Electric Potential Energy Electric Potential

What Makes Charges Move? What is Electric Potential?

●​ Electric fields push or pull charges. ●​ It is the energy per unit charge in an
●​ Positive charges move away from electric field.
positive sources. ●​ It helps determine how charges will
●​ Negative charges move toward move.
positive sources.

Formula: V= PE/q
Electric Field Basics

●​ A charged object creates an electric

field around it. Factors Affecting Electric Potential
●​ Other charges feel a force when Energy (PEelect)
they enter this field.
●​ Work is needed to move a charge
against an electric field.
●​ More charge = More work needed =
Electric Field Direction More PEelect.
●​ Location matters, charges have
●​ Away from positive charges. different potential energy depending
●​ Toward negative charges. on where they are in the field.
●​ As the h is doubled, the PEgrav is
doubled.
●​ As the m is doubled, the PEgrav is
Gravitational Analogy
doubled.
●​ Gravity pulls things downward.
●​ Work is needed to move against
gravity (lifting an object). Electric Potential in Circuits
●​ Same idea for electric fields, work is
needed to move a charge against ●​ + Terminal of a battery = High
the field. potential, high PE.
●​ - Terminal of a battery = Low
potential, low PE.
●​ Charges naturally move from high to
Electric Potential Energy
low potential, losing energy.
●​ Higher when a charge is far from ●​ Inside the battery, chemical energy
where it wants to go. restores the charge’s potential
●​ Lower when a charge is closer to its energy by moving it back to the +
natural position. terminal.
Gravitational Analogy

●​ Just like gravitational PE, electric Outside the battery:

PE depends on position and
charge. ●​ Charges move with the electric field
●​ Higher height or mass = More (from + to - terminal).
gravitational PE. ●​ PE and V decrease as energy is
●​ More charge or different location = used.
More electric PE. ●​ - Terminal = Lowest potential.

The Role of the Battery

Electric Potential Difference
●​ Supplies energy to the circuit.
●​ Moves charges from - to + terminal,
What is Electric Potential Difference? creating a potential difference.
●​ Like a water pump in a water slide,
●​ It is the change in electric potential lifting water to a higher level.
(V) between two points in a circuit.
●​ It tells us how much energy per
charge is gained or lost.
Internal vs. External Circuit
Formula:
Internal Circuit (Battery):

●​ Charges gain energy as they move

from - to + terminal.

External Circuit (Wires, Bulbs, etc.):

where:
●​ Charges lose energy as they pass
ΔV = electric potential difference (volts), through resistors.
ΔPE = change in potential energy (joules), q
= charge (coulombs).

Electric Circuits and Their

Changes in Electric Potential in Circuits
Requirements

Inside the battery:

●​ Charges move against the electric What is an Electric Circuit?

field (from - to + terminal).
●​ A closed loop that allows electric
●​ Work is done on the charge,
charges to flow.
increasing PE and V.
●​ + Terminal = Highest potential.
 ●​ Needs a complete path from the + Two Main Requirements for an Electric
terminal to the - terminal of a battery. Circuit

1. Closed Conducting Loop

How Charges Flow ●​ A complete, unbroken pathway must

exist for charge to flow.
●​ + charges move from high to low ●​ Any break or interruption stops the
potential. circuit (like a roller coaster track with
●​ Charge stops flowing if both sides a gap).
reach the same potential.
●​ A battery keeps the charge moving 2. Energy Source
by maintaining a potential difference
(ΔV). ●​ A battery or cell is needed to pump
charge back up and maintain the
flow.
●​ A charge pump moves charge
The Closed Circuit against the electric field, keeping ΔV
active.
●​ Closed circuit = bulb lights up
(charge flows).
●​ Open circuit = bulb does not light (no
charge flow). Electric Current
●​ A compass needle deflects when
charge moves through a wire,
proving that charge is flowing.
What is Electric Current?

●​ The rate at which charge flows past

Light Bulb Anatomy
a point in a circuit.
●​ The charge must pass through the
Formula:
filament to light the bulb.
●​ Wrong connection = no light (charge
bypasses filament).
●​ Correct connection: Base →
Filament → Ribbed side.
where:

I = current (in Amperes)

Q = charge (in Coulombs)
t = time (in seconds)

Unit: Ampere (A) → 1 A = 1 C/s

Understanding Current Why Does a Bulb Light Up Instantly?

●​ Current is a rate quantity (how ●​ When a circuit is closed, an electric

much charge moves per second). field signal spreads instantly.
●​ Electrons in the filament start
moving immediately.
●​ The bulb lights up instantly, even
Example Problems: though electrons move slowly.
If 5C flows in 2s, current = 5C/2s=2.5A

If 6C flows in 12s, current = 6C/12s=0.5A

Conservation of Charge

●​ Charge carriers (electrons) are NOT

Direction of Current Flow used up.
●​ They enter and exit the battery at the
Conventional Current Direction: same rate.
●​ They are not destroyed, consumed,
●​ Outside the battery → from positive or lost.
(+) to negative (-).
●​ Inside the battery → from negative
(-) to positive (+).
Electric Power
Actual Electron Flow: Opposite to
conventional current (electrons move from -
to +).
What is Electrical Power?

●​ The rate at which work is done or

Current vs. Drift Speed energy is delivered.

●​ Current is NOT speed. It tells how

many charges pass a point per
second, not how fast they move. Formula:
●​ Charges move very slowly (about 1
meter per hour!).
●​ Large current can still exist if many
charges are moving.

Analogy: A turtle race, turtles move slowly,

but if there are many, a lot will cross the
finish line quickly.
P = power (in Watts, W)
Speaker Electrical → Sound
E = energy (in Joules, J)
t = time (in seconds, s)
Q = charge (in Coulombs)
V = Volt (1 Joule per Coulomb)

Common Voltage Sources

SOURCE VOLTAGE

AA Battery 1.5V

Car Battery 12V

Wall Outlet (US) 120V

Wall Outlet (EU) 230V

Common Misconceptions
Energy Consumption & Cost About Electric Circuits
(Kilowatt-Hour)

●​ Electricity is billed in kilowatt-hours

(kWh), not in Joules.
Batteries don’t run out of charge
●​ 1 kWh = 1000 W × 1 hour = 3.6
million Joules (J). ●​ When a battery stops working, it has
not lost charge; it has lost
energy-producing ability due to
depleted reactants.
Power Usage in Different Devices

Device Energy Batteries supply energy, not charge

Transformation

Light Bulb Electrical → Light + ●​ The battery pumps existing charge

Heat in the wires by providing energy.
●​ The charge itself is already in the
Fan Motor Electrical → circuit; it just moves when energy is
Mechanical supplied.
Toaster Electrical → Thermal
Charge is NOT used up Electrical Resistance
●​ Charge flows continuously in a
circuit.
What is Resistance?
●​ The energy carried by the charge is
transformed (e.g., light, heat, ●​ Resistance is the hindrance to the
motion). flow of charge in a circuit.
●​ Electrons do not move in a straight
line; they zig-zag due to collisions
Charge moves slowly, but the effect is with atoms and ions in the wire.
instant

●​ The actual movement of charge is

How Resistance Affects Circuits
slow, but as soon as the switch is
turned on, the circuit responds ●​ Voltage (electric potential) increases
immediately. as charge passes through the cell.
●​ Voltage drops as charge moves
through wires and devices.
Electric companies provide energy, not ●​ Most of the voltage drop happens in
electrons the load (bulb, heater, motor, etc.).

●​ They supply energy (Joules), not a

fresh supply of electrons.
●​ The electrons already exist in the Factors Affecting Resistance
circuit and just get energized.
Length of Wire

●​ Longer wires = More resistance

●​ Resistance is directly proportional to
Important Notes
length.
●​ Rechargeable batteries don’t get
Cross-Sectional Area
"recharged" with new charge; they
reverse the chemical reaction to
●​ Thicker wires = Less resistance
restore energy.
●​ Resistance is inversely proportional
●​ A "dead" battery still contains
to wire area.
charge, but it can no longer provide
energy. Material
●​ Electricity is about energy transfer,
NOT charge transfer. ●​ Better conductors (like copper &
silver) = Lower resistance
●​ Poor conductors (like iron & nickel) =
Higher resistance
Mathematics of Resistance

Current-Voltage-Resistance
Relationship

Resistors

●​ Resistors are small components that

control current in circuits.
●​ Color bands on resistors indicate
their resistance value.
Relationships Between Voltage, Current,
and Resistance
Using Voltage (ΔV) and Resistance (R):
Current (I) depends on Voltage (ΔV) and
Resistance (R) P = ΔV^2 / R
●​ If Voltage increases, Current
increases.
●​ If Resistance increases, Current ●​ If you know Voltage (ΔV) & Current
decreases. (I) → Use Equation 1
●​ If you know Current (I) & Resistance
(R) → Use Equation 2
Electric Power in Circuits ●​ If you know Voltage (ΔV) &
Resistance (R) → Use Equation 3

What is Electric Power?

Comparing Series and
●​ Electric power (P) is the rate at Parallel Circuits
which electrical energy is converted
into another form (light, heat, motion,
etc.).
Series vs. Parallel Circuits
Two Definitions
Schematic diagrams use symbols to
●​ Rate of work done by the energy represent circuit components.
source.
●​ Rate of energy delivered to the load Two Types of Circuit Connections
(device).
●​ Series Circuit – Components are
connected one after another.
●​ Parallel Circuit – Components are
Power Equations connected in branches, allowing
multiple paths for current.
You can calculate power using different
formulas depending on the known values:

Using Voltage (ΔV) and Current (I):

P = I ⋅ ΔV
Using Current (I) and Resistance (R):

P = I^2 ⋅ R
Key Differences Series Circuit Relationship
Current (I)

●​ In a series circuit, the current is the Equivalent Resistance

same through all components.
●​ In a series circuit, total resistance is
●​ In a parallel circuit, the current splits
the sum of all resistances:​
among the branches.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
Voltage (V) ●​ More resistors → higher resistance
→ lower current
●​ In a series circuit, the total voltage is
divided among components. Current in a Series Circuit
●​ In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the
●​ Same current flows through all
same across all branches.
components:​
Resistance (R) Ibattery = I1 = I2 = I3
●​ Use Ohm’s Law to find current:​
●​ In a series circuit, adding more I = Vbattery / Req
resistors increases total resistance.
The formula is:​ Voltage in a Series Circuit
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3…
●​ Each resistor causes a voltage drop
●​ In a parallel circuit, adding more
(∆V)
resistors decreases total resistance.
●​ The total voltage of the battery is
The formula is:​
shared among all resistors:​
1 / Rtotal = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 /
Vbattery = V1 + V2 + V3 + …
R3…
Electric Potential Diagrams
If one component fails
●​ Show how voltage changes across
●​ In a series circuit, the entire circuit
different points in the circuit
stops working.
●​ Voltage gained from battery =
●​ In a parallel circuit, the other
Voltage lost in circuit
branches continue working.

●​ More resistors → higher total

resistance → less current
●​ Current is the same everywhere in a
series circuit
●​ Voltage drops across resistors add
up to battery voltage
●​ Use Ohm’s Law (V = IR) to solve for
missing values
Series Circuit Analysis Parallel Circuit Relationship

Equivalent Resistance Parallel Circuit

●​ In a series circuit, the total or ●​ In a parallel circuit, multiple
equivalent resistance (Req) is the branches allow charge to traverse
through different paths before
sum of all individual resistances:
returning to the battery. Each branch
operates independently.
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +…
Voltage Drops Across the Branches
Current in Series Circuits
●​ The voltage across each branch in a
●​ The current (I) is constant parallel circuit is the same:
throughout all components in a
series circuit:
ΔVbattery = ΔV1 + ΔV2 +
ΔV3
Ibattery = I1 = I2 = I3 =…
Current in Parallel Circuits
Voltage Drops
●​ The total current (Ibattery) supplied
●​ The voltage drop (ΔV) across each by the battery equals the sum of the
resistor can be calculated using currents through each branch:
Ohm's Law:

Ibattery = I1 = I2 = I3 =…
ΔV1=I⋅R1

As more resistors are added in parallel:

ΔV2=I⋅R2
●​ Total resistance decreases
●​ Total current increases
ΔV3=I⋅R3
Removing one component (like a bulb) from
●​ The total voltage drop across all a parallel circuit does not affect the
resistors equals the voltage supplied operation of other components.
by the battery:

ΔVbattery = ΔV1 + ΔV2 +

ΔV3
Equivalent Resistance Current in Parallel Circuits
●​ The equivalent resistance (Req) for ●​ The total current supplied by the
resistors in parallel is calculated battery is the sum of the currents
using the formula: through each branch:

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + Ibattery = I1 = I2 = I3 =…

1/R3 +…
●​ The current through each branch
The equivalent resistance is always less can be calculated using Ohm's
than the smallest individual resistor value in Law:
the circuit.
For branch 1:
Important notes:
●​ Adding more branches (resistors) in I1 = ΔVbattery / R1
parallel reduces overall resistance
and increases total current. For branch 2:
●​ Understanding these principles is
crucial for analyzing complex circuits
and troubleshooting electrical I2 = ΔVbattery / R2
systems.

For branch 3:

Parallel Circuit Analysis I3 = ΔVbattery / R3

Voltage Drops Equivalent Resistance

●​ In a parallel circuit, the voltage ●​ The equivalent resistance (Req) for
across each branch is the same: resistors in parallel is calculated
using:
ΔVbattery = ΔV1 + ΔV2 +
ΔV3 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +
1/R3 +…

The equivalent resistance is always less

than the smallest individual resistor in the
circuit.
Voltage, Electric Energy, and DC Circuits (Resistors & Batteries)
Capacitors
●​ Series Circuit: Same current,
●​ Defibrillators: Work like big different voltage drops. More
capacitors, storing and releasing resistors = higher total resistance.
electric charge to reset the heart. ●​ Parallel Circuit: Same voltage,
●​ Capacitors: Have two charged different currents. More resistors =
plates that store energy as electric lower total resistance.
potential. ●​ Batteries: Provide voltage but lose
●​ Voltage (Electric Potential): Energy some due to internal resistance.
per unit charge, measured in volts.
●​ Capacitance: How much charge a Circuit Analysis
capacitor can store, measured in
farads. Equivalent Resistance:
●​ Dielectrics: Insulating materials that
●​ Series: Add resistances.
help capacitors store more charge.
●​ Parallel: Use formula; total
resistance is lower than the smallest
Electric Current
resistor.
●​ Voltage & Current: Ohm’s Law
●​ Flow of Current: Like water in a
applies to find them in circuits.
river, electrons move due to voltage
differences.
Measuring Tools:
●​ Generation of Current: Batteries
create a steady flow using chemical ●​ Voltmeter: Measures voltage
reactions (Volta’s voltaic cell). (connect in parallel).
●​ Measurement: Current (amperes) = ●​ Ammeter: Measures current
charge passing through a wire per (connect in series).
second.
●​ Ohm’s Law: Voltage = Current × Kirchhoff’s Laws (For Complex
Resistance.
Circuits)
Power in Electrical Devices ●​ Junction Rule: Total current
entering a junction = Total current
●​ Power Formula: Power = Current ×
leaving.
Voltage.
●​ Loop Rule: Total voltage changes in
●​ Electrical devices use power
a loop = 0.
based on their resistance.
Capacitors in Circuits:

●​ Parallel: Capacitance adds up.

●​ Series: Capacitance decreases.