DOI: 10.

2478/ahr-2021-0012

Viliam Novák Acta Horticulturae et Regiotecturae – Special Issue/2021

Acta Horticulturae et Regiotecturae – Special Issue

Nitra, Slovaca Universitas Agriculturae Nitriae, 2021, pp. 70–79

ECOSYSTEMS AND GLOBAL CHANGES

Viliam NOVÁK
Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia

Increasing population has led to the increasing demand for food, raw materials, and energy. Continuing land use changes,
intensification of its exploitation, deforestation, fossil fuel combustion, and related carbon dioxide production have been
contributing to change of water and energy balance of the globe, thus changing conditions for life. Other reasons for changing
conditions on the Earth are natural changes in interactions between the Earth and outer space. Actual climate change is a part
of other global changes resulting in both natural and anthropogenic changes. It is mostly felt as a change of global temperature
and increase of precipitation intensities and totals. Flood periods are followed by long periods without precipitations. Increasing
population as well as increasing consumption of resources lead to the increasing imbalance between our planet production and
consumption. To preserve good conditions for population of the Earth, it is necessary to decrease consumption of energy, raw
materials, and food to reach equilibrium between Earth´s ecosystem production and consumption of the ecosystem products.

Keywords: ecosystem, global changes, climate change

Planet Earth is one of the smaller planets of the Solar system, only about 35% of the dry land area. In the European Union,
its surface is 520 × 106 km2, where dry land comprises less only 17% of biotopes preserved by European legislative are
than one third of our planet surface (149 × 106 km2). Area of in favourable state.
arable land comprises 12% of dry land only (19.8 × 106 km2), In Slovakia, there are only 14.68% of natural ecosystems
thus creating ecosystem of crops, which is the basic source in natural state, which is an exceptionally low value. The rest
of food for mankind. Animals as well as fish and plants are of ecosystems are highly modified (Izakovičová, Špulerová,
important parts of food supply. It could be a surprise, that 2018), and 75.1% of mammals were living in unfavourable
the area of deserts of the Earth is approximately the same as conditions in 2017, according to the Ministry of Environment
the area of arable land. Forests cover a major part of dry land of the Slovak Republic (MŽP SR) (2018).
(60 × 106 km2), which represents 38% of Earth`s surface. The Therefore, protection and preservation of all the
dry land glaciers are covering the area 15.7 × 106 km2, which assortment of existing animal and plant species is so
is a little bit less than is the area of arable land. The rest of important for mankind.
dry land is covered by steppes, savannas, non-vegetated The only anomaly among living species of Earth is
surfaces in the Antarctic zone, and residential zones, human beings. It is the only living species, which can
industrial areas, and non-permeable surfaces like roads and adapt to changing conditions, and to change environment
water surfaces. in such a way, that it not only preserves, but increases its
Earth is populated approximately by 1.5 × 106 of population in an uncontrolled way. As it was mentioned
animal species, and about 1.0 × 106 of them are insects, before, people are changing the biosphere of the planet
therefore our planet is often called the “planet of insects”. and thus endangers mankind as well as the rest of living
The existence of individual animal species is dependent on organisms (Kutílek, Landgráfová, Navrátilová, 2013). Some
other animal or plant species. It means that elimination of philosophers assume existence of human beings on the
one of species can lead to extinction of another. Any animal Earth as anomaly, and danger for a functional planet (Münz,
or plant species is an important element in food chain link of 2019).
animals and human beings. During the period 1,600–1,975, An example of ecosystem devastation is the story of
about 136 species of birds and 68 species of mammals Mesopotamia. The fertile soils of this area gave yields much
went extinct, but in 20th century, 85 mammals’ species higher than in previous sites, but soil salinization due to
disappeared from the planet Earth for good. irrigation by mineralized water dropped yields significantly
According to the Food and Agricultural Organisation to only 10 to 20% of the former yields. In the final stage of
(FAO) (2012), rate of natural ecosystems degradation is soil degradation, the state system collapsed, and inhabitants
increasing. In 1937, 66% of worlds ecosystems were in natural moved to other, more favourable sites. In the Northern
(intact) state, but in 2020, natural ecosystems comprised Hemisphere, “movement of nations” was accompanied by

Contact address: Viliam Novák, Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 84104 Bratislava, Slovakia;
) +421 91 02 596 79; e-mail: viliamnovak42@[Link]

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the cooling effect of the climate (Kutilek, Nielsen, 2010) and decreasing, depending on the quantity of remaining fuel,
probably by the degradation of soils by the exhaustion of and the conditions for preserving existing state of life can
natural fertilizers. Today’s organization of the world does cease long before the total burn out of the Sun. There is not
not allow for massive transfer of people to other, more expected a significant decrease of solar radiation in the next
favourable sites for living and lead to intense, spontaneous million of years.
immigration to Europe and the USA.
Human beings as biological species live in an environment Collision of Earth with a space object
called biosphere, it is a thin layer of Earth’s surface, with Collision of this type is not excluded, it can have a fatal
favourable conditions for life. The thickness of this layer consequence on the life on Earth.
is about 10 kilometres. Let the Earth be represented by a
geoid 3 meter in diameter, then the thickness of biosphere Anthropogenic risks
(ecosystem) will be 1 mm only. It is a thin, very vulnerable
area, characterized mostly by influx of photosynthetic Increasing population
active radiation, suitable biosphere temperature, specific In 2019, 7.75 billion of people lived on Earth. It is assumed
properties of the atmosphere, and other properties needed that in 2050, the number will increase to about 10 billion.
for photosynthesis. Two thousand years ago, at 0 A.D. it was estimated, there
Plants (their seeds) and men (if there is enough sources were about 180 million people inhabiting Earth. In 1820,
of energy) can survive in all the temperature intervals there were about one billion people, and about 110 years
present on Earth (-88 to +58 °C). Biomass is the first later (in 1930) there were approximately two billion people.
element in nutrition chain of animals and is a product of During the last 90 years there was a gain by 5 billion people.
photosynthesis, which can occur in the air temperature Approximately 6 billion of people live in Asia and Africa.
interval 0 to +40 °C, but the optimum air temperature is Even now, population explosion in Africa is generating
about 30 °C. Therefore, the existence of human beings on a population gain higher than 50 million per year i.e. higher
Earth is limited by environmental (ecosystem) properties, than 3%. It is expected that in the sub-Saharan Africa and
suitable to produce biomass, which is the source of energy in Asia there will live about three quarters of the Earth`s
for all living organisms on Earth. population by 2050. The sub-Saharan Africa and some Asian
The share of arable land is approximately 12% of the dry countries are economically known as developing countries
land surface of Earth (with possible increasing to up to 14%). with low GDP values. This trend in population generates
It is clear that Earth`s biomass production is limited and can pressure on increase of food production, as well as on
supply only a limited number of population. The same is production of raw materials and energy. In those countries,
valid for supply by energy and especially for non- renewable there is a lack of arable land, food, water, and fertilizers.
resources like oil, raw materials, gas, etc. The shortage of arable land, fresh water and energy, and
lack of resources to intensify agriculture in countries with
Global changes the highest population increase are the main reasons for
Global changes refer to planetary scale changes in increasing emigration, mostly to Europe. International aid
Earth system. Global changes comprise of changes in from the developed countries can help, but the existing and
environment, human society and economy. In principle, any future problems cannot be fully solved this way.
activity in the ecosphere is influencing the Earth globally,
Food
but it is assumed that “global change“ is such a change
which can be clearly identified at the global scale. Global The lack of food itself is not the threat for ecosystems,
change interactions are those among Earth, the Sun and but it generates the pressure on them. Intensification of
planets, and also changes in quantity and quality of Earth`s agriculture and overfertilizing as well as massive application
surfaces, increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the of herbicides and pesticides contribute to soil degradation.
atmosphere, and changes in plants and animals quantity The change of former forests to arable land, especially
and quality. All those changes can contribute to the well rainforests clearing and their transformation to arable land,
known effect called “climate change“ which is only one of is changing the structure of mass and energy flow. Increasing
many particular global changes, and could contribute to number of cattle and other domesticated animals has led
creation of new conditions for life. to overgrazing and degradation of soils. Extensive fishing
can lead to the critical decrease in their populations. The
Risks for the ecosystems on the Earth lack of food in developing and most populated countries
can lead to non-equilibrium states, to riots and war, and
Natural (non-anthropogenic) risks to extensive emigration within countries and to relatively
more economically developed countries. According to
Continuous decrease of Solar radiation rate FAO (2012), about 800 million of people suffer by the lack
The time interval during which solar energy income of Earth of basic food, more than two billion is without balanced
will cover the necessary rate needed to preserve actual food and suffer from the lack of vitamins and minerals,
state of life is limited. Calculations show that the Sun has which can lead to malnutrition and to unfavourable state
the fuel for the next 4 × 1012 years. Todays´ average rate of population health. According to the data of the UNO, the
of solar radiation income to the upper limit of the Earth`s food production have to be doubled by 2050 (Rosen and
atmosphere can be expressed by the so called Solar constant, Ritchie, 2013). Proportional increase of arable land area is
1,360 W.m-2. It is expected that the Sun radiation rate will be constrained, food production increase has to be done by

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intensification of agriculture; by introduction of new, more returning to the Earth surface by precipitation. To do so, it is
productive crops species, by irrigation, drainage, fertilizing, necessary to keep atmosphere clean, because precipitation
and application of herbicides and pesticides. This process during the fall to the surface is dissolving substances in the
has its downside, as it was mentioned before. Approximately atmosphere. The most dangerous kind of precipitation has
20% of irrigated fields produce up to 40% of all agricultural been the so called “acid rain“ water dissolving sulphur in
products; such soils are located mostly in the developed the air as a product of coal burning, so the result is a low
countries, which possess enough funds to built and run concentration of sulfur acid. Such rain is devastating plants
such intensive agriculture. and small animals. Thus, one of the main conditions of
good water quality preservation is clean atmosphere. Water
Water infiltrating the soil, groundwater and rivers is dissolving
Water quantity on the Earth (in the part of the environment minerals contained in the surface soil layers. Water with
called hydrosphere) is approximately the same as it was concentration of minerals less than 500 mg.l-1 which meets
in the past. Water we are drinking is the same which was additional 82 criteria according to Slovak standards (The
drunk by dinosaurs millions of years ago. The freshness Government Regulation no 354/2006 Coll.), can be used as
and redistribution of water is kept by the process, known fresh water.
as water (hydrological) cycle. Water is fresh, thanks
to the process of evapotranspiration. The process of Is there enough fresh water for all of us?
evapotranspiration (evaporation from wet surfaces plus Assuming “business as usual“, i.e. discharge of rivers will not
evaporation from plants – transpiration) is energetically the change, and 1010 people by 2050, then for one person and
most demanding process on Earth. Hydrological cycle starts one day there will be approximately 10,000 litres of fresh
by the evapotranspiration of water from water surfaces, water in rivers. WHO recommends a minimum consumption
plants and other wet surfaces on Earth. Water vapour in of 70 litres of water per person per day ([Link]-1).
the atmosphere is turn into water drops in the process of The discharge of one of the rivers (the Amazon) can deliver
condensation when ambient temperature decreases. Water 1,300 [Link]-1, which represents about 16 times of
vapour creates clouds; and if the diameter of water drops minimum consumption quantity per person and day. Why
reaches about 0.1 mm, then they fall as precipitation. Water are we dealing with rivers only? The rest of precipitation
falling on the Earth‘s surface partially evaporates, partially (about two thirds of total precipitation falling to the dry land)
accumulates in the soil as a soil water and groundwater, and evaporates, mostly as a transpiration, and participating in
part of it outflows by rivers to the sea or accumulates in lakes biomass production. Therefore, rivers discharge represents
and wetlands. real resources of mankind consumption.
All the water on Earth can cover the layer of 2,800 m In conclusion, there is enough fresh water for everybody
thick; as a part of it, the thickness of fresh water layer would even in the future. But freshwater resources are not
be about 70 m. Technically, all the water on Earth can be distributed evenly over the globe and are not available
treated by known technologies to fresh water; but it needs everywhere. Correction in uneven geographic distribution
complicated and expensive technology. of water e.g. by desalinisation of salty water – can be
Water cycle is important in order to preserve life on Earth. conducted by the richest countries only. On the other hand,
Approximately 90% of incoming energy from the Sun is a lack of fresh water can lead to existential problems (lack
used to change liquid or solid state of water to water vapour of water for irrigation), to health problems, and generate
by evaporation from seas or rain forests. Evapotranspiration pressure on emigration.
of the dry land is usually less intensive, because water
content of soil is sometimes limiting evapotranspiration Water and Slovakia
rate. In general, more than 50% of solar energy reaching Average river discharge from the Slovak territory is
the Earth`s dryland surface is consumed by the process of approximately 400 m3.s-1, or 6,400 [Link]-1. The
evapotranspiration. average discharge of the Danube itself is 2,000 m3.s-1, which
Without consumption of solar energy by represents about five times volume of all the Slovak rivers.
evapotranspiration, temperature of biosphere would Of course, the Danube as an international river body cannot
increase to the level not compatible with life on Earth. As be exploited without limits according to international
it will be shown later, anthropogenic changes of dry land agreements. Water from the Danube is continuously
surfaces can significantly contribute to modification of recharging groundwater, mainly in the upper part of Žitný
water and energy balance equation structure and thus ostrov, the area that is the most important reservoir of
strongly influence climate of Earth. Consumption of energy groundwater in Slovakia to supply population by fresh
by evapotranspiration from surface of the globe (latent water. Therefore, the upper part of Žitný ostrov was declared
heat of evaporation) is equivalent to 2 × 104 of all energy, a protected area (Chránená vodohospodárska oblasť); it is
transformed by the Earth‘s power plant stations. Therefore, one of ten protected areas in Slovakia. According to the
evapotranspiration is the main consumer of energy on Earth Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ) and Slovak
and is creating favourable conditions for life (Novák, 2012). Agency of Environment Protection (SAŽ (Kollár, 2001)), the
Another basic feature of the water cycle of the Earth is estimated capacity of fresh water resources of Slovakia is
permanent cleaning (distillation) of water by evaporation. 146.7 m3.s-1, and as a part of it the estimated capacity of
Natural water cycle works as a gigantic distillation system groundwater resources is 79 m3.s-1. Žitný ostrov resources of
powered by solar energy. Its first phase is evapotranspiration. groundwater is 25 m3.s-1. The estimated capacity of existing
The result of its function is clean, distilled water, permanently resources of water in Slovakia (surface and groundwater

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resources) is 32,800 l.s-1, which covers about three times of europium, yttrium, etc), that are used in IT hardware. The
contemporary fresh water consumption, 12,800 l.s-1. Actual title “rare earth“ is characterized by its low content in surface
public freshwater consumption in Slovakia is approximately layers of Earth. Up to 90% of rare metals is produced by
80 [Link]-1, just above the minimum consumption China. The biggest deposits of rare metals are in Venezuela
limit recommended by the WHO. This is the result of (17.8% of world`s deposits), 40% of cooper is mined in Chile,
economic stimulation of freshwater consumption because the largest producer of iron ore is Australia, representing
the price of fresh water is relatively high. Groundwater about one third of world production (5.48 × 108 [Link]-1).
resources of freshwater cover 80% of fresh water consumed Raw materials are non-renewable resources, and their
in Slovakia. The quality of fresh water depends on its deposits are limited. If their mining will run at the same rate
protection against pollution. The main risks of Žitný ostrov as until now, the maximum mining rate is expected around
groundwater pollution are overfertilizing, intensive 2030. The estimated stores of coal would last approximately
application of herbicides and pesticides as well as illegal 150 years, gas deposits about 50 years, oil deposits could
waste dumping. last 30 to 80 years depending on the rate of extraction
(according to the British Petroleum). Phosphorus, used to
Raw materials and energy produce fertilizers, could last 50–100 years. In Europe, basic
Raw materials and energy are special entities needed to deposits of raw materials were exploited; their exploitation
preserve human beings on the Earth. This term represents runs mainly in Africa, Asia, Australia and South America. It
basic, unprocessed materials needed as inputs into the is expected that the yield of those deposits will decrease
production process. They can be divided to basic and others in next decades. Recycling of materials can improve the
raw materials. Raw materials are non-renewable, and their situation, but it cannot replace expected raw materials
resources are limited. Their intensive consumption means deficits in the future.
threat for the mankind. The sustainable source of energy for Above estimations are approximate, because it is
processes on Earth is solar energy. It drives all the processes expected that new deposits of the above-mentioned raw
of mass and energy as global water and energy cycles, and materials could be found. Across the globe, there are huge
part of its spectrum – photosynthetically active radiation deposits with relatively low content of minerals and their
(PAR) is active in biomass production. Fossil fuels deposits extraction is not economical yet, but in the future, the lack
are results of biomass production in the distant past. The of raw materials can change economical criteria, and even
role of solar energy is extremely important in order to keep those deposits would become interesting, because the price
conditions suitable for life on Earth. of products using them will be increasing. Waste collection
and their recycling will be an important part of economy.
Basic renewable materials (water, air) Products using recycled materials will be much cheaper
Renewable materials are prerequisites for life on Earth. Their than products from raw materials. Deposits of raw materials
quantity is constant, and they cover the need of population. in Slovakia were mined out in previous centuries, and at
The problem is to maintain their cleanliness because existing present are minimal, therefore import of raw materials or
technologies of fossil fuels burning and deposits of waste products will be necessary.
are danger to both water and air. The problem of fresh water
is its uneven distribution in time and space, there are areas Energy
chronically wet while others are chronically dry. Population at any stage of its development is transforming
(consuming) some quantity of energy. In the past, there
Raw materials were used renewable sources of energy (wood, wind) or
Raw materials such as oil, gas, raw mineral materials, coal, the energy of animals, including human beings. In the past
building materials, salt, etc. are non – renewable, and their (around 1,600 AD) the estimated consumption of energy was
mining rate is increasing. Biomass (wood, natural fibres, 20 [Link]-1, which is equivalent to energy gained
crops, animals) represents the renewable ones. The annual by burning 4 kg of wood. The total consumption of energy
world production of raw minerals in 2017 was 17.2 × 109 was about 8 GW. Actual (2010) estimations are 125 kWh.d-1.
[Link]-1; it has increased by 50% during the last 17 years person-1 (MacKay, 2015). Modern civilisation is consuming
(World Mining Data, 2019). Production of oil is 4.31 × 109 approximately 15 TW energy, mostly from burning fossil
[Link]-1 (largest producer is USA, 5.71 × 108 [Link]-1, and Saudi fuels (oil, gas, coal). It means that actual energy consumption
Arabia with production 5.61 × 108 [Link]-1). Production of gas is more than three order higher than in the Middle Ages.
in 1917 was 3.77 × 109 [Link]-1 (largest producer is the USA, Renewable resources of energy cover relatively a small part
7.72 × 108 [Link]-1, then Russia 6.91 × 108 [Link]-1). The major of civilisation needs (approximately 20%), the substantial
producer of raw materials is China (4 × 109 [Link]-1), and the part of it is energy of water, other resources of energy (solar
USA with production 2 × 109 [Link]-1. China is producing energy, energy of wind) are contributing only about 3%.
more than a half of the world production of coal (2.62 × Water energy use is close to its maximum, but solar and
109 [Link]-1) and more than a half of the world production wind energy are increasing their share, because their price
of aluminium (33.3 × 106 [Link]-1). Burning of coal produces is continuously decreasing.
great amounts of carbon dioxide, which is an important At the global scale, the most important source of energy
greenhouse gas and therefore its mining ought to be limited. is oil (37%), then coal (27%), gas (23%), and nuclear energy
In Europe, coal is mined in Poland and the Czech republic (6%) (Makarieva, Gorskhkov, Li, 2008). Those resources are
only. Specific raw-materials are rare elements (comprising also producers of carbon dioxide (with exception of nuclear
17 metals, like neodymium, praseodymium, lanthanum, energy), which is a significant greenhouse gas. The share of

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renewable sources of energy is about 13% only. About 87% temperature of Earth increased by about 1 °C. Climate
of Earth`s energy input is related to procedures generating changes are not homogeneous across the globe; they are
greenhouse gases. As it can be seen from the structure more intensive in southernmost and northernmost parts of
of energy sources, the highest consumption of energy is Earth. As an example of temperature increase, there can be
related to transportation. Specific feature of renewable mentioned the meteorological station Hurbanovo, where
sources of energy is their instability because they depend the average air temperature increased by about 2 °C since
on the rate and duration of the sun radiation, wind velocity, 1908 (Pekárová, Miklánek, Pekár, 2017). It is approximately
generally, on weather conditions. Potential renewable the difference of average annual air temperature between
sources of energy depend on their geographical position. Bratislava and Banská Bystrica.
The hope is a nuclear synthesis, but realisation of this idea During pre-industrial era (approximately up to the half
cannot be expected in the near future. of the nineteenth century), the climate changed mostly
The income of solar energy at the upper boundary by the natural reasons, like interaction among Earth, the
of the atmosphere is 1.7 × 105 TW. The consumption of Sun, and planets. The volcanic activity proved important;
the contemporary population is about 15 TW, which is eruption of huge quantity of volcanic material changed
only 0.0001 part of income of solar energy at the upper optical properties of atmosphere and thus impacted energy
boundary of the atmosphere. The Earth`s surface income flow among Earth and outer space.
is 8 × 104 TW, but about 2 × 104 TW is radiating back to The present state of society is characterized by increasing
the atmosphere. Atmosphere is partially intercepting this population and by the proportional demand for fresh water,
energy and radiating it to all directions, even back, to Earth. energy, food, and raw materials. This demand provokes
This radiation of the atmosphere back to the Earth`s surface increasing exploitation of raw materials, industrial and food
is increased by the presence of carbon dioxide as a result production. This process is related to building of industry,
of fossil fuel burning. The basic part of energy available extensification and intensification of agriculture, and new
at soil surface (net radiation) is consumed by evaporation sources of energy. There is pressure on enlarging areas of
and transpiration. Therefore, transpiration, which is even arable land, production of chemicals used in agriculture and
a part of the biomass production process is also a basic the need to increase quantities of water for irrigation and
process of Earth`s temperature stabilisation, needed to keep thus change of land use and land surface properties.
temperature of the ecosystem in the comfort zone. Anthropogenic activity significantly changed the
Under conditions of environmental stability, it was properties of our planet´s surface. Natural plants canopy is
estimated (Makarieva, Gorskhkov, Li, 2008), that renewable strongly modified. Instead of natural, green surfaces there
sources of energy (energy of water, solar and wind energy, are fields, buildings, and communications. Approximately
energy of tide) could cover about one tenth of modern 60% of dry land surface is significantly changed by human
civilisation needs. It is necessary to decrease consumption activity and thus, it is changing the structure of water and
of energy to the level which can be covered by renewable energy balance of Earth and its climate.
sources of energy, because its deficit can endanger existence
of civilisation. The reasons of climate change
The reasons of climate change can be divided to natural and
Energy and Slovakia anthropogenic ones.
Slovakia is a country without significant sources of energy.
Resources of oil, gas and coal are small, and energy or raw Natural reasons of climate change
materials for its production are imported. As renewable Natural reasons of climate change are due to the changes
sources of energy there can be used water, and eventually of interrelations between Earth and the Sun, resulting in
biomass. Conditions to use solar or wind energy are limited, the rate of solar energy delivery change. Among those
because of orography and limited rate and duration of solar reasons, there are irregularities of Earth`s orbiting, the
radiation. changes of the Earth axis angle in relation to the ecliptic
In 2016, nuclear power plants in Slovakia generated and wobbling of the Earth`s axis during its orbiting. Even
59.6% of all energy used, hydro plants 16.8%, power the Sun periodically changes its radiation rate (Kutílek,
plants combusting coal and oil 12.9%, biomass 4.2%, and Nielsen, 2010). Those phenomena were changing climate
photovoltaic and wind powerplants 7.3%. In Slovakia, in pre-industrial age (up to 19th century). The ice age ended
about 28.3% of the generated energy was from renewable about 10 thousand years ago, a medieval warm period and
resources, which is a remarkable result. Development of little ice age (14th–19th century) were the results of natural
nuclear power plants seems to be reasonable in Slovakia. (non-anthropogenic) change of climate (Figure 1.).
Slovak economy should be oriented on production with
minimum inputs of raw materials and energy (Lubyová, Anthropogenic reasons of climate change
Filčák, 2016). These are changes of ecosystems by anthropogenic activities,
during the last two centuries, and they are becoming more
Climate change intensive (Kutílek, 2008). The most important reason of
The climate is a generalized characteristic of weather, typical the anthropogenic climate change is related to land use
for a particular area; it can be characterized by meteorological changes. The production of carbon dioxide by fossil fuels
characteristics, such an air temperature, wind velocity, and burning is contributing to the climate change, too.
precipitation. There are no doubts that the climate of Earth
has been changing. During the last century, the average

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0.6
CO2 molecules, per million of all air
particles), to 420 ppm in 2020. But
water vapour concentration depends
0.3 on air temperature and ranges from
6,000 ppm (at 0 °C) to 20,000 at 20 °C.
Nevertheless, absorption spectrum of
0.0 water vapour is much broader than this
spectrum for carbon dioxide.
Existence of the atmosphere (and
-0.3 water vapour and carbon dioxide
as its components) is increasing
biosphere temperature to about
-0.6
33 °C. Without this function of the
atmosphere there will be average air
-0.9 temperature of -18 °C, instead of the
current 15 °C. The problem we are
dealing with is the actual increase
of this effect, so we should try to
Figure 1 Temperature change in the last millennium according to IPCC, 1990 eliminate the anthropogenic effects on
Source: Houghton et al., 1990 air temperature. Until now (2020), this
additional increase of the greenhouse
effect on average air temperature is
Land use changes surface. According to the Food and
about 1 °C. The biosphere is a very
Probably the most important Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (2012),
sensitive area and increase of the
contribution of human activities to about 100,000 km2 of rain forests are
greenhouse effect can dramatically
the climate change is the continuous eliminated per year (more than the change the conditions of life on Earth.
change of land use by increasing area of two Slovak territories). If it goes
population. The most important this way, to the end of this century, all Fossil fuels burning
activities are deforestation of rain the tropical forests will be changed Fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal), as well as
forests (Brazil, Africa, South Asia), into agricultural land. The most renewable sources (biomass) burning
elimination of wetlands, increasing important is that evapotranspiration produces the greenhouse gas carbon
area of arable land, overgrazing, rate will decrease significantly because dioxide (CO2). This gas, as a part of the
monoculture agriculture, increasing the increased part of precipitation atmosphere, disperses energy of long-
urban and industrial areas as well as will run off. It is estimated that wave radiation of Earth to all directions
transport facilities (highways) (Kutílek, evapotranspiration flow will decrease and thus increases the temperature of
2008). Those activities completely approximately to one half of the the biosphere. The production of CO2
change natural vegetation and previous state. Therefore, about a half in Europe has significantly decreased,
structure of water and energy balance of the solar energy reaching soil surface but the world production has still been
of territories. The obvious result is the at the constant rate will not be used continuously increasing.
decrease of evapotranspiration totals. as latent heat of evapotranspiration
Solar energy not used to water phase but will be heating biosphere and Climate change consequences
change heats biosphere and thus thus increasing its temperature. This
contributes to global warming. Tropical is the primary reason of warming Increased dynamics of water
rain forests are characteristic by high with adjective “global“, because it is and energy in biosphere
precipitation totals (more than 3,000 contributing to temperature increase Biosphere temperature increase
mm of water layer per year), and by around the globe. means additional available energy,
high income of solar energy (average The most important “glasshouse“ which can be used to transport mass
income is 350 W.m-2; for comparison, gas is water vapour, because it and energy. Because about 70% of the
on the territory of Slovakia this income disperses long wave radiation of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans
is 125 W.m-2). High income of water Earth in all the spectrum range more and other water surfaces, evaporation
and energy is resulting in annual effectively than carbon dioxide, with its from those surfaces will increase
evapotranspiration totals of more than relatively narrow range of dispersion. proportionally. Higher amounts of
2,500 mm of water per year (in Slovakia, The concentration of water vapour evaporated (evapotranspirated) water
there is approximately 500 mm water is proportional to air temperature mean higher and more intensive
layer) (Shuttleworth, 1988; Novák, and increasing temperature of precipitation and increased weather
2012). What does it mean for water and atmosphere increases equilibrium extremization. It means that there
energy balance of Earth? water vapour concentration and could be expected more intensive
Intensive deforestation of rain forest thus increase the “greenhouse“ effect precipitation and higher precipitation
and its change to agricultural land, of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide totals leading to “flash” floods. Weather
buildings, and transport infrastructure concentration is changing. From 318 extremes mean even longer periods
is changing properties of evaporating ppm in 1960 (ppm means parts of without precipitation.

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What can be expected in water and energy dynamic saturated with water from previous precipitation events,
change in Slovakia? practically all the precipitation can outflow and the result
Forests of temperate climatic zone in Slovakia are slowly is “flash flood“ (Pekárová, Svoboda, Novák, Miklánek, 2011).
increasing their area and cover more than 40% of the Slovak Such floods were observed in small, forested catchments in
territory. Reduction of arable land area (14,400 km2, i.e. last years.
29% of Slovak territory) in the last decades is significant. The idea of the “green landscape“ is a good solution.
Impermeable surfaces (buildings, communications, Green canopies consume energy to transpire, absorbing
industrial objects) have grown in the last decades, which carbon dioxide in photosynthesis; they are important anti –
leads to local runoff increase and decrease of evaporation, erosion elements and, what is most important for people,
followed by the temperature increase. they produce biomass as the basic element of food chain of
As a result of the climate change, there was measured all living organisms.
air temperature increase during the last century of about
1 °C. This gain increases the potential evapotranspiration, Desertification and soil degradation
i.e. maximum possible under given conditions. Global
Desertification
increase of evaporation, particularly from oceans and
seas is resulting in precipitation totals increase around Desertification is the process of soil degradation of
the world. Evapotranspiration in Slovakia has increased agricultural land to the areas unsuitable for agricultural
by about 10% during the past 30 years, but the potential activity such as steppes, savannas, and deserts. Such
evapotranspiration increased even more, reflecting higher territories are becoming dry, due natural or anthropogenic
temperature of the atmosphere (Pekárová, Miklánek, Pekár, activity, or by combination of both. These processes were
2017). As a result, the runoff – especially in southern parts of running even in the past, but their intensities were different.
Slovakia – is decreasing and recharge of groundwater, the Today`s degradation and desertification process is intensified
basic resource of fresh water supply in Slovakia, is decreasing, by global warming and by intensified land use. Degradation
too. Therefore, there is an urgent need to retain as much of soils and eventual desertification is actual mostly in arid
water as possible in catchments. The effective methods of zones of Earth. Arid zones of Earth cover about 38% of dry
water retention increase are relatively large water reservoirs land area (57 × 106 km2), where live about 2.7 billion people.
(with volumes of several million cubic meters) and managed Up to 90% of the arid area is located in developing countries
aquifer recharge (MAR). with high natality rates (Dregne, 1977).
The arrangement of small water reservoirs is not a good Approximately one eighth of dry land (12.5%, i.e.
solution. In reservoirs with a small retention volume, water 19.8 × 106 km2) are deserts, and the rate of their expansion
quickly increases its temperature, followed by eutrophication (desertification) is approximately 120,000 km2 annually,
and overgrowing. Water in such reservoirs cannot be used which is more than the two territories of Slovakia. The
for irrigation and communal consumption, and they are not Sahara Desert is the most extensive desert of the planet (its
worth investment. A suitable method to increase retention area is about 9 × 106 km2), and it is expanding according to
of water is artificial infiltration of water from channels or the satellites measurements by about 60,000 km2 annually.
rivers to recharge groundwater. Utilisations of infiltration Since 1900, the Sahara Desert moved its boundary to
basins with permeable bottom to recharge groundwater are the south by 250 km, the additional desert area is about
often used in some countries (managed aquifer recharge 1.5 × 106 km2, and this process accelerates. The process of
(MAR)). desertification is actual even in South America, Australia and
Another frequent myth is the idea of increasing retention in Asia, but its intensity is smaller.
of water in the landscape by forestation. Forestation of land What are the main reasons of desertification?
is a good idea, because green woody surfaces with relatively They can be divided to natural (contribution of
high rate of transpiration consume solar energy and thus extra-terrestrial interactions on the climate change) and
decrease ambient temperature, as well as incorporate anthropogenic due to mankind activities. Main land
carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis, and they use changes (anthropogenic activities) leading to soil
are important anti-erosion elements, but they do not degradation are the following: unsuitable agrotechnics,
accumulate water. forests clearing (mostly rain forests), and overgrazing.
On the contrary, water retention by forests is small,
and forests intensify water circulation. About one third of Land use changes and desertification
annual precipitation in coniferous forests is intercepted Natural surfaces of dry land were mostly forests, savannas,
and evaporated (in deciduous forests it is about one fifth of steppes, and deserts. Arable land area and impermeable
annual precipitation); this part of precipitation even does not surfaces (buildings, roads) areas are so small they cannot
reach soil surface. This phenomenon is not felt negatively, influence the climate. During the last two centuries, the
because forests are usually located in mountains with high natural structure of land`s surfaces significantly changed as
precipitation totals. But this phenomenon significantly a result of the increasing number of populations with their
decreases the runoff. claims, on food, energy, and water. As it was mentioned
Climate change is accompanied with increasing risks previously, during the last 100 years the number of Earth
of local floods. Forests´ interception capacity up to 6 mm population increased four times, from 2 billion in 1927
water layer cannot prevent floods, because rain intensity is to 7.6 billion in 2019. Increasing of arable land area and
often higher than 10 mm per hour and such precipitation intensification of agriculture by application of chemicals
event total is often higher than 100 mm. If the soil is fully (fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides), and using heavy

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machinery is the result of increased population needs. Quite a different situation is in our temperate climate
Correspondingly, it led to the decrease of forest and zone. Annual average evapotranspiration total in the
meadow areas and increase of impermeable surfaces like southern part of Slovakia is approximately 500 mm water
roofs, roads, etc., which significantly influence water and layer, 5 times less than annual evapotranspiration total of
energy regimen of territory. Even in Slovakia, there is a rain forests, and consumption of energy to evaporate in our
surprisingly high ratio of industrial buildings and stores built climate zone is correspondingly lower. But the good state
on the best agricultural soils. This means loss of production of green evaporating surfaces is important to preserve
capacity of agriculture and increasing ratio of impermeable local climate and, of course, contributes to the global
surfaces, less consumption of energy on evaporation and climate, too. Therefore, the preservation of the good state
thus additional increase of air temperature. By the extensive of green surfaces in Slovakia is important. Good state of
building activities in Slovakia, the portion of impermeable forest ecosystems is important not only to produce organic
surfaces is close to 5% of the Slovak territory. This increase material (wood); it is important as anti-erosion measure, and
can significantly influence water and temperature regimen irreplaceable element of ecosystem stability together with
of area and its microclimate. all the spectrum of plants and living organisms.

Unsuitable agrotechnics Soil degradation

Unsuitable agrotechnics is the reason of soil degradation, Desertification in Slovakia is not an actual problem, because
too. Unprotected and disturbed soil surface is sensitive to precipitation totals are high enough, and are even increasing.
wind (and water) erosion especially in desert and semi-desert But, intensification of agriculture leads to worsening of soil
areas. Agricultural land is not protected (especially after the properties, and to soil degradation.
season) against the wind and high temperatures, which can The term soil degradation is understood as worsening
be the reason of soil surface destruction and its transport by of production properties of soil, erosion of ploughing soil
wind or occasional rain. Remember the transport of Sahara layer, decrease of the organic matter content of the soil,
fine sand (May 2020) to Slovakia, which was visible on cars which can lead to the negative soil structural changes and
surfaces. This is one of the ways how deserts expand. Bulk finally to the unfavourable hydrophysical properties of the
density of subsoil increasing, and its hydraulic conductivity soil (decrease of hydraulic conductivity, water retention
decrease by heavy machinery prevents water infiltration to capacity, reduction of infiltration capacity and surface runoff
soil and to groundwater. increase).

Overgrazing Soil erosion

Increasing number of cattle is the reaction to the increasing Soil erosion across Slovakia is often observed particularly
demand for food. Cattle is grazing sparse vegetation in on arable land, but even in forest ecosystems, and is a part
savannas and steppes, mostly in Africa. This way of pasture of soil degradation. Potential rate of erosion is expected to
is usually leading to vegetation canopy damage and to rise, proportionally to the expected heavy rain occurrence.
destruction of soil surface by cattle hooves. The result is Heavy machinery used in agriculture is increasing subsoil
increased sensitivity to wind (and water) erosion and to bulk density, thus decreasing its hydraulic conductivity.
desertification of territory. As a result, infiltration rate decreases and water starts
to accumulate in the soil surface, then evaporates, and
Deforestation eventually contributes to the surface runoff formation.
This problem was partially discussed previously, in the Therefore, less water from precipitation and from water
part of rain forests clearing and its influence on climate. courses can recharge groundwater. Sensitive to water
Existence of rain forests is basic for climate stability not in erosion are mainly soils on the slopes because erosion
a particular site, but across the planet. Its significance is intensity is proportional to the rain intensity and inversely
given by extremely high rates of water and energy fluxes proportional to hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Erosion of
between rain forests and the environment. High rates of forest soils and meadows occurs usually in areas damaged
evapotranspiration are expressed in water layer thickness by human activity, such as forest roads and cleared areas.
(2,500 [Link]-1) and related extremely high energy
consumption by evapotranspiration (6.25 × 109 [Link]-1). Rise of sea and ocean level
This huge consumption of energy to evaporate water from Sea level changes are usually results of climate change.
rain forests basically influences water and energy fluxes in Increased temperature of the atmosphere is responsible for
the planet scale. To evaporate water from wet surfaces in the two important effects: glaciers and icebergs melting, and
area between tropics, about 90% of all solar energy reaching water expansion with increasing water temperature.
the Earth`s surface is needed (Shuttleworth, 1988). It is The sea level has risen by about 0.20 m since the
estimated that after clearing of rain forests, evaporation will beginning of 20th century, and during the last 20 years it
decrease by about a half, and the rest of energy is used to was 0.05 m, in the time interval 1992–2019, sea level rose in
heat the biosphere and thus contribute to global warming. average by about 0.074 m (Vinas, Rasmussen, 2015).
Rain forests also incorporate great amount of atmospheric Figure 2 presents the smoothed cumulative sea level rise
carbon dioxide in their mass by photosynthesis and thus during the past century. It is in accordance with the above-
decreasing its concentration in the atmosphere. This effect mentioned results. The rise of sea level is not so smooth as
is important, because rain forests produce about one third it is shown in Figure 2, but its rise is sensitive to short term
of dry land biomass production. fluctuations of weather. There are even short time intervals

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 Viliam Novák Acta Horticulturae et Regiotecturae – Special Issue/2021

areas with natural conditions suitable

to alpine and arctic plant and animal
species will be smaller, fragmented and
isolated in the future, so it is expected
that some of them die out (Malcolm
and Pitelka, 2000). Displacement of
the so-called invasive plants observed
in the last decades even in Slovakia
is probably amplified by the effect
of climate zones shift to northern
direction.

Conclusions
Global changes refer to the planet
scale changes of the environment,
human society, and economy. The
climate change is a part of the global
changes, one of many global changes.
Figure 2 The smoothed rise of the sea level during the past century Reasons of such changes are natural
Source: according to Holgate (2007) and anthropogenic. Natural reasons
for the climate change depend on
interactions among Earth and the
of sea level decrease, but in general, Ecosystems stability and climate outer space.
the tendency is as it can be seen in change Since nineteenth century,
Figure 2. The potential rise of sea level There is no doubt; current global increasing population has caused
due to Greenland glaciers melting changes (climate change, land pressure to increase consumption of
(1.7 × 106 km2) is 6 m, melting of the use change, fossil fuels burning, food, raw material and energy, and
Antarctic continental glacier (14 × interactions of Earth and outer therefore, the so-called industrial
106 km2), could cause sea level rise space) strongly influence biosphere revolution started, inducing great
up to 58 metres. Complete melting of (ecosystem) and its components: scale of land use change, replacing
those glaciers is not expected in near plants and living organisms. natural surfaces by artificial ones. This
future. Real values of sea level rise Climate is the most important activity changed the structure of mass
are about 5 mm per year; during this phenomenon responsible for and energy fluxes in the ecosystem.
century, it is expected to rise by about distribution of vegetation and living It was estimated that about 60% of
50 cm. organisms across Earth. Flow of water the dry land on the Earth`s surfaces
The coefficient of thermal and energy are determined by the input are anthropogenically modified.
expansion of water is about 1 × 10-4 of energy from the Sun. Global warming Clearing of forests, especially rain
m.K-1 (its value depends slightly on in the range 1 °C to 4 °C increases forests, also decreased carbon dioxide
temperature too). It means the sea level temperature of the ecosystems and sequestration and thus secondarily
will rise 0.0001 of water layer thickness changes their properties. In principle, contributes to global temperature
when temperature of water will rise those phenomena are initiating shift of increase. Those anthropogenic
about 1 °C. The average sea depth is plant and animal species to the poles. changes of land surface quality and
approximately 2800 meters, then the Plant species (including crops) were quantity also led to the decreasing
increase of water temperature about changing their territories, depending evapotranspiration and a part of solar
1 °C can rise sea level due to thermal on global changes even in the past, energy previously spent as latent heat
expansion of water about 28 cm. This is but the speed of global change (and of evaporation contributed to the
not expected. There is one secondary climate as its part) which is higher now global Earth`s temperature increase.
effect of sea level rise. Usually, with suggests that such changes can be By combustion of fossil fuel,
a sea level rise, there is increased realised relatively fast, up to ten times carbon dioxide is produced, and its
the area of inundated land. The faster, than it was previously, following concentration in the atmosphere
positive feature of this phenomenon warming after the last glacial maximum. has been increasing. It is followed
is increase of evaporation from this It is not clear if plant communities by increasing dissipation of Earth`s
additional inundation and related (and animals as well) would be able long–wave radiation by carbon dioxide
consumption of energy as latent heat, to follow the relatively rapid shift of molecules, and thus increasing the
which can lead to air temperature climate zones. It is expected that some ecosystem temperature.
decrease. In general, increase of water plant species will not be able to follow Increasing demand on food, raw
areas due to ice lands melting can climate change speed and will die out, materials, and energy creates pressure
contribute to decrease of ecosystem because they will not be able to adapt on their production. Deposits of raw
temperature. This is one of the to such climate change. The “filtration“ materials are limited and would be
ecosystem autocorrection factors. effect will be proportional to the speed exhausted in the next century. Arable
of such changes. It is expected that the land areas, needed to produce biomass

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as a basic source of food are limited as well as areas suitable Lubyová, M., Filčák, R. (Eds.). (2016). Globálne megatrendy.
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much more than sustainable productivity of Earth`s Climate Changes. [Link]
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