UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

• Concept of Circuit and Network

• Types of elements
• R-L-C Parameters
• Independent and Dependent sources
• Source transformation Technique
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Simple Problems
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric
networks. In this introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the
types of network elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms −

• Electric Circuit
• Electric Network
• Current
• Voltage
• Power
So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further. Let’s
start with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks"
but the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
• t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured
in terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive
terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is
obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
• Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a
pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it
can be written as

Where,
• W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
• t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements −
• Active Elements and Passive Elements
• Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
• Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
• Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements
Active Elements and Passive Elements
We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
• Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the
capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
• Passive Elements can’t deliver power (energy) to other elements, however they can absorb power.
That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to
obey the property of linearity.
• Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
• Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and
current. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction
of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same impedance
in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.
The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and current (I).
In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z Ω. That means the current (–I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we will
get the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect to
terminals A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.
We discussed the types of network elements in the previous chapter. Now, let us identify the nature of
network elements from the V-I characteristics given in the following examples.
Example 1
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line passing through the
origin. Hence, it is linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants.
• In the first quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) are positive. So, the ratios of
voltage (V) and current (I) gives positive impedance values.
 • Similarly, in the third quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) have negative values.
So, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values.
Since, the given V-I characteristics offer positive impedance values, the network element is a Passive
element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
For every point (I, V) on the characteristics, there exists a corresponding point (-I, -V) on the given
characteristics. Hence, the network element is a Bilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Linear, Passive, and Bilateral
element.
Example 2
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 − Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line only between the
points (-3A, -3V) and (5A, 5V). Beyond these points, the V-I characteristics are not following the linear
relation. Hence, it is a Non-linear element.
Step 2 − Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants. In these two
quadrants, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values. Hence, the network
element is a Passive element.
Step 3 − Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
Consider the point (5A, 5V) on the characteristics. The corresponding point (-5A, -3V) exists on the given
characteristics instead of (-5A, -5V). Hence, the network element is a Unilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Non-linear, Passive,
and Unilateral element. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions
takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.
 Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds
of miles.
R-L-C Parameters
Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage across resistor is the product of current flowing through it and the
resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to
the applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned
in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Ψ is the total magnetic flux
• L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to Faraday’s law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

Substitute Ψ = LI in the above equation.

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If
positive voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage
is applied across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have
linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
• Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
• C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol
of capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.
We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as
So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.
Types of Sources
Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify
these sources into the following two categories −

• Independent Sources
• Dependent Sources
Independent Sources
As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and
these are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the
following two categories −

• Independent Voltage Sources

• Independent Current Sources
Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.
Independent Current Sources
An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of
the voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown
in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.
There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.
Dependent Sources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled sources.
Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories −

• Dependent Voltage Sources

• Dependent Current Sources
Dependent Voltage Sources
A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals. The amount of this
voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further
classified into the following two categories −

• Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

• Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs ‘+’ and ‘-’ inside a diamond shape. The
magnitude of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
A dependent current source produces a current. The amount of this current is dependent on
some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following
two categories −

• Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

• Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)
Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape. The magnitude of the
current source can be represented outside the diamond shape. We can observe these dependent or controlled
sources in equivalent models of transistors.
Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We
can transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network
problems.
The technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique.
Following are the two possible source transformations −

• Practical voltage source into a practical current source

• Practical current source into a practical voltage source
Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current source (IS) in
parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.
Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (VS) in series
with a resistor (RS).
The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as

In this chapter, we will discuss in detail about the passive elements such as Resistor, Inductor, and
Capacitor. Let us start with Resistors.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as Kirchhoff’s laws.

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Cur ent Law
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents leaving (or entering) a node is
equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are
connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
• Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.
 • M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.
The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is
equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following
example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.

• In the above figure, the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 areentering at node P. So, consider negative
signs for these three currents.
• In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 areleaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand
side represents the sum of leaving currents.
In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it
enters a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign
when it enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or
mesh is equal to zero.
A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
doesn’t contain any other loops inside it.
Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

Where,
• Vn is the nth element’s voltage in a loop (mesh).
• N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help of the
following example.
Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.

In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-hand
side represents the sum of voltage drops. In this example, we considered only one voltage source. That’s
why the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the left side
contains sum of voltage sources.
In this tutorial, we consider the sign of each element’s voltage as the polarity of the second terminal that is
present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the polarity
of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note − KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.
 • Current Division Principle
• Voltage Division Principle
Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that
flows through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the
node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2.
The voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the
resistors R1 andR2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be
From equations of I1 and I2, we can generalize that the current flowing through any passive element can be
found by using the following formula.

This is known as current division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in parallel and only one current enters the node.
Where,
• IN is the current flowing through the passive element of Nth branch.
• IS is the input current, which enters the node.
• Z1, Z2, …,ZN are the impedances of 1st branch, 2ndbranch, …, Nth branch respectively.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across that
entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
current flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1 and
V2 respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be

• Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

 • Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

From equations of V1 and V2, we can generalize that the voltage across any passive element can be found by
using the following formula.

This is known as voltage division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in series and only one voltage available across the entire combination.
Where,
• VN is the voltage across Nth passive element.
• VS is the input voltage, which is present across the entire combination of series passive elements.
• Z1,Z2, …,Z3 are the impedances of 1st passive element, 2nd passive element, …, Nth passive element
respectively.
Circuits & Theorems :

• Network Reduction Techniques

• Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks
• Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks
• Mesh Analysis
• Network Theorems: Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• Superposition Theorem
• Problems
Network Reduction Techniques:
There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and Mesh
analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of series type
or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element. Hence, this circuit is
called as an equivalent circuit.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.

• Series Equivalent Circuit

• Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through
all these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these
elements are connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.
That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those multiple
resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be
maintained across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2, and R3. All these elements
are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this
principal node (P) is
The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of reciprocal of each
resistance of all those multiple resistors.
Note 1 − If ‘N’ inductors having inductances of L1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 − If ‘N’ capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance will be
 Example Problems:

1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)
Solution:

To get Req we combine

resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so their equivalent
resistance is

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors
are in series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series. Hence,
the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms

Star–to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks:

Delta to Star Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed an example problem related equivalent resistance.
There, we calculated the equivalent resistance between the terminals A & B of the given electrical network
easily. Because, in every step, we got the combination of resistors that are connected in either series form
or parallel form.
However, in some situations, it is difficult to simplify the network by following the previous approach. For
example, the resistors connected in either delta (δ) form or star form. In such situations, we have
to convert the network of one form to the other in order to simplify it further by using series combination or
parallel combination. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Delta to Star Conversion.
Delta Network
Consider the following delta network as shown in the following figure.

The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of delta network, when
the third terminal is kept open.

Star Network
The following figure shows the equivalent star network corresponding to the above delta
network.
The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of star network, when the
third terminal is kept open.

Star Network Resistances in terms of Delta Network Resistances

We will get the following equations by equating the right-hand side terms of the above
equations for which the left-hand side terms are same.
By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of star network from the resistances of delta
network. In this way, we can convert a delta network into a star network.
Star to Delta Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed about the conversion of delta network into an
equivalent star network. Now, let us discuss about the conversion of star network into an equivalent delta
network. This conversion is called as Star to Delta Conversion.
In the previous chapter, we got the resistances of star network from delta network as

Delta Network Resistancesin terms of Star Network Resistances

Let us manipulate the above equations in order to get the resistances of delta network in
terms of resistances of star network.
• Multiply each set of two equations and then add.
By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of delta network from the resistances of star
network. In this way, we can convert star network into delta network.

Example problems:

1) Convert the Delta network in Fig.(a) to an equivalent star network

Solution:
 2) Convert the star network in fig(a) to delta network

Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where
3) Determine the total current I in the given circuit.

Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as shown in
given figure.

R1 = R12 R31 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 10 x 25 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 5 ohms

R2 = R23 R12 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 15 x 10 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 3 ohms
R3 = R31 R23 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 25 x 15 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 7.5 ohms

The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.

The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms
Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms
Hence the total current through the battery,
I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A
Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits that
have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis is also
called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only one
mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference) of
two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure ofMesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
• Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
• Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh currents.
• Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first and
then Ohm’s law.
• Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in clockwise
direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.
Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh
current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh currents,
I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given circuit. When
we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as greater than all other mesh
currents of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand side
terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.
Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is84 V.
Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the
electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of meshes
is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is equal to the
number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.
Network Theorems:
Introduction:
Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element response is
desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as network reduction
techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us see some important
theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem (Introduction) :
Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s theorem are two important theorems in solving Network problems having
many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be reduced to simple equivalent
circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis many a times the current through a
branch is required to be found when it’s value is changed with all other element values remaining same. In
such cases finding out every time the branch current using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods
is quite awkward and time consuming. But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and
one element) obtained using these two theorems the calculations become very simple. Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems are dual theorems.
Thevenin’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance
(Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking into the terminals(with
concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all sources are replaced by their
internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and current source is open circuit.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the
load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Thevenin's equivalent
circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .
Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :
1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a & b
after removing the concerned branch/element
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional network
mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all
voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or) load resistance
across the load terminals (A&B) as shown in below fig.

Fig.(a)
Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through RL resistor as shown in fig.
by using Thevenin’s Theorem?

Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as shown in the
fig. (1)

Fig.(1)
Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now we
have to calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this
is a series circuit because current will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open. So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will
appear across the 4kΩ resistor. We also know that current is not flowing through the 8kΩ resistor as it is
open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear
across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals.
So, VTH = 12V

Fig (2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)

Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (RTH)We have Reduced
the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure (3) We can see
that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]
RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
RTH = 11kΩ

Fig(4)
Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor. This is the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit.

VTH

Fig (5)
Now apply Ohm’s law and calculate the load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) = 12/16kΩ
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL= 0.75mA x 5kΩ
VL= 3.75V
Norton’s Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance
(Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across the load terminals and the resistance
being the internal resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the
load resistance RL connected across the terminals ‘a & b’ and figure (b) shows the Norton equivalent
circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .
Main steps to find out IN and RN:
• The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a
& b after removing the concerned branch/element.
 • Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two terminals are found
out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are same as what we
obtained in Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
• Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains dependent
sources or not.
a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc
b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals
with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage
sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
• Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig

Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5 Ω) of the circuit shown in the figure (a)
below using Norton’s equivalent circuit.

Fig(a)
Solution: To find out the Norton’s equivalent ckt we have to find out IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc. Short the 1.5Ω
load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton
Current (IN).

Fig(2)
We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, IN. The 6Ω and 3Ω are then in parallel
and this parallel combination of 6Ω and 3Ω are then in series with 2Ω.So the Total Resistance of the circuit
to the Source is:-
2Ω + (6Ω || 3Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RT = 2Ω + [(3Ω x 6Ω) / (3Ω + 6Ω)]
RT = 2Ω + 2Ω
RT = 4Ω
IT = V / RT
IT = 12V / 4Ω= 3A..
Now we have to find ISC = IN… Apply CDR… (Current Divider Rule)…
ISC = IN = 3A x [(6Ω / (3Ω + 6Ω)] = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(3)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in fig.(4)

Fig(4)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN) We have Reduced the
12V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in fig(4), We can see that 3Ω
resistor is in series with a parallel combination of 6Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor. i.e.:
3Ω + (6Ω || 2Ω) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RN = 3Ω + [(6Ω x 2Ω) / (6Ω + 2Ω)]
RN = 3Ω + 1.5Ω
RN = 4.5Ω
 Fig(5)
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig (6)
i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Fig(6)
Now apply the Ohm’s Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the terminals
A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
IL= 2A x (4.5Ω /4.5Ω +1.5kΩ)
IL = 1.5A IL = 1. 5A
Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one current
or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the circuit by
considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their ideal internal
resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The total
current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages in the
required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their ideal internal
resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the voltage
source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is given by
:

Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 Ω due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage source of
20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of 3Ω is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in fig.(a).Then
we get :
 𝑉 − 20 𝑉
+ =5
5 3
3V-60+5V=15× 5
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of 3Ω =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A.