases of conversion.

Translate them into English and compare the word-formation processes in the
two languages.

(a) známy herec (adj) – môj známy (n)

(b) mladé dievčatá (adj) – mačka kŕmi mladé (n)

(c) cestovné náklady (adj) – zaplatiť cestovné (n)

(d) vekový rozdiel (n) – na rozdiel od (comp. prep)

(e) vreckové vydanie (adj) – minúť vreckové (n)

(f) drobné kúsky (adj) – mať nejaké drobné (n)

(g) je obžalovaný z vraždy (v) – obžalovaný (n)

(h) býva neďaleko (adv) – býva neďaleko školy (prep)

(i) tvrdé pristátie (adj) – pije len tvrdé (n)

(j) siedmy v poradí (num) – chytil siedmy vlak (adj)

(k) okolo obeda (prep) – prešiel okolo (adv)

(l) veľká radosť (n) – bolo radosť žiť tam (adv)

(m) skoré ráno (n) – prišiel ráno (adv)

(n) Stoj! (v) – stoj čo stoj (adv)

 47

 Chapter 4 – Further reading:

Balážiková 1997
Bauer 1983: chapters 2.12, 7.2, 7.4 – 7.6
Dvonč et al. 1966
Ginzburg et al. 1979: chapters 5.24 – 5.37, 5.6 – 5.23
Haspelmath and Sims 2010: chapters 7.1, 7.2
Huddleton and Pullum 2002: chapters 19.4 and 19.5
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapters 4.5 and 4.6.1
Kvetko 2009: chapter 4.1 – 4.3
Lančarič 2016: chapters [Link] – [Link]
Plag 2003: chapters 4, 6, and 5.1
Štekauer 2000: chapters 2.1 – 2.3
 48

5 Secondary types of word-formation

5.1 Shortening
Shortening (abbreviation) is a secondary word-formation process during which
a lexeme or a phrase is shortened, e.g. to modify → to mod, a very important
person → VIP, etc. Although the new shortened lexeme usually has the same
basic denotational meaning as the original lexeme, it often acquires additional
stylistic colouring, e.g. a neutral, stylistically unmarked word can become
informal (to prepare → to prep), or a formal word (technical term) can become
a stylistically neutral word (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome → AIDS).

We can distinguish four types of shortening: clipping, acronymy, initialism, and

graphical abbreviation.

CLIPPING
Clipping involves cutting off (removing) one or more letters or syllables of a
word. Clipping may be initial (aeroplane → plane), medial (specifications →
specs), final (gymnasium → gym) or a combination of these.
Clipping may also be divided into transparent (the clipped lexeme directly
corresponds to a part of the original word) and non-transparent (the clipped
lexeme does not directly correspond to a part of the original word).

Transparent clipping Non-transparent clipping

sister → sis umbrella → brolly
champion → champ microphone → mike
aeroplane → plane Elizabeth → Buff

Some clipped words may further be combined with suffixation, e.g. umbrella →
broll+y, Elizabeth → Buff+y, etc.

ACRONYMY
Acronyms are abbreviations formed from the initial letters of multiword
expressions and read as regular words, e.g. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
→ NATO /neɪtəʊ/, absent without leave → AWOL /eɪwɒl/, etc.
 49

INITIALISMS
Initialisms, in common with acronyms, are produced from the initial letters of
multiword expressions, but they are always spelled out (i.e. we do not read them
as words), e.g. missing in action → MIA /em aɪ eɪ/, be back later → BBL /bi:
bi: el/, etc.

GRAPHICAL ABBREVIATION
This type of shortening is restricted to written language. That is, graphically
abbreviated words are never pronounced as abbreviations – they always have
their original long form when we use them in spoken language, e.g. October →
Oct. /ɒktəʊbə/, road → Rd /rəʊd/, etc.

 EXERCISES
1 Underline clipped words in the following sentences. What are their full forms?

(a) The demo has a five-minute time limit but gives you a precise feel for the
game.
(b) Hugo’s bro John played bass guitar.
(c) Please excuse me for arriving late – the bus was delayed.
(d) Get off your butt and do some work!
(e) Wasn’t that Cynthia, who worked in the deli?
(f) Did you get my memo about the meeting?
(g) She works in a chemistry lab.
(h) I took a cab to the airport.
(i) We needed more sales reps on the road to compete with the big boys.
(j) Some guides and camp managers claim to know safe swimming spots,
others say the crocs know them too.
(k) He jettisoned his parachute but died after his reserve chute failed to open
in time.
(l) The band first played together at a high school prom.
(m) He was wearing a pair of sunnies.
 50

2 What do the following abbreviations stand for? Distinguish between

acronyms, initialisms, and graphical abbreviations.

(a) UNESCO (m) UFO

(b) hr (n) Mr.
(c) UPS (o) IQ
(d) snafu (p) ft
(e) CD (q) COD
(f) i.e. (r) MP
(g) DVD (s) scuba
(h) ed. (t) PhD
(i) GMT (u) NASA
(j) e.g. (v) no.
(k) SWAT team (w) WHO
(l) OR (x) SIM card

3 Use the following clipped words in the sentences below. Give their full
forms.

pix tux
hippo vet
sub specs
con baccy
flu cred

(a) Former prime minister said he regrets not buying nuclear _______s for
Australia.
(b) Have you paid your tennis club _______ yet?
(c) He’s a Vietnam _______.
(d) I need a new pair of _______.
(e) It is a _______ to make people pay for goods they hadn’t actually received.
(f) Look at my _______, the resemblance is stunning.
(g) Many celebrities develop a working class accent to increase their street
_______.
 51

(h) One of the players was injured during the match, so a _______ was
brought on.
(i) She’s very hot and shivery, so I think she must have _______.
(j) The property has many interesting features and all mod _______s.
(k) Whales and _______s may not much resemble each other nowadays, but
retain some hints of kinship.
(l) He went to pick up his girlfriend, dressed in a _______ and carrying a red
rose.
(m) We had to take the dog to the local _______.
(n) Granddad took out his pipe and filled it with ________.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

4 What are the familiar (shorter) versions of the following names?

(a) Angus (g) Amanda

(b) Ant(h)ony (h) Barbara
(c) Edward (i) Margaret
(d) Peter (j) Patricia
(e) William (k) Rebecca
(f) Robert (l) Susan

5 Write the clipped forms of the following words.

(a) helicopter (e) graduate (i) combination

(b) comfortable (f) professor (j) advertisement
(c) business (g) mosquito (k) cigarette
(d) alligator (h) market (l) university

6 Now work in pairs and form a short dialogue, using the clipped words
in exercises 3, 4, and 5.
Example:
A: My bro Gus has just bought an electric guitar from an online shop.
B: Did he have it delivered by UPS?
A: Yes, and it was paid by COD.
B: All he needs now is a pair of sunnies and he will look like a rock star.
 52

A:
B:
A:
B:

7 What is the graphical abbreviation of these words?

(a) company (i) April

(b) limited (j) June
(c) road (k) August
(d) inch (l) Sunday
(e) street (m) Monday
(f) yard (n) Tuesday
(g) South (o) Wednesday
(h) Mister (p) Thursday

8 Translate these Slovak shortened words into English. Compare their word-
formation in the two languages.

(a) kraťasy (m) elina

(b) panelák (n) profka
(c) prvák (o) perfiš
(d) Maťo (p) Mišo
(e) učka (q) reprák
(f) telka (r) minerálka
(g) tzv. (s) SBS
(h) napr. (t) depka
(i) KOZ (u) nealko
(j) dovi (v) profi
(k) gumáky (w) samoška
(l) matika (x) bezďák
 53

5.2 Blending

Blending is a process in which (normally) two words merge into one. Since this
process involves combining two root morphemes, it can be thought of as a
special case of compounding. In the prototypical cases of blending, the final part
of the first word and the initial part of the second word are clipped and the
remaining parts are glued together, e.g. br(eakfast) + (l)unch → brunch, sm(oke)
+ (f)og → smog, etc. The blended word may be the result of either single
clipping or double clipping:

SINGLE CLIPPING – only one word is clipped

emot(ion) + icon → emoticon
stay + (va)cation → staycation

DOUBLE CLIPPING – both words are clipped

sit(uation) + com(edy) → sitcom
sm(oke) + (f)og → smog

Since the word blending refers to merging parts of two successive morphemes, it
is necessary to distinguish between blending on the one hand, and compounding
combined with some form of abbreviation (e.g. clipping or initialism) on the
other. For example, the lexemes blog (web + log) and high-tech (high +
technology) contain no blending – they are just cases of compounding combined
with initial or final clipping. Therefore, a combination of two roots can be called
blending only if either the final part of the first morpheme or the initial part of
the second morpheme (or both) are clipped.

BLENDING COMPOUNDING (combined with abbreviation)

sm(oke+f)og (we)b+log
sit(uation)+com(edy) high+tech(nology)
stay+(va)cation atomic+bomb → A+bomb

 EXERCISES
 54

1 Explain the word-formation of the following words.

(a) frenemy (l) Brexit

(b) humongous (m) dramedy
(c) motel (n) sci-fi
(d) faction (o) edutainment
(e) spork (p) vegeburger
(f) docurama (q) infotech
(g) heliport (r) Oxbridge
(h) Interpol (s) liger
(i) laundromat (t) boxercise
(j) Medicare (u) advertorial
(k) camcorder (v) affluenza

2 What are the blended forms of these words?

(a) binary + digit (f) electricity + execution

(b) cybernetic + organism (g) motor + pedal
(c) fantastic + fabulous (h) fan + magazine
(d) wireless + fidelity (i) web + seminar
(e) transfer + resistor (j) malicious + software

3 Explain the word-formation of the following Slovak blends and translate

them into English.

(a) zelovoc (f) Slovnaft

(b) bankomat (g) soráč
(c) Rempo (h) Matfyz
(d) EXIM banka (i) Doprastav
(e) Rajo (j) Infovek

5.3 Back-formation
Back-formation can be defined as a formation of a new lexeme by means of a
deletion of a suffix-like element from an apparently complex form, i.e. a shorter
 55

word is derived from a longer form by omitting an imagined suffix, e.g. editor
→ to edit, lazy → to laze, etc. In back-formation, the longer (suffixed) word
comes to be used in language first, and the shorter word is later derived from the
longer one by means of reanalysis and analogy. That is, -or in editor and -y in
lazy are reanalysed as suffixes and the remaining part of the word is seen as a
root morpheme.

 EXERCISES
1 Form verbs from the following words by means of back-formation.

(a) auto-destruction (g) automation

(b) baby-sitter (h) beggar
(c) choreography (i) book-keeper
(d) demarcation (j) sedative
(e) evaluation (k) bulldozer
(f) fine tuning (l) gambler

2 Apply back-formation to the following words. Use them in the sentences

below.

busboy flaky loafer

commentator greedy scavenger
enthusiasm grungy peevish
diagnosis hawker sassy
diplomatic injury shop-lifter
dry-cleaning flabby sulky

(a) A group of kids were loafing around outside.

(b) Don’t put that dress in the washing machine – the label says it should be
_________ed.
 56

(c) He _________es tables to help finance his tuition.

(d) The test is used to _________ a variety of diseases.
(e) He’s _________ing in his room because I wouldn’t let him have any
more chocolate.
(f) I had another helping of ice cream out of pure _________.
(g) Mary said she would do the research for our project, but it’s been a week
and she hasn’t done a thing. She’s such a _________.
(h) On every street corner there were traders _________ing their wares.
(i) She _________s on the tennis each year at Wimbledon.
(j) I want my colleagues to continue to _________ about the job and teach
effectively.
(k) The new government has expelled all foreign _________s.
(l) I need to lose this _________ on my belly!
(m) Three people were killed and five _________ed in the crash.
(n) Weak coffee is one of my pet _________s.
(o) There are people who live in the dump and _________ garbage for a
living.
(p) What’s all that _________ in the bathtub?
(q) I don’t want to hear any more of your _________ .
(r) She was caught trying to _________ a pair of jeans.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

5.4 Reduplication

Reduplication is a word-formation process in which two phonetically similar or

identical morphemes or pseudo-morphemes are combined. Reduplication can be
considered to be a special kind of compounding, although the individual
components of reduplicatives are often meaningless and emotionally/stylistically
coloured. Reduplicatives may be divided into rhyming and non-rhyming, or
into full (the two morphemes are identical in every respect) and partial (the two
morphemes are not identical).
 57

RHYMING REDUPLICATIVES NON-RHYMING REDUPLICATIVES

hocus-pocus tip-top
walkie-talkie chit-chat
hurry-scurry zig-zag

FULL REDUPLICATIVES PARTIAL REDUPLICATIVES

chop-chop tip-top
goody-goody chit-chat
bye-bye hocus-pocus

 EXERCISES
1 Fill in the first or the second component of the following reduplicatives.
Explain their meaning.

(a) Stop shilly-shallying and make a decision now!

(b) He enjoys the ________-burly of political debate.
(c) The candidate gave a few unsatisfactory wishy-________ answers.
(d) I expect he’s out with his ________-farty friends.
(e) Have you tried this ice cream? It’s the bee’s ________, it really is.
(f) He won some money on the ________-gees.
(g) Going to night school might improve your chances of getting out of that
________drum job.
(h) She has these itsy-________ little hands and feet.
(i) He found himself drawn, _________-nilly, into the argument.
(j) They said, ‘Come in, sit down, blah, ________, ________, sign here’.
(k) Many of the country’s top scientists have joined the brain ________ to the
US.
(l) Why is there such ________-mugger about the scheme?
(m) Woof! ________!’ he barked.
(n) I had a fender-________this morning, so I’ve got to go to the auto shop.
(o) The hotel was in a lovely location, but the facilities were only ________-
so.
(OALD, CALD, LDCE)
 58

2 Match the following reduplicatives with the correct meaning. Use them in the
sentences below. Distinguish between various reduplication types.

tittle-tattle (n) 1. arrogant, conceited

no-no (n) 2. very easy
teenie-weenie (adj) 3. short and round (person)
hoity-toity (adj) 4. noisy activity that attracts attention
flip-flop(s) (n) 5. the sound of a bell; a noisy argument
easy-peasy (adj) 6. poop, to poop
razzle-dazzle (n) 7. something unsuitable or unacceptable
hanky-panky (n) 8. little
ding-dong (n) 9. sexual activity (not considered acceptable)
knick-knack (n) 10. unimportant talk, gossip
poo-poo (n, v) 11. a type of sandals
helter-skelter (adv) 12. a small decorative object
bigwig (n) 13. an important person
roly-poly (adj) 14. quickly, in a disorganized way

(a) The shelves were covered with ornaments and useless knick-knacks.
(b) A few of the company ___________s have their own jets.
(c) Total nudity is still a definite ___________ on most of Europe’s beaches.
(d) The story was nothing more than idle ___________.
(e) Don’t you think that maybe it was just a ___________ bit strange?
(f) He likes to arrive with all the ___________, while I prefer to slip in the
back door quietly.
(g) He was a ___________ little man.
(h) There was all sorts of ___________ going on at the party.
(i) If we had a fight I know I’d win, ___________.
(j) Mikey, do you need to go ___________?
(k) People were screaming and running ___________ down the steps to
escape the flames.
 59

(l) My, my! Are we _________ this morning!

(m) She heard John’s ___________s coming downstairs.
(n) They rang the doorbell. ___________! No answer.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE, BNC)

3 Translate these Slovak reduplicatives into English.

(a) čim-čim (j) zôkol-vôkol

(b) hala-bala (k) isto-iste
(c) šup, šup (l) už-už
(d) voľky-nevoľky (m) kucapaca
(e) tresky-plesky (n) trma-vrma
(f) (sľubovať) hory-doly (o) dínom-dánom
(g) cupy-lupy (p) cingi-lingi
(h) krížom-krážom (q) zoči-voči
(i) haky-baky (r) čačky-mačky

5.5 Lexical ellipsis

The term lexical ellipsis refers to an omission of (typically) one word of a multi-
word phrase/collocation. This is done to make the speech production process
more economical, and the resulting lexeme usually represents a different word
class compared to the original function of the corresponding word within the
phrase/collocation. For example, in all of the following phrases, the first word
functions as an adjective, but after the ellipsis (of the second word) it is
converted to a noun: the Atlantic Ocean → the Atlantic, the rich people → the
rich, a monthly magazine → a monthly, etc.
Sometimes, lexical ellipsis can be combined with clipping. In such cases, one
word is ellipted and the remaining word is clipped, e.g. pop(ular music), pub(lic
house), etc.
 60

 EXERCISES
1 Find words which are the result of lexical ellipsis. Supply the ellipted part(s).

(a) One of the Tate’s most publicised art events is the awarding of the
annual Turner Prize.
(b) Let’s go have a Bud.
(c) She lives south of the Thames.
(d) I always take my laptop when I travel.
(e) We use our china only on special occasions.
(f) The normal minimum qualification to be eligible for graduate study at
Oxford is the completion of a bachelor’s degree with a first or upper-
second class honours.
(g) Originally, Oxfords were plain, formal shoes, made of leather but they
evolved into a range of styles suitable for both formal, uniform, and casual
wear.
(h) How about a trip to the zoo this afternoon?
(i) The article was badly written and full of typos.
(j) The Rockies are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North
America.
(k) He’s gone to the butcher’s.
(l) Outside, the once-respectable semis have crooked To Let signs and greying
net curtains.
(m) Give any young egotist two shots of dope and an automatic and he will
hold up the government mint.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE, Wikipedia)

2 Look at the following phrases/collocations. Form new lexemes by means

of ellipsis. Use them in a sentence (consult a dictionary or the Internet).

(a) chamber mate

(b) cup of tea

 61

(c) veterinary surgeon

(d) moving pictures

(e) juvenile detention centre

(f) plastic card

(g) weekly magazine

(h) Piccadilly Circus

(i) medical examination

(j) a big thing

3 The following Slovak words are the result of lexical ellipsis and the
subsequent conversion (adj → n). Supply the ellipted parts. Translate them into
English.

(a) vedúci
(b) pánske
(c) šampanské
(d) maškarný
(e) výtvarná
(f) držková
(g) jedna (príde o jednej)
(h) biele (pohár bieleho)
(i) dekanské
(j) opravný
(k) základná
(l) Tomášikova
(m) hlavná
 62

(n) nízkotučné
(o) domáca (napísať si domácu)
(p) krstný

 Chapter 5 – Further reading:

Bauer 1983: chapters 7.8.1 and 7.8.3
Böhmerová 2010
Carstairs-McCarthy 2002: chapter 6.6
Dvonč et al. 1966
Gavurová 2013
Hladký 1998
Huddleton and Pullum 2002: chapter 19.4.6
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapter 4.6.2
Kvetko 2009: chapter 4.4
Lančarič 2008: chapters 3.2.1, 3.2.2, [Link], and [Link]
Lančarič 2016: chapters [Link] – [Link], [Link]
Plag 2003: chapters 5.2.2 and 5.3
Quirk et al. 1985: chapters 5.25, 7.23, 5.71
Štekauer 2000: chapters 2.4 – 2.7
Yule 2010: chapter 5
 63

6 Marginal types of word-formation

The following phenomena represent the processes whose productivity (the
ability to create new lexemes) is either very limited or which are no longer
considered to be productive.

6.1 Sound interchange

This process typically involves a change of word class by the mutation of one
phoneme within the word. We may distinguish between vowel interchange,
consonant interchange, or a combination of the two, e.g. blood → bleed, believe
→ belief, breath → breathe, etc. It is important not to confuse this word-
formation process with grammatical sound interchange/mutation, which only
produces various grammatical forms of the same lexeme, e.g. see → saw, sit →
sat, sing → sang → sung, etc.

 EXERCISES

1 Change the following words into a different word class (by means of sound
interchange). Use them in the sentences below.

food width knot

prove strong tell
advice gold full
strike sit speak
life sing road
deep broad length

(a) This expression is used mainly in speech, not in writing.

(b) Both her children still _______ at home.
(c) He told some fascinating _______ about his life in India.
(d) I learned to _______ a bike when I was six.
 64

(e) She didn’t have the ________ to walk any further.

(f) Is this ________ taken?
(g) Keep your receipt as _______ of purchase.
(h) Nurses have to work _______ hours.
(i) Open your mouth _______ and say "Ah".
(j) Police are _______ing people to stay at home.
(k) The ________ of her knowledge is amazing.
(l) She’s _______ing the baby a shawl.
(m) The autumn sun _______ed the lake.
(n) They have a large family to _______.
(o) We used to listen to pop ________s on the radio.
(p) With a few bold ________s, she signed her name.
(q) He poured her a drink, then _______ed his own glass.
(r) The cave descends to a _______ of 340 feet.
(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Each of the following words has two different pronunciations. Transcribe them
and comment on the meaning of the two different forms.

Transcription 1 + Meaning 1 Transcription 2 + Meaning 2

deliberate /dɪlɪb(ə)rət/ intentional /dɪlɪbəreɪt/ to think carefully
use
house
estimate
close
associate
mouth
excuse

3 Look at these pairs. Distinguish between lexical sound interchange and

grammatical mutation.
 65

(a) ride – rode (i) bleed – bled

(b) blood – bleed (j) deep – depth
(c) see – seen (k) sit – seat
(d) lose – loss (l) lose – lost
(e) sit – sat (m) strike (v) – stroke (n)
(f) strike (present t.) – stroke (past t.) (n) ring – rang
(g) prove – proof (o) sale – sell
(h) sell – sold (p) ride – road

6.2 Eponymy
Eponymy is a process of creating new words by using proper names as (mostly)
common nouns, e.g. guillotine (named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace
Guillotin), wellingtons (after the Duke of Wellington), etc. Sometimes, an
eponym is created by adding a suffix to the proper name. The resulting word
can then either remain a noun, e.g. by adding the suffix -ism – Stalinism,
Maoism, etc., or it becomes a different word class, e.g. by adding the suffixes -
ize, -ian, etc. – to galvanize (the Italian physician Luigi Galvani), to pasteurize
(the French scientist Louis Pasteur), Victorian (after Queen Victoria), etc.

 EXERCISES
1 Underline eponyms in the following sentences. Explain their origin.

(a) Hooligans had sprayed paint all over the car.

(b) Carla and Nick were sitting on the grass, languidly tossing Sara’s frisbee to
and fro.
(c) I’ve put the Thermos of water in your pack – use it sparingly.
(d) It was such a brilliant idea – a real stroke of genius.
(e) I handed Glen the glass with ice, pouring Scotch into it.
(f) The hills sent back a faint echo.
(g) Could you xerox this letter, please?
(h) The departmental library is on four floors with two large reading rooms
and an extensive map and atlas store.
 66

(i) I have a pair of black Bermuda shorts that I bought to wear aboard our
boat.
(j) The union called on its members to boycott the meeting.
(k) Previous evidence has shown that fluent braille involves a number of
subsidiary perceptual, cognitive and manual skills.
(l) Tourism is damaging the flora and fauna.
(m) In the course of the riot the governor of the city was lynched.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Look at these names and trademarks. What lexemes were formed on their
basis? Use them in the sentences below.

1. Marcus Junius Brutus (the Roman politician)

2. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (the Russian communist revolutionary)
3. Queen Elizabeth I
4. Plato (the Greek philosopher)
5. Napoleon
6. Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (the Belgian instrument maker)
7. Band-Aid (a brand name)
8. Jean Nicot (the French explorer)
9. Velcro (a company)
10. Odysseus (a Greek mythological character)

(a) The room is full of smoke – ___________ has become

the ambient atmosphere.
(b) An easy way to keep a ___________ fastener from becoming clogged
with dust and other airborne debris is by keeping the strips fastened as
much as possible.
(c) She wrote a thriller about a ___________ serial killer.
(d) She took a ___________ out of her purse and stretched it over the cut.
(e) ___________ is the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat, as
political prelude to the establishment of socialism.
 67

(f) The ___________ age was a time of exploration and discovery.

(g) In the novel, Edward and Susannah present a perfect model of
___________ love.
(h) The ___________ Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global
conflicts between the French Empire and an array of European powers.
(i) Berne started playing ___________ in high school.
(j) The film follows one man’s ___________ to find the mother from whom
he was separated at birth.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

6.3 Shift of stress

Shift of stress is a way of creating new words by shifting the placement of

primary stress within the word. The new word thus has the same spelling (the
original word and the new word are homographs), but a different placement of
stress and, usually, also different pronunciation, e.g. a present /preznt/ → to
present /przent/, to conduct /kəndʌkt/ → a conduct /kɒndʌkt/, etc. This
process is not restricted to noun – verb pairs, however. It may also be applied to
create verbs from adjectives, e.g. frequent /fri:kwnt/ → to frequent /frɪkwent/,
absent /æbsn(ə)t/ → to absent /əbsent/, etc.

 EXERCISES
1 Pay attention to these words with variable stress pattern. Mark their correct
stress placement and determine their word class and meaning.

PRESENT
Please state your present occupation and salary.
They gave me theatre tickets as a present.
The winners were presented with medals.
I’m sorry, he’s out at present.
Later on I’d like to present you to the head-teacher.
 68

CONDUCT
Is it really necessary to conduct experiments on animals?
There was no evidence of improper conduct on the part of the police.
The orchestra is conducted by John Williams.

ATTRIBUTE
She attributes her success to hard work and a little luck.
Patience is one of the most important attributes in a teacher.
This play is usually attributed to Shakespeare.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

2 Supply the correct spelling of the following words and match them with their
meaning.

Spelling Pronunciation Meaning

1. /kɒmpres/ (a) výrobok; výnos, výťažok

2. /prdekt/ (b) povolenie
3. /refju:s/ (c) plán, projekt, náčrt
4. /dezt/ (d) uznať vinným; odsúdiť
5. /frɪkwent/ (e) odsúdenec, trestanec
6. /kmpres/ (f) opustiť, ujsť; zásluha, odmena
7. /pɜ:mɪt/ (g) odpad, smeti
8. /knvɪkt/ (h) stlačiť, zmenšiť
9. /rekɔ:d/ (i) odmietnuť
10. /prɒdekt/ (j) záznam, dokument, nahrávka, rekord
11. /kɒnvɪkt/ (k) vrhať, premietať, vyčnievať
12. /prɒdju:s/ (l) púšť
13. /rɪfju:z/ (m) obklad, obväz
14. /dɪzɜ:t/ (n) drobný; detailný; nepodstatný
15. /maɪnju:t/ (o) často navštevovať
 69

 Now form 4 meaningful sentences using some of the above words. Pay
attention to correct placement of stress, e.g. She holds the world ˈrecord for
the 100 metres. Use a dictionary, if necessary.

1._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

2._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

3._______________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

4._______________________________________________________________

6.4 Sound symbolism

Some lexemes are created as a result of the imitation of real sounds, such as
animal sounds, various non-linguistic human sounds, natural sounds, etc. Such
lexemes are phonetically motivated (see also 2.2), which means that the relation
between the linguistic form and the concept is not arbitrary, e.g. cuckoo, woof-
woof, bang, etc.
We can distinguish between two main types of sound symbolism –
onomatopoeia and iconism. Whereas onomatopoeia /ɒnəmætəpi:ə/ is the direct
imitation of the sounds in nature, iconism /aɪkɒnɪzm/ refers to the fact that
certain sounds or sound sequences seem to represent some physical aspect(s) of
the extra-lingual reality, such as shape, size, movement, etc.

Sound(s) Symbolizes Examples

/ɪ/, /i:/ something small teeny-weeny, mini, wee, slit, chink
/fl/ quickness or lightness flow, fly, flee, flick, flimsy, flicker
/ɡl/ something shiny, smooth glide, glimmer, glitter, glow, gleam

 EXERCISES
 70

1 Translate these words into Slovak. Compare their sound structure and
determine the possible symbolism.

(a)

boom burst
bang pop
bash punch
blast poke
break pummel

(b)

scratch cry
scream scramble
screech screw
scrape scribble
scrub creak

2 Translate these phonetically motivated words into English.

(a) hapčí (f) kvap, kvap
(b) bim-bam (g) tik-tak
(c) cingi-lingi (h) prásk
(d) bum, bum (i) čľup
(e) ťuk, ťuk (j) vrzg

6.5 Word manufacture

This process refers to the invention of new lexemes on the basis of real (native
or loan) morphemes or pseudo-morphemes. Such coinages are therefore often
not traceable to their original underlying forms. Nevertheless, these invented
words are always based on the phonemes present in a given language and
normally follow the specific phonotactic rules of that language, e.g. nylon
(generic syllable nyl + pseudo-suffix -on), Polaroid (clipped polarization +
suffix -oid), etc.
 71

 EXERCISES
1 Find manufactured words in the following sentences. Match them with their
meaning and an explanation of the logic behind their coinage.

(a) He said Nicole Simpson did not own the gold Spandex leotard described
by the clinic employee.
(b) I always take a couple of aspirins when I feel a cold starting.
(c) Eagerly she tugged the card off the Cellophane wrapping – then stared at it
in confusion.
(d) Her plate held a curious mixture of Spam, jelly, iced buns and lettuce
leaves.
(e) I googled her name and found out she runs her own company.
(f) It was a memorable return for the man who seemed to have ended his
career a convicted cocaine user in Naples.
(g) I must look like the typical tourist with my shorts and my Kodak camera.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE, BNC)

1. A drug to reduce pain – based on French Acetylene and

Latin speiraia (the German version was Acetylierte
spirsäure)
2. A hand-held camera – arbitrary coinage
3. Canned meat – based on spiced ham
4. A very large number – originally spelled googol
5. Thin transparent plastic material for wrapping – based on
French cellulose and Greek phainein
6. An addictive drug – based on Spanish coca (a plant) and
French suffix -ine
7. A material that stretches and is used for making sports
clothes – based on expand and the commercial suffix -ex.

2 What is the meaning of the following word coinages? Use them in the
sentences below.
 72

Prozac linoleum
neoprene Kleenex
Whiskas quark
Tipp-Ex Blu-Tack

(a) As a result of the invention of Tipp-Ex, it became possible to erase

a typographical error typed with a typewriter.
(b) Atoms are made up of smaller particles – protons, neutrons and electrons
– some of which are made up of even smaller ones, called _______s.
(c) Delight your cat with the delicious meaty taste of ________ wet and dry
food.
(d) He wore a tight-fitting _________ wetsuit.
(e) Despite the competition, __________ and its generic equivalents remain
popular and have become the third most-prescribed antidepressant in the
United States.
(f) Helga stuck her posters up with ________.
(g) She had put her shoes back on and they made a hard noise against the
_________.
(h) Anything handed to him had to be wrapped in __________ tissues.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

 Chapter 6 – Further reading:

Bauer 1983: chapter 7.8.4
Cruttenden 2014: chapter 10.5
Crystal 2009
Huddleton and Pullum 2002: chapter 19.2.6
Kvetko 2009: chapter 4.4
Lančarič 2016: chapters [Link] – [Link]
Ohala 1997
Singleton 2000: chapter 8.8
Yule 2010: chapter 5
 73

7 Word meaning
7.1 Grammatical and lexical meaning
The meaning of lexemes can be classified into two main types: lexical and
grammatical. The grammatical component of meaning is usually expressed by
grammatical morphemes, which can be free (e.g. of, the, in, and, etc.) or bound
(e.g. -ing, -ed, -s, etc.). The lexical component of meaning, on the other hand, is
typically carried by free or bound lexical morphemes (e.g. desk, book, run, -ist, -
ness, dis-, etc.).
It is important to remember that lexical and grammatical meanings are
often inseparable and in most words occur simultaneously, e.g. boys, cheating,
mice, etc.). Even when lexical words bear no morphological markers of the
grammatical meaning, the grammatical component of meaning is still present.
Sometimes, one type of meaning dominates over the other. For instance, in the
function words such as of, in, but, etc. the grammatical meaning is dominant.

 EXERCISES
1 Divide these words, phrases, and sentences into morphemes. Determine
whether lexical or grammatical component of meaning prevails.

(a) sparingly (e) You look tired.

(b) Good to see you. (f) He rose to his feet when she walked in.
(c) fireworks (g) unexplained phenomena
(d) unprecedented (h) should have been listening

2 Read this text. Divide the morphemes/words into lexical and grammatical.

Britain’s plan to tame Trump

Tim Shipman, The Sunday Times, November 2016

 74

A secret memo from the British ambassador to the United States has laid bare
how the UK plans to shape Donald Trump’s presidency so he helps to boost
Britain’s national interests.

In a leaked telegram, written just as Trump was surging to victory last week, Sir
Kim Darroch boasted that the UK is the best placed of any nation to steer the
new president’s foreign policy and encourage his more extreme ideas to
“evolve”.

7.2 Types of lexical meaning

Lexical meaning subsumes several distinct components of meaning. We will

discuss the following: denotative, connotative, social, emotional, and
collocational.

Denotative meaning
Denotative (denotational, referential, conceptual, basic) meaning can be defined
as the basic, core meaning of the word, expressing the relationship between
language, on the one hand, and the entities, events, things, etc. of the extra-
lingual reality on the other. The denotative meaning of a word can normally be
characterized as the sum of its basic components of meaning. For example, the
lexeme mother can be characterized by the criterial components female, adult,
and parent. In fact, by using such components of meaning, we can differentiate
between similar entities within particular semantic fields. Such analysis is called
componential analysis of meaning (semantic feature analysis). These
components of meaning are normally treated as binary choices and they are
 75

expressed by means of the signs + or –. Here is an example the componential

analysis of the denotative meaning of the words father, mother, and gosling.

HUMAN FEMALE ADULT

father + – +
mother + + +
gosling – +/– –

Connotative meaning
The term connotative (associative, supplementary) meaning will be used here to
refer to the associations that a particular word has or implies. It refers to the
additional, non-criterial properties that a particular referent may possess.
Connotation names those facets of meaning which do not affect the lexeme’s
basic components of meaning. For example, the word needle denotes an object
of the extra-lingual reality which can be characterized as sharp, thin, made of
steel, etc. However, the associations (the non-criterial components of meaning)
often attached to it are pain, fear, illness, hospital, nurse, etc. Such associations
may differ from person to person, and may also depend on context.

 EXERCISES
1Determine the criterial components of meaning needed to differentiate
these five words.

ADULT
pig
wild boar
hog
sow
piglet

2 What connotations do the following words have?

 76

(a) rat (e) spider

(b) summer (f) ice cream
(c) red (g) train
(d) autumn (h) blue

3 Determine the meaning of the following synonymic words and phrases.

Identify the counterpart with a negative connotation.

(a) clever boy – wise guy (g) stingy – economical

(b) homeless – bum (h) statesman – politician
(c) cocky – confident (i) eats – grub
(d) pig-headed – determined (j) scrawny – slender
(e) nit-picking – meticulous (k) cooler – penitentiary
(f) consume – stuff one’s face (l) sentimental – mushy

4 Use the words in the box to complete the sentences below. Determine
whether they have a neutral, positive, or a negative connotation in a given
context.

smell friend
little to fight
white cheap

(a) They are ________ ing for their freedom.

(b) ________ wine gives me a headache.
(c) Factory chimneys belched dense ________ smoke into the sky.
(d) She’ll _________ like a tiger to protect her children.
(e) I might have a _________ bit of cake.
(f) It was nothing but a ________ trick.
(g) Here’s a ________ something for your birthday.
(h) I wish our ________ at the next table would shut up.
(i) There’s so ________ choice.
(j) I’m no ________ of socialism, as you know.
 77

(k) She went ________ as a sheet when she heard the news.
(l) The air was filled with the ________ of flowers.
(m) Two men were arrested for _________ ing outside a bar.
(n) We did very ________ on Sunday.
(o) What’s that funny ________?
(p) She has a set of perfect __________ teeth.
(q) He’s a nasty ________ man.
(r) I think the ________’s getting worse.
(s) She’s an old ________.
(t) The equipment is relatively ________ and simple to use.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

Social meaning
Social meaning (also referred to as interpersonal meaning) is the meaning that a
piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. There are
two main areas covered by this type of meaning – the expression of social
relations and the indication of social status.
When people interact, they often use expressions with very vague denotative
meaning, such as How do you do; My, my; I hear you; Lovely day, isn’t it; You
said it!, etc. Such words and expressions are primarily used to express social
attitudes, e.g. friendship, agreement, conflict, rejection, etc. At the same time,
when we speak, we necessarily reveal our social status by nature of the selection
of particular vocabulary and pronunciation. For example, the words and
expressions He don’t know me, /bʌʔə/ (butter), /evɪ/ (heavy), I says to him, etc.
reveal the speaker’s social status.

Expressive meaning /ɪkspresɪv/

Expressive meaning (affective, emotive, attitudinal meaning) reflects the
personal feelings and attitudes of the speaker. For example, in words and
phrases like idiot, dumbo, bimbo, darling, sweetie, Good Lord!, Shove it, You
bloody bastard, etc. the expressive component prevails over the denotative
component of meaning.
 78

Collocational meaning /kɒləkeɪʃənl/

Collocational meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in the
neighbourhood of other words. For example, the word heavy has quite different
meanings in combination with different words: heavy suitcase (weighing a lot),
heavy rain (pouring), heavy work (difficult), heavy schedule (busy), etc.

 EXERCISES
5 Look at the sentences below. Determine their social function – choose from
the words in the box.

A. Greetings and farewells E. Advice

B. Agreement F. Surprise
C. Rejection G. Dislike
D. Reprimand H. Threatening

1. After a while, crocodile. 16. I hear you.

2. Go to hell! 17. You can say that again.
3. He really is an arrogant S.O.B. 18. What’s it to you, butthead?
4. Holy moly! 19. Oh my, I’m going to be late!
5. How’s it hanging? 20. Over my dead body!
6. Your ass is grass! 21. Same here.
7. I’ll drop you like a bag of dirt! 22. See you later, alligator.
8. No can do. 23. Never say die.
9. It’s been a while. 24. So long, suckers.
10. What did I tell you? 25. Tell you what.
11. You said it. 26. Told you so!
12. Long time, no see. 27. Say hello to your wife for me.
13. My arse/ass! 28. Well, I’ll be damned.
14. Need I say more? 29. When hell freezes over.
15. Never in a million years! 30. You want a piece of me?

Now work in pairs and form a short dialogue, using at least 2 of the
phrases above.
 79

Example:
A: When are you going to marry me?
B: When hell freezes over.
A: You really are an arrogant S.O.B.
B: You can say that again.

A:
B:
A:
B:

6 Determine whether the following words and phrases have a positive or a

negative emotive charge. Translate them into Slovak.

(a) honey (i) bite the dust

(b) off one’s rocker (j) sugarplum
(c) sicko (k) teeny-tiny
(d) knee-high to a grasshopper (l) sloshed
(e) tipsy (m) with flying colours
(f) numbskull (n) scumbag
(g) fop (o) sweetheart
(h) pass away (p) exotic dancer

7Determine the meaning of the following words within particular

collocations. Translate them into Slovak.

GREAT NIGHT
of great importance last night
the great majority Saturday night
a great artist the first night
great problems the other night
a great idea good night
 80

KEEP POINT
keep a shop make a point
keep pigs go to the point
keep one’s word at one point
keep a diary the freezing point
keep good time what’s the point
keep quiet to score a point
keep trying a sharp point
keep sb waiting a TV antenna point

7.3 Sentence and utterance meaning

We have learned so far that word meaning is a conglomerate of various types of
meaning: grammatical, denotational, connotative, social, etc. Words, however,
normally do not occur in isolation – they are combined together to form
sentences. In order for a sentence to convey meaning, we usually rely on the
meaning of the words it contains. Nevertheless, the meaning of a sentence is
often not a mere sum of the meanings of the individual words. For example, the
components of the following sentences are identical, but their meanings are not:

John saw Susan. Susan saw John.

It is obvious that the way words are ordered in the sentence is often important to
the interpretation of sentence meaning. Furthermore, some sentences may have
no meaning not because they are grammatically ill-formed, but because the
semantic scopes of the words are violated. Consider the following examples:

Peter likes beer. Beer likes Peter.

The second sentence is nonsensical (but grammatically well-formed), because

beer is an inanimate object and cannot show emotions, such as hate, love, etc. In
other words, actions expressed by animate entities (loving, hating, feeling,
reading, running, etc.) are not in the semantic scope (semantic selection) of the
word beer. Sentence meaning can therefore be defined in terms of the
combination of at least 3 components:
 81

(a) the (literal) meaning of the individual words,

(b) the order of the words,
(c) the semantic scope of these words.

Nevertheless, deciphering the meaning of individual sentences is usually not

enough to be able to communicate effectively. That is, the meaning of a
sentence is often concretized only in context. The meaning that sentences have
on a particular occasion and in a particular context is called utterance meaning.
For example the following sentences have several different meanings, and only
their use in context will disambiguate them.

He’s a conductor.
John was looking for the glasses.
I saw her dress.
Pull your socks up!

The sentences above are ambiguous in their meaning – the first two sentences
are ambiguous due to the homonymy of the words conductor and glass, the third
sentence has two possible syntactic interpretations, and the last example can be
interpreted either literally or metaphorically.

 EXERCISES
1 Study the following sentence. How many different utterance meanings can
you detect?

I saw a man on the hill with a telescope.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

(The Internet)
 82

2 Look at the phrases in the box. Use them in the sentences below. Comment
on utterance meaning.

what the hell take care

not at all that’s it
take off pick up

(a) I picked up a virus while I was in America.

(b) "Thanks for helping." "____________."
(c) Carlos just ____________ for Venezuela for three weeks.
(d) Bye! ____________!
(e) ‘Would you mind helping me with my suitcase?’ ‘____________.’
(f) Don’t worry about me, I can ____________ of myself.
(g) He ____________ the letter and read it.
(h) I felt quite excited as the plane ____________ from Heathrow.
(i) The dogs ____________ the scent and raced off.
(j) If you can see to the drinks for the party, I’ll ____________ of the food.
(k) I’m afraid ____________ – we’ve lost.
(l) It means I’ll be late for work but ____________!
(m) ____________ your room before you go to bed.
(n) She was told to go to the washroom and ____________her lipstick.
(o) Slowly ... slowly. Yeah, ____________.
(p) ____________ that you don’t fall.
(q) ____________. I give up.
(r) ____________ is going on here?
(s) She’s ____________ happy about the situation.
(t) I’ll ______ you ____ at the station.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

3 Analyse these real but ambiguous newspaper headlines. Determine the

intended meaning and also the other, more amusing, interpretation.
 83

(a) Kids make nutritious snacks

(b) Milk drinkers are turning to powder
(c) Prostitutes appeal to Pope
(d) Eye drops off shelf
(e) Queen Mary having bottom scraped
(f) Drunk gets nine months in violin case
(g) Panda mating fails; Veterinarian takes over
(h) Police begin campaign to run down jaywalkers
(i) Safety experts say school bus passengers should be belted
(j) Astronaut takes blame for gas in spacecraft
(k) Quarter of a million Chinese live on water
(l) Include your children when baking cookies
(m) Two Soviet ships collide, one dies
(n) Lack of brains hinders research
(o) Red tape holds up new bridge
(p) Reagan wins on budget, but more lies ahead
(q) Miners refuse to work after death
(r) End to free school looms

([Link]; [Link])

7.4 Semantic changes

The lexical meaning of words is prone to various changes or semantic

shifts. This means that a particular word either loses some of its components of
meaning or acquires new components of meaning. When a word has acquired a
new meaning and this meaning is related to (derived from) the original meaning,
we speak of polysemy. Such words are therefore referred to as polysemous.
There are several types of semantically motivated changes.
 84

Specialization and Generalization

Two common types of change are specialization and generalization.
Specialization (narrowing) of meaning entails restricting the word’s range of
reference. For example, the English word liquor used to refer to liquid of any
kind. Today it is used only to refer to alcohol. Generalization (broadening), on
the other hand, is a process in which a word’s meaning changes to encompass a
broader group of referents, e.g. the word bird originally only referred to a young
bird, while nowadays it is used in a general sense.

Metaphor
The term metaphor /metəfɔ:/ refers to using a word or a phrase in a way that is
different from its normal, original (literal) use. The new meaning is derived from
the older one on the basis of similarity or analogy, e.g. a hand of a clock (not a
real human hand), a cold welcome (unfriendly welcome), etc. Metaphors often
provide a means of understanding abstract non-material domains by relating
them to better-known domains and experiences in the physical world. For
instance, sadness and depression can be expressed as something occupying
a low position on the vertical axis (to be cast down, down in the dumps, down in
the mouth, low-spirited, heavy-hearted, down-hearted, etc.) while happiness and
joy are situated at a high position on the vertical axis (high-spirited, flying high,
on cloud nine, in seventh heaven, walking on air, have a high old time, etc.).

 EXERCISES
1 Match the words in the box to their original meanings below. Determine
whether the present meaning of a word has undergone specialization or
generalization. Consult an etymological dictionary.

deer girl ready

accident hound rubbish
arrive junk starve
disease meat thing
 85

Word Original meaning Type of change

deer beast, wild animal specialization
dog (in general)
prepared for a ride
food
broken stones
to die
come to the shore
an (unforeseen) event
old rope
child, young person
discomfort
a meeting, an assembly

2 Determine whether the specified words are used literally or

metaphorically.

AIR (v)
Leave the window open to air the room.
Staff will get a chance to ask questions and air their views.
The program is due to air next month.
I’ve left my sweater outside to air.

COLOUR (n)
She felt she had not been given the job because of her colour.
That walk has put some colour in your cheeks.
What’s your favourite colour?
Her acting added warmth and colour to the production.
There are people of different political colours on the committee.

WEAK (adj)
The party was left weak and divided.
He speaks quite fluently but he’s weak on grammar.
 86

There are some weak points in her argument.

She’s too weak to feed herself.
I can’t stand weak coffee.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE)

3 Identify all metaphorical words and phrases in the following comic strip.
Explain their meaning in simple non-metaphorical English.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)

Now work in pairs and form a similar short dialogue, using the phrases
above.
 87

A:
B:
A:
B:

Metonymy
Metonymy /metɒnəmɪ/ is a contiguity of meaning, where one piece of the extra-
lingual reality is closely connected with another or forms part of it. There are
several types of relationships where metonymy is used.

(a) Containment
One thing contains another: a dish (= the food in a dish), a bottle (= alcohol in
the bottle), a barrel (= beer/oil in a barrel), etc.

(b) Synecdoche /sɪnekdəkɪ/

A part of something is used for the whole or vice versa: a hand (= an assistant),
the church (= congregation), a motor (= a car), fizz (= champagne)

(c) The material something is made of

glass (= a container for drinking), iron (a tool for pressing clothes), irons (=
shackles), wood (= a golf club), etc.

(d) Eponymy
Names of people, places, countries, etc. are used to refer to some of their aspects
or characteristics: Shakespeare (= a book by Shakespeare), Armani (an Armani
suit), America (= people of America), Hollywood (= celebrities of Hollywood),
Germany (= e.g. German football players), china (originally made in China), etc.

Personification
Personification /pəsɒnɪfɪkeɪʃn/ is a process of assigning human qualities to non-
human entities. It is a discourse in which animals, plants, elements of nature,
inanimate objects and abstract ideas are given human attributes, e.g. a kettle
singing on the stove, a stupid mistake, etc.

 EXERCISES
 88

4 Find metonyms in the following sentences and explain them.

(a) The pen is mightier than the sword.

(b) He’s always prepared to lend a sympathetic ear.
(c) Could you give me a hand with these suitcases?
(d) The Pentagon is aiming to cut US forces by over 25 percent in the next
five years.
(e) The restaurant has been acting quite rude lately.
(f) Do you like my new wheels?
(g) The library has been very helpful to the students this morning.
(h) Hey, look. Freckles is here!
(i) It tasted very strange, at least to my untrained palate.
(j) The problem only exists inside his head.
(k) They’ve got three kids and her husband just lost his job – the last thing
they need is another mouth to feed.
(l) The suits on Wall Street walked off with most of our savings.
(m) He was in every sense a man of the cloth.
(n) Gasoline rose more than a nickel a gallon.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE, The Internet)

5 Analyse this text. Find all instances of metonymy and personification.

Snow chaos: Massive drifts cause traffic hell as winter takes hold of Britain

Leda Reynolds, The Daily Express, November 2016

 89

Massive snow drifts measuring five feet high have been causing traffic
chaos for drivers in Cumbria as the north of England cold snap continues.
Mechanical diggers were drafted in to carve out a path on the A686 between
Alston and Penrith after recent snow left roads impassable.
The Met Office said that although snow last fell in Cumbria on Saturday
night, freezing fog and temperatures dipping as low as minus two had not given
the snow chance to melt. A Met Office spokesman said: “Satellite images show
the snow is still lingering because the air temperature has been so cold, with the
Pennines and the higher ground in the Lake District particularly affected.”
Forecasters say freezing fog patches will continue tomorrow in the north
of England and Scotland, making driving potentially hazardous. Elsewhere, the
southern part of the UK is set to enjoy occasional sunny spells, although it will
be windy in coastal areas.
This weekend brought the coldest night of autumn so far after
thermometers plunged to -9.8C as Loch Glascarnoch, in the Scottish highlands.
Experts agree earlier indications this winter may be mild were “off base” and are
now warning of a cold season ahead.

Irony
Sometimes, words may acquire new meaning due to irony /aɪrənɪ/ (antiphrasis).
It refers to using words and phrases with an implication opposite to their usual
meaning, so there is a discrepancy between the expected (original) meaning and
the intended (new, shifted) meaning. Such words and phrases thus usually
acquire humorous or mildly sarcastic tones, e.g. I feel a lot better now (meaning:
a lot worse), You’re as subtle as a flying brick (meaning: not subtle at all), etc.

Hyperbole and Understatement

Hyperbole /haɪpɜ:bəlɪ/ is an exaggerated statement (or overstatement) which
should not be taken (too) literally, e.g. to weigh a ton (to be very heavy), this
will take me forever (this will take me a long time), etc. An understatement is a
statement that makes something seem less important, impressive, serious, etc.
than it really is, e.g. it’s a bit cold today (describing freezing weather), tipsy
(describing someone completely drunk), etc. Litotes /laɪtəʊti:z/, /laɪtə(ʊ)ti:z / is
a special kind of understatement in which we express something by means of the
negation of its contrary, e.g. not bad (good), not unlike sb (like sb), etc.
 90

Euphemism and Dysphemism

The term euphemism /ju:fəmɪzm/ refers to a substitution of an expression
which is taboo, negative, or too direct by an expression that is mild, comforting,
or evasive to avoid shocking or upsetting someone, e.g. pass away (instead of
die), an affair (instead of sexual relationship), etc. Dysphemism /dɪsfəmɪzm/,
on the other hand, refers to the use of a negative or disparaging expression to
describe something or someone, e.g. grub (instead of food), paws (instead of
hands), etc.

 EXERCISES
6 Underline instances of irony in the following sentences. Explain them.

(a) The instructions were as clear as mud.

(b) "Wow, look at this mess! You could win an award for cleanliness!"
(c) His pick-up lines are as smooth as sandpaper.
(d) Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”
(e) She was about as friendly as a coiled rattlesnake.
(f) It’s so delightful to be home with a sick child twice in one week.
(g) This chair is as comfortable as sitting on nails.
(h) "Sorry I’m late." "No problem, it’s not like we do anything important in
this class anyway."
(i) Brilliant! I’ve been fired.
(j) Swell! Now you’ve broken my watch. Thank you so much!
(k) Don’t you just love those long depressing rainy afternoons?

(The Internet)

7 Look at these four gag cartoons. Identify ironic statements.

 91

(The Internet)

8 Find all cases of hyperbole and understatement in the following sentences.

(a) Sally was a tad annoyed when her brother sneaked a peak at her secret
diary.
(b) I’m so hungry I could eat a cow!
(c) “Oh, I’ve been known to bang out a chord or two,” said the renowned
concert pianist.
(d) The package took forever to arrive in the mail.
(e) Every word Laurie says is a lie, including “a” and “the.”
(f) You must admit, Ken isn’t the most talented singer in the world.
(g) I’ve wanted to go to France since the beginning of time.
 92

(h) Lizzy was somewhat pleased when she aced the calculus final.
(i) Herbert doesn’t actually brush his teeth; he just waves a toothbrush near
his mouth.
(j) I have a million things to do today.
(k) Hitler was not a nice person.
(l) It was windy in New Orleans during hurricane Katrina.
(m) The whole world was staring at me.
(n) Bill Gates is financially secure.
(o) You snore louder than a freight train.
(p) An atomic blast is a bit noisy.
(q) That joke is so old that I was riding a dinosaur the first time I heard it.

(The Internet)

9 Form hyperboles (acceptable conventional phrases) from the following

statements.

(a) He is very stupid.

(b) I’ve known him for a very long time.
(c) It rained heavily.
(d) They are rich.
(e) I don’t feel well.
(f) She is rather old.
(g) My suitcase is very heavy.
(h) I really want to meet this girl.
(i) These shoes hurt.
(j) My dad knows a lot about computers.
(k) He will be very angry when he finds out I crashed his car.

10 Underline euphemisms and dysphemisms in the following sentences.

Replace them by their neutral equivalents.

(a) My old car’s finally bitten the dust.

(b) She’s gained a few extra pounds.
(c) He eats like a horse and yet he’s as thin as a rake.
(d) I’m actually between jobs right now, how about you?
 93

(e) Hey Jill, see you’re still burning up those cancer sticks.
(f) He’s a little thin on top these days, isn’t he?
(g) The Oaks Correctional Facility is comprised of eleven main buildings
containing approximately 262,673 square feet of floor space.
(h) They gave him the sack for being late.
(i) She was a woman of ample proportions.
(j) In loving memory of my dear husband, who departed this life on 5 May,
2008.
(k) You don’t believe all that crap, do you?
(l) Hitting any non-military targets would risk collateral damage.
(m) To keep the company alive, half the workforce is being made redundant.
(n) She must be on the game, all right.
(o) What a load of bull!
(p) On the floor above the loony bin, nobody quite knew what took place.
(q) He came home after three months at college looking terribly scrawny.
(r) These drooling mutts get into all sorts of trouble during their free time on
the streets.

(OALD, CALD, LDCE, The Internet)

 Chapter 7 – Further reading:

Cruse 2000: chapters 2.4.1 – 2.4.3, 5.1.2, 3.4.1, 11.3, and 11.4
Finegan 2008: chapter 6
Geeraerts 2010: chapters 5.2.1 – 5.2.3
Ginzburg, et al. 1979: chapters 2.5 and 2.6
Griffiths 2006: chapters 1.2, 5.2.1, 5.2.3, and 6
Jackson 1988: chapters 4, 6, and 7
Jackson and Zé Amvela 2007: chapter 5.5.1
Kreidler 1998: chapters 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, 3.7, and 3.8
Kvetko 2009: chapters 5.1 and 5.3
Lančarič 2016: chapters 4.1.1, 4.1.2, and 4.2
Leech 1981: chapters 2 and 6
Radden and Dirven 2007: chapter 1.3
Yule 2010: chapter 9
 94

Answer key
1 The definition of lexicology

2 (a) O, (b) O, (c) S, (d) O, (e) O, (f) S, (g) S, (h) S, (i) O, (j) S

6
What’s up?, How’s it going?, How are you?, Never better., Not too bad., I’m fine, thank you.,
Good to see you again., I haven’t seen you for ages., Long time no see., It’s been a while.,
What have you been up to lately?, So how’s your work going?, How’s business?, It looks like
rain., You wanna grab a bite?, Good thing I took my umbrella., It’s been great to see you
again., Say hello to your wife/husband for me., Lets catch up again sometime.

2.1 Types of words

1
(a) Johnny, Johnnie (k) analogue (BrE), analog (AmE)
(b) program (AmE), programme (BrE) (l) disc (BrE), disk (AmE)
(c) acknowledg(e)ment (m) grey (BrE), gray (AmE)
(d) theatre (BrE), theater (AmE) (n) aesthetic (BrE), (a)esthetic (AmE)
(e) adviser, advisor (o) whisky (BrE), whiskey (AmE, IrE)
(f) colour (BrE), color (AmE) (p) defense (AmE), defence (BrE)
(g) analyse (BrE), analyze (AmE) (q) fiber (AmE), fibre (BrE)
(h) curb (AmE), kerb (BrE) – obrubník (r) jewellery (BrE), jewelry (AmE)
(i) storey (BrE), story (AmE) (s) pyjamas (BrE), pajamas (AmE)
(j) yogurt, yogh(o)urt (t) tyre (BrE), tire (AmE) – pneumatika

2
(a) /bɪkɒz/, /bəkəz/, (b) /ru:t/, /raʊt/, (c) /feb(rʊə)rɪ/, /febjʊerɪ/, (d) /ɒfn/, /ɒftən/, (e) /hæv/,
/(hə)v/, (f) /ɪʃu:/, /ɪʃju:/, /ɪsju:/, (g) /əɡen/, /əɡeɪn/, (h) /kɒmbæt/, /kʌmbæt/, (i) /ɪnlɑ:dʒ/,
/enlɑ:dʒ/, (j) /ænd/, /(ə)n(d)/, (k) /fɔ:ls/, /fɒls/, (l) /ɒv/, /ə(v)/

3 There are 44 lexemes

in = 2x feel = 1x he = 2x and = 2x
Britain = 1x strong (stronger 1x) say (said 2x) there = 2x
we = 4x remind = 1x maybe = 1x few = 1x
use = 1x ourselves = 1x mention = 1x war (wars 1x)
our = 1x that = 1x a = 2x but = 1x
history = 1x be = 2x (were + are) little = 1x the = 2x
order = 1x always = 2x bit = 1x chapter (chapters1x)
to = 3x deep = 1x of = 1x insist = 1x
comfort = 1x down = 1x slave = 1x on = 1x
us = 2x good = 1x trade = 1x sunny = 1x
make = 1x people = 1x here = 2x one (ones 1x)
 95

5
(a) past + passive voice, past + active voice, present perfect + active voice = different, (b) past
perfect, simple past = different, (c) present perfect, present perfect = same, (d) noun + plural,
noun + singular, verb = different

2.2 Main features of lexemes

2
(a) little, dog, learners, importance; (b) woof-woof; (c) importancy, brillig, slithy, toves,
gimble, wabe; (d) chiff-chiff

5
(a) foot and leg vs noha – greater abstraction in S; (b) hand and arm vs ruka – greater
abstraction in S; (c) finger, fingers+thumb, toes vs prst(y), palec – greater abstraction in S; (d)
power vs sila and elektrická energia – greater abstraction in E; (e) many and much vs veľa –
greater abstraction in S; (f) spill vs vysypať and rozliať – greater abstraction in E; (g) cut vs
strihať, rezať, krájať, zredukovať, etc. – greater abstraction in E; (h) make and do vs robiť –
greater abstraction in S, make vs urobiť, upiecť, stihnúť, donútiť, etc. – greater abstraction in
E; (i) lend and borrow vs požičať – greater abstraction in S; (j) spend vs minúť and stráviť –
greater abstraction in E; (k) teacher vs učiteľ and učiteľka – greater abstraction in E; (l) car vs
auto and vozeň – greater abstraction in E; (m) cousin vs bratranec and sesternica – greater
abstraction in E; (n) marry vs vydať sa, oženiť sa and zobrať sa – greater abstraction in E; (o)
between and among vs medzi – greater abstraction in S; (p) eat vs jesť and pap(k)ať – greater
abstraction in E

6
(a) sitting room (to sit) – obývačka (to live), (b) headphones (sth that produces sound and is
placed on the head) – slúchadlá (sth used for listening/hearing), (c) half past four – pol piatej
(half of five), (d) tax return (to return, to hand in) – daňové priznanie (to admit, to reveal), (e)
upside down (the top side is moved down ↓) – hore nohami (the feet are moved up ↑), (f)
bedside table (a stand by the bed) – nočný stolík (a night stand), (g) timetable (a table with
times) – rozvrh (sth that has been cast/thrown), (h) soup plate – hlboký tanier (a deep plate),
(i) (i) coniferous tree (a tree with cones) – ihličnatý strom (a tree with needles), (j) deciduous
tree (shedding leaves) – listnatý strom (having leaves)

8
cock/rooster – to crow, cock-a-doodle-doo; dog – to bark, woof-woof, bow-wow; cat – to
miaow/meow, to mew, miaow/meow; cow – to moo, to low, moo; pig – to squeal, to grunt,
grunt, oink-oink, donkey – to brey, hee-haw, eeyore; sheep – to bleat, baa baa; goat – to
bleat, meh meh; frog – to croak, ribbit; pigeon – to coo, coo coo

9
Morphological motivation
Semantic motivation

Has the secret of etern-al youth been found? Research-er(s) pin-point chemic-al they
say ‘has the potent-ial to post-pone ag-ing’
 96

Research-er(s) have ident-ifi(ed) a key factor in the ag-ing process they say could one day
lead to longer lives. In a new study on mice and round-worm(s), research-er(s) found that
adding a chemic-al known as co-enzyme NAD+ post-pon(ed) physic-al aging and extended
the subjects’ lives.
‘Our new study shows an age-depend-ent decrease in the level of NAD+, and this decrease is
far greater for organ-ism(s) with early ag-ing and a lack of DNA repairs,’ says Profess-or
Vilhelm Bohr, from the Center for Health-y Ag-ing and the Nation-al Institute of Health.
The effects have not yet been investigated in humans, but research-er(s) say similar results are
expected to be seen. This is based on the universal nature of the cell repair mechanisms,
which are found in all living organisms. The findings uncover a major player in the aging
process, which in many ways remains a mystery.
Accord-ing to the research-er(s), this new under-stand-ing could be a step toward the goal of
life extens-ion and the post-pon-ing of physic-al ag-ing, with potent-ial to one day prevent
neuro-de-generat-ive diseases in humans.

3.1 Morphemes and their types

1
ADMIT
(adv) admittedly /ədmɪt/; (adj) admissible /ədmɪs/; (n) admission /ədmɪʃ/

ELECTRIC
(n) electricity /ɪlektrɪs/; (n) electrician /ɪlektrɪʃ/

DESCRIBE
(n) description /dɪskrɪp/, (adj) indescribable /dɪskraɪb/

2
Blunder as BBC Breakfast shows escaped gorilla instead of Nicola Sturgeon
There was a slightly awkward moment on BBC Breakfast this morning when footage of
the gorilla that escaped at London Zoo was shown during a segment on Nicola Sturgeon.
“We’re going to be joined by Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon,” explained Munchetty
as Kumbuka the gorilla popped up on screen. Her co-presenter Charlie Stayt then apologise
d for the error: “I’m sorry we’ve … err… very clearly run the wrong pictures over that
particular sequence. My apologies there.
“The story we will be talking about later, as you’ve probabl y guessed from the pictures, is
about the escaped gorilla at London Zoo.
“We will be speaking to one of the gorilla keeper s from the zoo. That’s coming up a little
later on.”

3
(a) counter- F, (b) dis- B, -able B, (c) under- F, (d) de- B, -ize B, (e) super- F, -ic B, (f) -ment
B, (g) -wise F, (h) -or B, (i) pre- B, -ic B, (j) -ness B, (k) -man F, (l) -like F, (m) -al B, -ly B,
(n) -im B
 97

3.2 Inflection versus derivation

2
(a) lamb chops – infl., teľacie kotlety/rezne; dog’s chops – deriv., psia papuľa; hit in the chops
– deriv., dať na držku, tresnúť po papuli; to have the chops – deriv., mať schopnosť/talent.

(b) interesting points – infl., zaujímavé myšlienky/názory; the points – deriv., železničná
výhybka; strong points – infl., silné stránky
(c) steam irons – infl., naparovacie žehličky; to be clapped in irons – deriv., byť v
okovách/železách.

(d) special effects – infl., špeciálne efekty; feel the effects – infl., cítiť účinky; personal effects
– deriv., osobný majetok/cennosti.

(e) shades of meaning – infl., významové odtienky; shades – deriv., tmavé okuliare; purple
shades – infl., purpurové tienidlá.

3
Inflectional suffix
Derivational suffix

Fraudsters take six seconds to steal bank card details

Criminals can find the card number, expiry date and security code for a Visa debit or credit
card in only six seconds using computer-powered guesswork, researchers have warned.
Experts at Newcastle University said that fraudsters could figure out the complete details
starting with as little as the first six digits of the card number — which cover the bank and the
card type, and so are the same for every card from a single provider.
They said the “frighten ing ly easy” attack could explain the raid on Tesco Bank, when about
9,000 customers had a total of £2.5 million taken from their accounts.
The technique involves a so-called distributed guessing attack, which is designed to get round
security features supposed to stop fraud.

3.3 Word-formation

1
Morphological Word-formation Morphological Word-formation
analysis analysis analysis analysis

art-ist-ic artist-ic follow-er-s follow-er s

dis-agree-ment dis-agreement dis-inform-ation dis-information
back-ward-s backward-s luck-i-est luck-i est
contain-er-s contain-er s look-s (n) look-s (n)
work-ed (v) work ed (v) act-r-ess-es act-r ess es
odd-s odd-s photo-graph-er-s photograph-er s
fright-en-ing (adj) frighten-ing (adj) organ-iz-ing (v) organ-iz ing (v)
en-courage-ment encourage-ment un-accept-abl-y unacceptable-ly
steel-work-s steel-works box-er-s box-er s (boxeri)
boxer-s (trenírky)
 98

3
(a) hotshot(s) S, (b) misjudge S, (c) goldfish S, (d) unfairly D, (e) breath-taking D, (f) parental
S, (g) ex-girlfriend(s) C, (h) chewing-gum S, (i) unproductive D, (j) city-dweller D, (k)
unmanageable D, (l) rock-hard S, (m) handbag S, (n) bedtime S, (o) singer-songwriter CD, (p)
gate-crasher D, (q) unkind S, (r) fox-hunting D, (s) boot-licker D, (t) pricey S, (u) two-year-
old S, (v) unbelievable D

4.1 Affixation

2
COUNT: miscounted, discount, non-count
USE: abused, misused, unused, disused
FLAMMABLE: (in)flammable, non-flammable

3
(a) unbutton, (b) disobey, (c) ensure, (d) dislike, (e) unload, (f) endanger, (g) uncork, (h)
enslave, (i) discourage, (j) dishonour, (k) redirect, (l) entitle, (m) unleash, (n) miscalculate, (o)
enrich, (p) undress, (q) entangle, (r) untangle/disentangle

5
(a) Ricky, Rickie, Richie, (b) eaglet (a young eagle), (c) bullock (a young castrated bull), (d)
auntie, (e) rosy (pink, good), rosette, (f) dearie, darling, (g) birdie, (h) ducky (honey, dear),
duckling (a young duck), (i) fatty (a fat person), fatso (a fat person), (j) cutie (a cute person),
(k) combi/kombi (a car), combo (combination), (l) bookie (a bookmaker), booklet, (m)
hireling, (n) piggy (a child’s word for a pig), piglet (a small pig), (o) sapling (a young tree),
(p) goodie/goody (something tasteful/sweet; a good guy in a film), (q) kiddie (a child), kiddo
(a child), (r) goalie (a goalkeeper), (s) diskette (a floppy disk), (t) eyelet (a hole surrounded by
a metal ring), (u) sickie (a day you stay at home because you are sick), sicko (a psychopath,
sociopath), (v) kitchenette, (w) hilly (having a lot of hills), hillock (a small hill), (x) rivulet (a
small stream), (y) goosy /ɡu:sɪ/ (nervous, with goose bumps), gosling /ɡɒzlɪŋ/ (a young
goose) (z) cheapo (cheap and of poor quality).

7
Oxonian /ɒksəʊnɪən/, Cantabrigian /kæntəbrɪdʒɪən/, Mancunian /mænkju:nɪən/,
Liverpudlian /lɪvəpdlɪən/, Brightonian /braɪtəʊnɪən/, Bristolian /brɪstəʊlɪən/, Glaswegian
/ɡlɑ:zwi:dʒ(ə)n/, Edinburger /edɪnbɜ:ɡə/, New Yorker /nju: jɔ:kə/, Washingtonian
/wɒʃɪŋtəʊnɪən/, Philadelphian /fɪlədelfɪən/, Dallasite /dæləsaɪt/, Chicagoan /ʃɪkɑ:ɡəʊən/,
Las Vegan /læs veɪɡən/, Angeleno /ændʒəli:nəʊ/ or Los Angelean /lɒs ændʒəli:ən/, San
Franciscan /sæn frænsɪskən/, Denverite /denvəraɪt/, Montrealer /mɒntrɪɔ:lə/, Ottawan
/ɒtəwən/, Canberran /kænb(ə)rən/, Sydneysider /sɪdnɪsaɪdə/, Melburnian /melbɜ:nɪən/,
Muscovite /mskəvaɪt/, Roman /rəʊmən/, Parisian /pərɪzɪən/, Bratislavan /brætɪslɑ:vən/,
Praguer /prɑ:ɡə/, Budapester /bju:dəpestə/, Viennese /vi:əni:z/ or Wiener /wi:nə/,
Varsovian /vɑ:səʊvɪən/.

8
DUST: dust particles, dusty road, dust jackets, dusty pink, dust-like particles
GOLD: gold watch, golden opportunity, gold medal, gold digger, golden hair
 99

WOOD: wooden furniture, wooden door, woody plants, wooden toys, woody hillside, wood
shed
WOOL: woollen blankets, woolly hair, woolly mammoths, wool industry, woolly arguments

10
-eľ: head teacher/headmaster, explorer, teacher, newsreader/presenter,
-ák: beggar Ø, drifter/vagabond Ø/hobo Ø, schoolboy (comp)/schoolgirl (comp), pupil Ø,
fool Ø/dope Ø/dolt Ø/numbskull (comp), towel Ø
-ič: tax dodger/rent dodger, barber Ø (-er is not a suffix in this case), driver, voter
-stvo: barbershop (comp)/barber’s (lexical ellipsis of barber’s shop), membership,
heroism/bravery, brotherhood, religion Ø (-ion is not a suffix in this case)
z-/s-: increase/raise Ø /rise Ø /elevate Ø (ate is not a suffix), worsen, fake Ø/forge Ø/falsify Ø
(ify does not correspond to z-/s-), shorten, inherit, petrify
na-: deliberately/on purpose Ø, loudly/aloud, on time Ø/in time Ø, down Ø/downwards,
finally/eventually/in the end Ø, for now Ø/for the time being Ø

4.2 Compounding

2
(a) short-sighted, (b) brand-new, (c) second-hand, (d) full-time, (e) cost-effective, (f) narrow-
minded, (g) good-looking, (h) kind-hearted, (i) world-famous, (j) thought-provoking, (k)
mouth-watering, (l) far-reaching, (m) well-known, (n) ice-cold, (o) cold-blooded

3
D = Derivation, C = compounding, Ø = no word-formation
(a) štrkáč D, rattlesnake C, (b) železnica D, railroad/railway C, (c) slnečnica D, sunflower C,
(d) hodinár D, watchmaker C+D, (e) domácnosť D, household C, (f) učebnica D, textbook D,
(g) opaľovať (sa) D, sunbathe C, (h) drozd Ø, blackbird C, (i) palacinka D, pancake C, (j)
daňovník D, tax-payer C+D, (k) vykoreniť D, uproot C, (l) mihalnica D, eyelash C, (m)
povstanie D, uprising C+D, (n) pevnina D, mainland C, (o) fúrik/táčky D, wheelbarrow C, (p)
závej D, snowdrift C, (q) pásomnica D, tapeworm C, (r) mrakodrap C, skyscraper C+D, (s)
parník D, steamboat/steamship C, (t) pršiplášť C, raincoat C

4
(a) subordinative and endocentric, (b) subordinative and exocentric, (c) coordinative and
exocentric, (d) subordinative and endocentric, (e) noun = subordinative and endocentric, verb
= subordinative and exocentric, (f) literal meaning = coordinative and endocentric,
metaphorical meaning = coordinative and exocentric, (g) subordinative and endocentric, (h)
coordinative and exocentric, (i) subordinative and endocentric, (j) subordinative and
exocentric, (k) coordinative and endocentric, (l) coordinative and endocentric, (m)
subordinative and exocentric, (n) subordinative and endocentric, (o) subordinative and
endocentric, (p) subordinative and exocentric, (q) coordinative and endocentric, (r)
subordinative and endocentric

5
mačka: cat, tom-cat, pussy-cat; králik: rabbit, buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; koza: goat, he-
goat/billy-goat, she-goat/nanny-goat; líška: fox, dog-fox, bitch-fox/vixen; bažant: pheasant,
 100

cock-pheasant, hen-pheasant; slon: elephant, bull-elephant, cow-elephant; srna: roe (deer),

roe-buck, roe-doe

7
(a) run-down, (b) runaway, (c) standoff, (d) stand-up, (e) rundown, (f) breakaway, (g)
breakdown, (h) breakaway, (i) run-up, (j) stand-in, (k) run-down, (l) run-up, (m) run-in, (n)
breakdown, (o) breakup, (p) break-in

8
earthquake: simple, subordinative, literal; quake-damaged: complex, subordinative, literal;
southeast: simple, coordinative, literal; quake-hit: simple, subordinative, partially
metaphorical (hit); hard-hit: simple, subordinative, metaphorical; also: diachronically all +
so; throughout: simple, subordinative, metaphorical; peninsula: diachronically almost +
island; firefighter: complex, subordinative, literal; maintain: diachronically hold in the hand;
wheelchair(s): simple, subordinative, literal; withstood: simple, subordinative, metaphorical;
aftershock(s): simple, subordinative, partially metaphorical (shock = a blow/strike);
European-Mediterranean: simple, coordinative, literal; Mediterranean: diachronically
middle + earth/land; northeast: simple, coordinative, literal; quake-prone: simple,
subordinative, partially metaphorical (prone = likeky, originally – bent forward, leaning
forward)

4.3 Conversion

1
(a) outed – v, vykričať/odhaliť (b) round – adj, okrúhle/celé číslo (c) in – adj, v móde (d)
rounded – v, obišiel brankára (e) about – prep, o tom (f) about – adv, dookola/okolo (g) out –
n, výhovorka/dôvod na neprítomnosť (h) the ins and outs – n, detaily/podrobnosti (i) about –
prep, okolo/asi (j) round – n, kolo rozhovorov (k) round – prep, okolo (l) about – prep, o
kvetoch (m) out – adv, von (n) in – adv, má prísť/má doraziť (o) round – prep, okolo ohňa (p)
round – prep, za domom.

2
(a) keeps, (b) go, (c) keep, (d) go, (e) make, (f) take, (g) know, (h) feel, (i) eats, (j) go, (k)
feel, (l) catch, (m) takes, (n) make, (o) catch

4
a glass of milk (noun) – pohár mlieka (noun), root = mliek
a milk bottle (adj) – fľaša na mlieko (noun), root = mliek
milk chocolate (adj) – mlieč-na čokoláda (adj), suffixation, root = mlieč
to milk a cow (verb) – po-dojiť kravu (verb) prefixation, root = doj

to drive off (adv) – od-ísť (verb), prefixation, root = ís(ť)

the TV is off (adv) – televízor je vy-pnutý (adj), prefixation, root = pnú(ť)
to fall off a bike (prep) – spadnúť z bicykla (prep), root = z
to have an off day (adj) – ne-mať svoj deň (verb), off is expressed by the prefix ne-
to off someone (verb) – od-praviť/od-kráglovať niekoho (verb), prefixation, root =
prav(iť)/krágl(ovať)

the past two weeks (adj) – po-sled-né 2 týždne (adj), prefixation + suffixation, root = sled
it’s ten past nine (prep) – 9 hodín 10 minúť, no equivalent lexeme
 101

She waved as she drove past (adv) – Zakývala, keď išla o-kol-o (adv), prefixation +
suffixation, root = kol
the distant past (noun) – vzdialená minu-l-osť (noun), suffixation, root = minu

5
World’s shortest flight celebrates its millionth passenger

The world’s shortest flight, a tiny hop between two remote British islands, celebrated Monday
taking its millionth passenger on the route.
The 2.7km (1.7-mile) flight between Westray and Papa Westray in the Orkney islands, off
mainland Scotland’s northeast coast, holds the Guinness World Record as the shortest
scheduled service.
The flight, in an eight-seater Britten Norman Islander air craft, officially takes two minutes
but with favourable winds it can be done in 47 seconds.
It is part of a daily service route that leaves Orkney’s main town, Kirkwall, and stops off
around the archipelago.
Scottish regional air line Loganair has operated the route since 1967 and on Monday
honoured passenger Anne Rendall, presenting her with a bouquet of flowers.

6
(a) a well-known actor – an acquaintance of mine,
(b) young girls – the cat feeds her young,
(c) travelling expenses – to pay the fare,
(d) age difference – unlike,
(e) a pocket edition – to spend one’s pocket money (BrE)/allowance (AmE),
(f) small pieces – to have some change,
(g) he’s been accused of murder – the defendant, the accused
(h) he lives nearby – he lives near the school
(i) a bumpy landing – he only drinks hard liquor,
(j) in seventh place – he caught the 7 o’clock train,
(k) around noon/noonish – he passed (us) by,
(l) great joy – it was a pleasure to live there/we greatly enjoyed living there,
(m) early morning – he came in the morning,
(n) Stop!/Hold it! – at all costs

5.1 Shortening

3
(a) subs – submarines, (b) sub – subscription, (c) vet – veteran, (d) specs – spectacles, (e) con
– confidence trick, (f) pix – pictures, (g) cred – credibility, (h) sub – substitute, (i) flu –
influenza, (j) cons – conveniences, (k) hippos – hippopotamuses, (l) tux – tuxedo, (m) vet –
veterinary surgeon, (n) baccy – tobacco

5
(a) copter, heli (b) comfy, (c) biz, (d) gator, (e) grad, (f) prof, (g) mozzie (BrE+AusE)/skeeter
(AmE), (h) mart, (i) combo, (j) ad/advert, (k) cig/ciggy, (l) uni/varsity

8
(a) shorts, (b) a block of flats (BrE)/apartment building (AmE), (c) a first-year, (d) Matt, (e)
teach, (f) telly, (g) so-called, (h) e.g., (i) trade union, (j) bye/bye-bye, (k) wellingtons →
 102

wellies, (l) maths, (m) tramcar → tram, (n) prof, (o) super-duper, (p) Mike/Mikey, (q)
speaker, (r) mineral water, (s) private security company → security, (t) depression/the blues,
(u) soft drinks, (v) pro, (w) supermarket, (x) a homeless/bum

5.2 Blending

1
(a) friend + enemy, (b) huge + monstrous, (c) motor- + hotel, (d) fact + fiction, (e) spoon +
fork, (f) documentary + drama, (g) helicopter + airport, (h) international + police, (i) laundry
+ automat, (j) medical + care, (k) camera + recorder, (l) British + exit, (m) drama + comedy,
(n) science + fiction, (o) education + entertainment, (p) vegetable + burger, (q) information +
technology, (r) Oxford + Cambridge, (s) lion + tiger, (t) boxing + exercise, (u) advertisement
+ editorial, (v) affluent + influenza

3
(a) zelenina + ovocie (greengrocery), (b) bankový + automat (ATM, cashpoint, cash
machine), (c) remeselnícke + potreby (craft supplies, craft shop), (d) export + import, (e)
racionálny + jogurt, (f) slovenská + nafta, (g) sorry + prepáč, (h) matematika + fyzika –
Fakulta matematiky, fyziky a informatiky (Faculty of mathematics, physics, and informatics),
(i) doprava + stavebníctvo (construction company?), (j) informačný/informatický + vek

5.3 Back-formation

2
(a) loafing, (b) dry-cleaned, (c) busses, (d) diagnose, (e) sulking, (f) greed, (g) flake, (h)
hawking, (i) commentates, (j) enthuse, (k) diplomats, (l) flab, (m) injured, (n) peeves, (o)
scavenge, (p) grunge, (q) sass, (r) shoplift

5.4 Reduplication

1
(a) shilly-sallying: hesitating, (b) hurly-burly: noisy and busy activity or situation, (c) wishy-
washy: indecisive, hesitant; pale (about colours), (d) arty-farty: interested in art, (e) bee’s
knees: an excellent person or thing, (f) gee-gees: horses, (g) humdrum: boring, (h) itsy-bitsy:
small, (i) willy-nilly: whether you want to or not, (j) blah, blah, blah, (k) brain drain: the
movement of highly skilled and qualified people to a country where they can earn more
money, (l) hugger-mugger: secret, clandestine; secrecy (m) woof-woof, (n) fender-bender:
a minor car accident, (o) so-so: average.

3
(a) chirrup, cheep-cheep, (b) haphazardly, sloppily, (c) chop-chop (d) willy-nilly, reluctantly,
(e) tittle-tattle, drivel, twaddle, (f) promise the moon, (g) pitter-patter, (h) to crisscross; back
and forth, (i) scrawl, scribble; doodle, (j) around, surrounded by, (k) for sure, definitely, (l) be
about to, just going to, (m) confusion, problems, scuffle, row, fight (n) confusion, hurly-burly,
(o) without worrying, in a carefree manner, (p) ding-dong, (q) face to face, (r) knick-knacks,
crinkum-crankums
 103

5.5 Lexical ellipsis

2
(a) chum, (b) cuppa, (c) vet, (d) movies, (e) juvie, (f) plastic, (g) weekly, (h) Piccadilly, (i)
medical, (j) a biggie

3
(a) vedúci pracovník – head, chief, boss, director, manager, etc., (b) pánske WC – a/the gents;
men’s room (AmE), (c) šampanské víno – champagne, (d) maškarný bál – costume party/ball,
masked ball, (e) výtvarná výchova – art lesson, (f) držková polievka – trite soup, (g) jedna
hodina – one o’clock, (h) biele víno – white wine, (i) dekanské voľno – the dean’s day off, (j)
opravný termín – a resit/retake, (k) základná škola – elementary/basic school, (l) Tomášikova
ulica – T. street, (m) hlavná ulica – high street (BrE), main street (AmE); hlavná cesta – main
road, (n) nízkotučné mlieko – skimmed/low-fat milk, (o) domáca úloha – homework, (p)
krstný otec – godfather

6.1 Sound interchange

1
(a) speech, (b) live, (c) tale, (d) ride, (e) strength, (f) seat, (g) proof, (h) long, (i) wide, (j)
advising, (k) breadth, (l) knitting, (m) gilded, (n) feed, (o) songs (p) strokes, (q) filled, (r)
depth

3
(a) Gram, (b) Lex, (c) Gram, (d) Lex, (e) Gram, (f) Gram, (g) Lex, (h) Gram, (i) Gram, (j)
Lex, (k) Lex, (l) Gram, (m) Lex, (n) Gram, (o) Lex, (p) Lex

6.4 Sound symbolism

1
(a)
boom – bum; bang – tresk(nutie); bash – buch(nutie); blast – výbuch; break – zlomiť,
roztrhnúť, rozbiť, puknúť, prasknúť; burst – výbuch, prasknutie, puknutie; pop – puknúť,
prasknúť; punch – udrieť, buchnúť; poke – štuchnúť, pichnúť; pummel – tĺcť, búchať

Possible symbolism: /p/ and /b/ express explosive sounds, hitting sounds

(b)
scratch – škriabať; scream – škriekať; screech – škriekať, škrípať; scrape – oškrabávať; scrub
– šúchať, drhnúť; cry – plakať, nariekať, kričať; scramble – liezť, škriabať sa, trhať sa; screw
– skrutkovať; scribble – čarbať; creak – škrípať, vŕzgať

Possible symbolism: /skr/ and /kr/ express something moving across a surface and making
scratching sounds

2
(a) achoo, atishoo, (b) ding-dong, (c) ding-a-ling, (d) boom-boom, (e) knock-knock, (f) drip,
drip, (g) tick-tock, (h) crack, (i) plop, (j) creak
 104

7.1 Grammatical and lexical meaning

1
Grammatical meaning prevails
Lexical meaning prevails

(a) spar-ing-ly, (b) Good to see you, (c) fire-work-s, (d) un-preced-ent-ed, (e) You look
tir-ed, (f) He rose to his feet when she walk-ed in, (g) un-explain-ed phenomena, (h) should
have been listen-ing

7.2 Types of lexical meaning

1
ADULT DOMESTICATED MALE
pig + + +/–
wild boar + – +
hog + + +
sow + + –
piglet – + +/–

4
(a) fighting (positive), (b) white (neutral), (c) white (negative), (d) fight (positive), (e) little
(neutral), (f) cheap (negative), (g) little (positive), (h) friend (negative), (i) little (negative), (j)
friend (negative), (k) white (negative), (l) smell (positive), (m) fighting (negative), (n) little
(negative), (o) smell (negative), (p) white (positive), (q) little (negative), (r) smell (negative),
(s) friend (positive), (t) cheap (neutral)

7
of great importance – veľmi dôležitý, the great majority – prevažná väčšina, a great artist
– veľký umelec, great problems – vážne problémy, a great idea – výborný nápad

last night – včera večer, Saturday night – sobotňajšia noc, v sobotu v noci, the first night –
premiéra, the other night – minule (večer), good night – dobrú noc

keep a shop – prevádzkovať/mať obchod, keep pigs – chovať prasce, keep one’s word –
dodržať slovo, keep a diary – viesť si denník, keep good time – ukazovať správny čas, keep
quiet – byť ticho, keep trying – snažiť sa, keep sb waiting – nechať niekoho čakať

make a point – ponúknuť argument, prísť s myšlienkou, go to the point – ísť k veci, at one
point – svojho času, v jednom období, the freezing point – bod mrazu, what’s the point –
načo, to nemá význam, aký to má význam, to score a point – získať bod, a sharp point –
ostrý špic, a TV antenna point – zástrčka/prípojka televíznej antény

7.3 Sentence and utterance meaning

1
(a) There’s a man on the hill, and I’m watching him with my telescope.
(b) I see a man on the hill, and he has a telescope.
(c) There’s a man, and he’s on the hill that also has a telescope on it.
 105

(d) I’m on the hill, and I saw a man using a telescope.

(e) There’s a man on the hill and I’m looking at him with a telescope which is also on the
hill

2
(a) picked up – contracted, (b) Not at all – you’re welcome, (c) took off – left, (d) Take care –
bye, see you, (e) Not at all – no, I don’t mind, no problem, sure, (f) take care – I will be OK,
nothing bad will happen to me, (g) picked up – grabbed and lifted, (h) took off – left the
ground, (i) picked up – smelled, (j) take care – provide, (k) that’s it – it is finished, it’s over,
(l) what the hell – I don’t care, (m) Pick up – clean up, tidy up, (n) take off – wipe off, (o)
that’s it – that way, that is correct, (p) Take care – be careful, (q) That’s it – I’ve had enough, I
won’t accept this any longer, (r) What the hell – what, (s) not at all – not one bit, (t) pick you
up – meet (and give a ride)

3
(a) Kids prepare nutritious snacks; Kids are nutritious snacks
(b) Milk drinkers are beginning to drink powdered milk; Milk drinkers are turning into
powder
(c) Prostitutes ask the Pope for help; The Pope finds prostitutes attractive
(d) Eye drops are now available off-the-shelf (= without a prescription); An eye rolls off a
shelf
(e) The ship Queen Mary is having its bottom cleaned; Queen Mary (a person) is having her
buttocks scraped
(f) A drunk (tried in a case involving a violin theft) is sentenced to 9 months in prison; A
drunk is sentenced to be imprisoned in a violin case (container) for 9 months
(g) Panda mating fails – The veterinarian has to carry out artificial insemination; Panda
mating fails – The veterinarian tries to impregnate the panda
(h) Police begin a campaign to catch jaywalkers; Police begin a campaign to hit jaywalkers
with a car
(i) Safety experts say school bus passengers should be fastened; Safety experts say school bus
passengers should be beaten (with a belt)
(j) An astronaut is being blamed for the presence of gas (chemical substance) in the
spacecraft; An astronaut is being blamed for farting in the spacecraft;
(k) Quarter of a million Chinese live in huts on water; Quarter of a million Chinese have
nothing to eat, they only drink water
(l) When baking cookies, involve your kids too; When baking cookies, use your kids as
ingredients
(m) Two Soviet ships collide, one person dies; Two Soviet ships collide, one of the ships dies
(n) Lack of researchers hinders research; Lack of intelligence hinders research
(o) Bureaucracy delays the construction of a new bridge; Bureaucracy robs a new bridge
(p) Reagan wins on budget, but more problems lie ahead; Reagan wins on budget, but there
are more lies ahead
(q) Miners refuse to work after the death of their co-worker; Miners refuse to work after their
own death
(r) End to free school is looming on the horizon; It is the end of free looms at schools.
 106

7.4 Semantic changes

2
AIR: L, M, M, L; COLOUR: M (race), M (improved circulation), L, M, M; WEAK: M, M,
M, L, M

4
(a) pen (written word), sword (violence, war), (b) lend an ear (to listen), (c) a hand (help), (d)
Pentagon (officials in the Pentagon), (e) restaurant (the staff), (f) wheels (car), (g) library
(staff), (h) freckles (a person with freckles), (i) palate (taste), (j) head (mind), (k) mouth (kid),
(l) suits (managers, bosses), (m) man of the cloth (priest), (n) gasoline (the price of gasoline),
nickel (made of nickel)

Personification:
massive drifts cause traffic hell; winter takes hold of Britain; snow left roads; The Met Office
said; temperatures ... had not given the snow chance; images show; fog patches ... will be
making driving; southern part ... is set to enjoy; weekend brought.

Metonymy:
The Met Office = the staff in the office
thermometers plunged = temperature plunged

6
(a) as clear as mud – not clear at all, (b) You could win an award for cleanliness! – you should
be punished for being untidy, (c) as smooth as sandpaper – very lame, (d) great – Damn, (e) as
friendly as a coiled rattlesnake – not friendly at all, (f) delightful – terrible, (g) as comfortable
as sitting on nails – very uncomfortable, (h) No problem, it’s not like we do anything
important in this class anyway – we do important things in this class, and you will have to
catch up, (i) Brilliant – too bad, (j) Swell – Damn, Thank you so much – Now you have made
me angry, (k) love – hate

8
(a) a tad (≈ very) U, (b) could eat a cow H, (c) to bang out a chord or two (≈ to play regularly
and extremely well) U, (d) forever H, (e) every word, the, a H, (f) isn’t the most talented
singer (≈ he is a really bad singer) U, (g) since the beginning of time H, (h) somewhat (≈
very) U, (i) just waves a toothbrush near his mouth H, (j) a million H, (k) not a nice person (≈
a very bad person) U, (l) windy (≈ extremely bad weather) U, (m) whole world H, (n)
financially secure (≈ extremely rich) U, (o) louder than a freight train H, (p) a bit (≈ very) U,
(q) I was riding a dinosaur the first time I heard it H

9
(a) He is as thick as two short planks. He doesn’t know his ass from a hole in the ground (b)
I’ve known him forever. I’ve known him since he was knee-high to a grasshopper. (c) It
rained cats and dogs. The rain came down in buckets. (d) They are filthy rich. They are rolling
in money. (e) I feel like death warmed up/over. (f) She is as old as the hills. She is rather long
in the tooth. (g) My suitcase weighs a ton. (h) I am dying to meet this girl. (i) These shoes are
killing me. (j) My dad knows everything about computers. (k) He will go ballistic when... He
will hit the roof when ... He will fly off the handle when ...
 107

10
(a) bite the dust – D (to die, to stop functioning), (b) gain a few extra pounds – E (put on a lot
of weight, became fat), (c) eat like a horse – D (eat too much), as thin as a rake – D
(extremely skinny), (d) between jobs – E (unemployed), (e) cancer sticks – D (cigarettes),
(f) thin on top – E (going bald), (g) correctional facility – E (prison), (h) give sb the sack –
D (to fire sb), (i) ample proportions – E (fat and/or with big breasts), (j) depart this life – E
(to die), (k) crap – D (information, things, gossip, etc.), (l) collateral damage – E (civilian
casualties), (m) to make redundant – E (to fire), (n) be on the game – E (be a prostitute), (o)
bull – D (nonsense), (p) loony bin – D (psychiatric hospital), (q) scrawny – D (very skinny),
(r) mutt – D (dog).
 108

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