SCIENCE REVIEWER

01:Endocrine System
HORMONES
​ Chemicals that coordinate different functions in your body.
​ Carry messages through blood to organs, skin, muscles and other tissues.
​ Signals body what to do and when to do it.
GLAND
​ Is an organ capable of secreting hormones.
IMPORTANCE OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
​ Regulates growth and development.
​ Regulates metabolism.
​ Regulates reproductive processes and mood.
​ Regulates fertility and sexual function.
HYPOTHALAMUS
​ Located in your brain
​ Controls your endocrine system
​ It uses information from your nervous system to determine when to tell other
glands to produce hormones.
​ Control mood, hunger and thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.
Hypothalamus secretes two kinds of hormones:
​ Releasing Hormone
(RH) - stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete hormone.
​ Inhibiting Hormone
(IH) - stop the pituitary gland to stop and secreting hormone.
PITUITARY GLAND
​ Has a size of about a pea.
​ Referred to as the "master gland"
​ Has 2 parts:
​ Anterior Lobe
​ Posterior Lobe
​ Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin
​ Promotes the retention of water by the kidneys.
​ Oxytocin
​ • Stimulates the contraction of uterus during childbirth and the mammary gland to
release milk.
Conditions Causes by the Hypo and Hyper Secretion of GH
GIGANTISM
​ also called pediatric acromegaly and pituitary gigantism.
​ is a very rare condition that happens when a child or adolescent has high levels
of growth hormone (GH) in their body, which causes them to grow very tall.
​ the pituitary gland normally produces GH, but a tomor on their pituitary can
produce excess GH in gigantism.
ACROMEGALY
​ is a condition wherein the nose, jaw, hands, and feet grow out of proportion.
DWARFISM
1. Disproportionate dwarfism. If body size is disproportionate.
​ Characterized by an average size torso and shorter arms and lights or a
shortened trunk with longer limbs.
2. Proportionate dwarfism. A body is proportionately small if all parts of the body.
THYROID GLAND
​ Is an H-shaped gland located in the neck on both sides of the trachea
​ Secretes thyroxin
​ Also secretes calcitonin causes storage of calcium in the bones.
a. Hyperthyroidism - is due to over secretion of thyroxin.
​ effects or irritability, weight loss, high blood pressure, in exophthalmic goiter.
b. Hypothyroidism - is due to under secretion of thyroxin.
​ effects or endemic goiter and cretin
CRETIN
​ A condition wherein a person is dwarf, ill-proportioned, and mentally and
physically retarded
THYROXIN
​ Increases the rate of chemical reactions in the cell
​ Helps control growth and development
Conditions Causes by the Hypo and Hyper Secretion of Thyroxin
PARATHYROID GLAND
​ Are the four, small, in reddish glands that are found on the posterior lobes of the
thyroid gland
​ Secretes parathormone
Functions of Parathormone:
​ Controls the calcium levels in the body
​ Normalizes bone growth
THYMUS
​ Located at the middle part of the chest
​ Plays an important role in the immune system by secreting thymosin
​ Thymosin aids in the development of T cells
ADRENAL GLANDS
​ Are the paired glands above the kidneys
​ Consists of two parts:
a. Adrenal cortex
b. Adrenal medulla
PANCREAS
​ Consists of Islets of Langerhans (tissues of pancreas) which is made up of two
kinds of cell:
a. Alpha cells
​ Secretes glucagon which increases the level of glucose in the blood by changing
the glycogen to glucose.
b. Beta cells
​ Secretes insulin which lowers blood glucose by changing it to glycogen
GONADS
a. Ovaries
​ Female gonads
​ Estrogen - develops and maintains the development of the secondary sex
characteristics and the development of the uterine linings
​ Progesterone - doubles the effect of estrogen in developing the uterine linings
during pregnancy
b. Testes
​ Male gonads
a. Testes
​
Secrete testosterone
​
Testosterone - function and sperm production; and in the development and
maintenance of the secondary sex characteristics
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
​ To manufacture eggs
​ To receive the sperm cell
​ To provide an environment conducive for fertilization and implantation
​ To nourish the new organism before and after birth.
Labia Minora
​ Lie just inside your labia majora
​ Surround the opening to your vagina and urethra
​ Skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated and swollen
​ Can have a variety of sizes and shapes
Labia Majora
​ Enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs
​ Hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora
​ Contains sweat and oil secreting glands
Clitoris
​ Where two labia minora meet
​ Sensitive protrusion that's comparable to a penis in men or people assigned male
at birth (AMAB)
​ Covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce and is very sensitive to stimulation
Vaginal Opening
​ Allows menstrual blood and babies to exit your body
​ Tampons, IUD, penises can go inside your vagina through your vaginal opening
Hymen
​ A piece of tissue covering or surrounding part of your vaginal opening
​ It's formed during development and present during birth
Opening to your Urethra:
​ The hole you pee from
INTERNAL PARTS
Ovaries
​ Are small, oval shape glands located on either side of your uterus
 ​ Produce and store your eggs (also called ovum) and make hormones that control
your menstrual cycle and pregnancy
​ Sometimes your ovaries can release more than one egg (this can result in a
multiple pregnancy)
Fallopian Tubes
​ Are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of your uterus
FUNCTIONS:
1. Serves as pathways for your egg (ovum) to travel from your ovaries to your uterus
2. Fertilization of an egg by sperm normally occurs in the fallopian tubes
3. The fertilized eggs then moves to the uterus, where it implants into your uterine lining
PARTS OF FALLOPIAN TUBES:
Infundibulum:
​ The funnel like portion of your fallopian tube that closest to your ovaries
​ It includes finger like structures called fimbriae that reach out toward the ovary
Ampulla
​ The major channel in your fallopian tube
​ Located in between the infundibulum and the isthmus
​ Fertilization most often takes place in the ampulla
Intramural (interstitial) portion:
​ The part of your fallopian tube that extends into the top of your uterus
​ It opens into your uterine cavity, where an embryo can implant into your uterine
wall and develop into a fetus
Uterus:
​ Is a hollow, pear shape organ that holds a fetus during pregnancy.
PARTS:
Cervix - the lowest part of your uterus. Your cervix opens to your vagina.
Corpus - is the larger part of your uterus that expands during pregnancy.
Fundus - the uppermost and widest part of your uterus. It connects to your fallopian tubes.
Isthmus - the part of your uterus that clean your corpus and cervix. It's where your uterus starts
to narrow or thin
Vagina
​ Your vagina is a muscular canal that joins the cervix to the outside of the body
​ It can widen to accommodate a baby during delivery and then shrink back to hold
something narrow like a tampon.
​ It's lined with mucous membranes that help keep it moist.
What does your vagina do?
Sexual Pleasure:
​ Doubles of your vagina contain nerve endings that allow you to experience
pleasure during intercourse
​ Your vagina expands and becomes lubricated when you're aroused to prevent
the friction from feeling painful instead of pleasurable.
Pregnancy:
​ During penis-in-vagina sex (intercourse), sperm may get released into your
vaginal canal if your partner ejaculates
 ​ Sperm has to swim from your vagina and through your uterus and fallopian tubes
in order to fertilize an egg.
Childbirth:
​ Refer to the vagina as a “birth canal” when referring to its role during childbirth
​ Baby travels from your uterus and through your vagina to be born
​ Vaginal opening is the baby's last stop on its journey from the body to the outside
world
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN
​ They produce, maintain and transport sperm and semen
​ They discharge experiment to the female reproductive tract
​ They produce and secrete male sex hormones.
FSH - sperm production (spermatogenesis)
LH - stimulates the production of testosterone
Testosterone - secondary male characteristics
PENIS
​ The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three parts:
​ The root: part of the penis that attaches to the wall of the abdomen
​ The body or shaft: shape like a tube or cylinder. Made of three internal
chambers. Inside these chambers there is a special, sponge-like erectile tissue
that contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when you're sexually
aroused. As the penis fills with blood it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for
penetration during sex. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic, allowing for
changes in penis size during an erection.
​ The glans: this is the cone shaped end of the penis. The glans, which is also
called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin.
This skin is sometimes removed and the procedure called circumcision.
SCROTUM
​ The scrotum is the loose pouch like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis
​ It holds the testicles
​ Scrotum protects your testes, as well as providing a sort of climate control
system
​ For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly
cooler than the body temperature
​ Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract (tighten) and relax,
moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth and protection or farther away
from the body to cool the temperature
TESTICLES (TESTES)
​ The testes are oval organs about the size of very large olives that lie in the
scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord
​ The testes are responsible for making testosterone
EPIDIDYMIS
​ The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle
​ It carries and stores sperm cells that are created in the testes
 ​ Bring the sperm to maturity - the sperm that emerge from the testes or immature
and incapable of fertilization
VAS DEFERENS:
​ Long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just
behind the bladder
​ Transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation
Ejaculatory ducts:
​ Ducts formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles
​ Empty into the urethra
Urethra
​ Tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of your body
​ For expelling (ejaculating) semen when you reach orgasm
Seminal vesicles
​ Are sac-like pouches that attached to the vast deferens near the base of the
bladder
​ Make a sugar rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy
and helps with the sperms ability to move (motility)
​ Seminal fluid makes up most of the volume of your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate
Prostate gland:
​ A walnut size structure that's located below the urinary bladder in front of the
rectum
​ Contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate
​ Prostate fluids also help the nourish the sperm
Bulbourethral gland/Cowper's gland:
​ Are pea sized structures located on the sides of the urethra, choose below the
prostate gland
​ Produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra
​ Fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be
present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra
STIMULUS
​ Is something that causes a response.
IMPULSE
​ Is an electrochemical signal that travels along a neuron
FUNCTION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
​ Integrates and controls the various life processes and all activities of the human
body.
​ Coordinates with other organ systems.
​ Connects and transmits signals from one part of the body to another.
​ Enables the body to respond and adapt to changes both inside and out.
2 Major Divisions:
√ Central Nervous System (CNS)
​ Is composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
​ Serves as the main processing center for the entire nervous system.
​ Coordinates and processes all the incoming and outgoing impulses.
BRAIN
​ Is an organ located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of
information for the body.
FOREBRAIN/PROSENCEPHALON
​ Composed of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.
​ Responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, thinking,
perceiving, producing and understanding language, and controlling motor
function.
2 Major Divisions:
√ Telencephalon/cerebrum
​ Contains the largest part of the brain, the cerebral cortex.
√ Diencephalon
​ Contains structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus.
CEREBRUM
​ The largest and the upper section of the human brain that controls activity and
thought.
2 hemispheres:
√ Left Hemisphere
​ Is responsible for verbal and analytical skills and controls the functions and
activities of the right side of the body.
√ Right Hemisphere
​ Is responsible for creative thought and the functions and activities of left side of
the body.
FOREBRAIN
Cerebrum has 4 lobes:
Frontal lobe
​ Controls the voluntary movements; and responsible for reasoning and thought.
Parietal lobe
​ Is the primary sensory areas because it integrates all sensory information.
Occipital lobe
​ Processes visual information for the eyes.
Temporal lobe
​ Processes auditory information from the ears.
DIENCEPHALON
​ Found between the cerebrum and the midbrain.
​ Contains the other two parts of the forebrain: thalamus and hypothalamus.
THALAMUS
​ Acts as relay center for sensory impulses (except the sense of smell)
​ Because it directs or sends them to the cerebrum.
HYPOTHALAMUS
​ Functions in maintaining homeostasis (balance).
​ Controls and regulates temperature, appetite, water balance, sleep and blood
vessel constriction and dilation.
​ Controls our emotions.
 ​ Controls our fight or flight responses.
MIDBRAIN/MESENCEPHALON
​ Top most part of the brainstem
​ The connection central between the brain and the spinal cord.
Three Main Parts of Midbrain/Mesencephalon
Colliculi
​ At the top of the midbrain derives its name from the latin word for ‘hill.
​ The superior ones work on preliminary processing of visual signals before they
are passed on the occipital lobe at the back of the head.
​ The inferior ones do work on auditory signals before those are passed through
the thalamus to the main auditory processing center in the cortex.
Tegmentum (Latin for hood’)
​ Actually stretches down the length of the brainstem, but a portion of it forms a
part of the midbrain
​ The iron rich red nucleus (which actually looks pink) is involved in the
coordination of movements.
​ The periaqueductal grey is a dense region of grey matter and is involved in
suppressing pain.
​ The tegmentum in the midbrain also contains connections that play a role in
keeping us alert.
Cerebral peduncles
​ Pair of large nerve fibre bundles that connect the rest of the brainstem to the
forebrain.
​ Are the main highway for signals that need to be transported from the cortex to
other parts of the central nervous system, and are especially important for body
coordination.
Hindbrain/Rhombencephalon
​ Composed of cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata.
​ Located at the lower back part of the brain.
CEREBELLUM
​ Coordinates all voluntary activity.
​ Processes nerve impulses from the inner ear and coordinates them with muscle
movement.
​ Helps maintain balance and posture.
PONS
​ Located below midbrain (in brainstem).
​ Responsible for certain reflex actions.
Four cranial nerves are found in the pons:
Abducens nerve - helps coordinate eye movement.
Facial nerve - coordinates movement and sensation in the face.
Vestibulocochlear nerve - processes sounds and helps us maintain balance.
Trigeminal nerve - coordinates chewing and carries sensory information from the face and
head.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 ​ Located at the bottom of the brainstem.
​ Connects to the spinal cord.
​ Is the center for regulating heart and blood vessel function, breathing,
swallowing, digestion, sneezing, and coughing.
THE SPINAL CORD
​ Is the tubular mass of nervous tissue that is connected to the medulla oblongata.
​ Serves as the link between the brain and the nerves in the rest of the body.
​ Carries information to and from the brain.
​ Controls musculoskeletal reflexes.
√ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
2 Divisions of PNS:
Afferent (Sensory) Division
​ Has two sets of neurons: (1) one set for sensing the external environment (2)
and another set for sensing the conditions of the internal environment.
​ Carries information from nerves of the body to the brain of the CNS.
Efferent (Motor) Division
​ Takes information from the brain of the CNS to the muscles throughout the body.
​ Has two sets of nerves: (1) Somatic Nervous System and (2) Autonomic
Nervous System
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
​ Governs all voluntary movements.
1. Spinal Nerves - carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.
2. Cranial Nerves - are nerve fibers that carry information into and out of the brainstem.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
​ Governs all involuntary movements.
​ Is divided into 2: (1) Sympathetic Nervous System, and (2) Parasympathetic
Nervous System
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
​ Responsible for fight or flight response which is activated whenever there is a
danger.
​ Responsible for reflexes whenever a person is stressed. (e.g. increased heart
rate and breathing, and sweating.
PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
​ Restores the body to normal or relaxed mode.

FACT ON DNA
-​ Made of 2 strands that are twisted on a double helix shaped
-​ H-bonds nucleotides together
-​ Each strand is made up of a sequence of 4 chemical bases represented by the letters A,
C, G and T ( Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Thymine)
-​ Has complementary base pairing
-​ Two DNA strand are anti parallel
CENTRAL DOGMA - process by which the instructions or information (nitrogenous bases) in
the DNA are converted into a functional product- protein.
PROCESS:
●​ DNA REPLICATION - DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.
❖​ WHERE : EUKARYOTES AND PROKARYOTES
❖​ WHEN : INTERPHASE
ENZYMES:
HELICASE - separates the two strands of the DNA double helix
Primase - catalyze the synthesis of short RNA molecules used as primers for DNA
polymerases. Primers are synthesized from ribonucleoside triphosphates and are four to fifteen
nucleotides long.
DNA POLYMERASE - enzymes that synthesize long chains of polymer or nucleic acids. Used
to assemble DNA molecules, respectively, by copying a DNA template strand using base -
pairing interactions or RNA by half ladder replication.
LIGASE - enzyme that facilitates the joining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation
of a phosphodiester bond.

WHAT HAPPENS IN DNA REPLICATION?

❖​ The first step in DNA replication is to ‘unzip’ the double helix structure of the DNA
molecule
❖​ This is carried out by an enzyme called helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds
holding the complementary bases of DNA together (A with T, C with G).
❖​ The separation of the two single strands of DNA creates a ‘Y’ shape called a replication
‘fork’. The two separated strands will act as templates for making the new strands of
DNA.
❖​ One of the strands is oriented in the 3’ to 5’ direction (towards the replication fork), this is
the leading strand. The other strand is oriented in the 5’ to 3’ direction (away from the
replication fork), this is the lagging strand. As a result of their different orientations, the
two strands are replicated differently
❖​ A short piece of RNA called a primer (produced by an enzyme called primase) comes
along and binds to the end of the leading strand. The primer acts as the starting point for
DNA synthesis.
LEADING STRAND
❖​ DNA polymerase binds to the leading strand and then ‘walks’ along it, adding new
complementary nucleotide bases (A, C, G and T) to the strand of DNA in the 5’ to 3’
direction.
❖​ This sort of replication is called continuous.
LAGGING STRAND
❖​ Numerous RNA primers are made by the primase enzyme and bind at various points
along the lagging strand.
❖​ Chunks of DNA, called Okazaki fragments, are then added to the lagging strand also in
the 5’ to 3’ direction.
❖​ This type of replication is called discontinuous as the Okazaki fragments will need to be
joined up later.
 ❖​ Once all of the bases are matched up (A with T, C with G), an enzyme called
exonuclease strips away the primer(s). The gaps where the primer(s) were are then filled
by yet more complementary nucleotides.
❖​ The new strand is proofread to make sure there are no mistakes in the new DNA
sequence.
❖​ Finally, an enzyme called DNA ligase seals up the sequence of DNA into two continuous
double strands.
❖​ The result of DNA replication is two DNA molecules consisting of one new and one old
chain of nucleotides. This is why DNA replication is described as semi-conservative, half
of the chain is part of the original DNA molecule, half is brand new.
❖​ Following replication the new DNA automatically winds up into a double helix.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS : TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION

TRANSCRIPTION - process of making an RNA copy of a gene's DNA sequence.

STEPS:
❖​ Initiation
-​ RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region
-​ DNA double helix unwinds and unzips
ELONGATION - the RNA polymerase slides along the template DNA strand to add bases to
create the mRNA.
TERMINATION - RNA polymerase, the DNA strand, and mRNA transcript dissociate from each
other.
-​ EXONS - code for protein
-​ INTRONS - non coding sections
TRANSLATION
-​ the process through which information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) directs the
addition of amino acids during protein synthesis.
-​ takes place on ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm, where mRNA is read and translated into
the string of amino acid chains that make up the synthesized protein.