ELE-1317 Basic Electrical Engineering

UNIT 1
The lumped Matter Discipline

This is an approach to make people aware of the evolution of the lumped circuit elements like Resistor,
Capacitor, Voltage sources etc.
In olden days, given some voltage to an object, finding the current passing through that object is a tough
task. You require probes to measure the current through it. Later on, when Ohms law came into
existence things were made easy. Ohms law gives the relation between Voltage and Current. It says V =
IR
Similarly there are Maxwell’s Equations
If you wish building things we can take Maxwell’s equations and build useful systems.

Here is the lumped circuit abstraction.

First we defined

The biggest simplification lies in making Maxwell equation to a very simple algebraic [Link]’s
Equations are very interesting stuff but complicated, but we can’t imagine existence without Maxwell’s
equations.
The proof is

Let’s say I have a battery

Let’s say I connect that to a bulb.

Battery supplies some voltage V. What is the current through the bulb?
Maxwell’s equations say del*e = -db/dt
It is complicated so

Instead we take the easy way

Let us take an analogy

Suppose I apply a force F to an object.

What is the acceleration of the object? You would ask me what the mass of the object is. I’ll tell you the
mass of the object is m so now: ” a =f/m ”
We ignored the shape, color, temperature and whole bunch if things. We focused on mass.

This is developed form then Point Mass Simplification. Similar is the case with the light bulb
If you can see the figure, focus on the filament of the light bulb, all I care about, is the current flowing
thorough the light bulb. I don’t care about its shape, color.
Since you just need the current we simply replace the bulb with a discrete object called resistor with a
resistance value R, similarly battery object with V. I get my current from ohms law I=V/R direct
analogy to f/m. R is the only property of interest

We engineers should make it simple. I cheated you a bit. Why was it that we were able to make a
simplification? We make it According to Maxwell’s equation. I did something that allowed me use it
directly. Let’s take a closer look at the filament.

Here is the filament. In order that it works V, I should be defined

Actually from Maxwell’s equation ∫[Link] –∫[Link] = dq/dt where [Link] = i(A) current through Surface A
and [Link] = i(B), current through SURFACE B.
Notice that i(A), i(B),are there because there is charge build up. Where is this the simple ohms law and
where is this complicated Maxwell’s equation. But how did I get there. The key answer is we simplified.
 We’re Engineers, we build interesting systems and do well to humanity. So let’s take system such
that dq/dt = 0. I want to deal with those systems in which it is ZERO.
But why am I doing this, because I am an engineer and want to simplify things. I made
it ZERO because I will only deal with elements for which this is true. Am going to discipline myself to
only deal with those [Link] name this simplification is Lumped matter discipline.
So when this is true notice there’s no charge build up so i(A) = i(B).It is defined only when dq/dt = 0.
So making an assumption that dq/dt = 0 we directly wrote V= IR from ohms law. If we don’t make this
assumption then to find the current we need to use the complicated Maxwell’s equations. So now the
elements for which charge build up ie. dq/dt = 0 are nothing but resistors, capacitors etc.

Electrical Waveforms
In the Oscillators tutorials we saw that an oscillator is an electronic circuit used to generate a continuous
output signal usually in the form of a sinusoid at some predetermined frequency or wavelength set by
the resonant components of the circuit. We also saw that there are many different types of oscillator
circuits available but generally they all consist of an amplifier and either an Inductor-Capacitor, ( LC )
or Resistor-Capacitor, ( RC ) tank circuit used to produce a sine wave type output signal.

Typical Electrical Waveform

But sometimes in electronic circuits we need to produce many different types, frequencies and shapes
of Signal Waveforms such as Square Waves, Rectangular Waves, Triangular Waves, Sawtoothed
Waveforms and a variety of pulses and spikes.
These types of signal waveform can then be used for either timing signals, clock signals or as trigger
pulses. However, before we can begin to look at how the different types of waveforms are produced, we
firstly need to understand the basic characteristics that make up Electrical Waveforms.
Technically speaking, Electrical Waveforms are basically visual representations of the variation of a
voltage or current over time. In plain English this means that if we plotted these voltage or current
variations on a piece of graph paper against a base (x-axis) of time, ( t ) the resulting plot or drawing
would represent the shape of a Waveform as shown. There are many different types of electrical
waveforms available but generally they can all be broken down into two distinctive groups.
 1. Uni-directional Waveforms – these electrical waveforms are always positive or negative in
nature flowing in one forward direction only as they do not cross the zero axis point. Common uni-
directional waveforms include Square-wave timing signals, Clock pulses and Trigger pulses.
 2. Bi-directional Waveforms – these electrical waveforms are also called alternating waveforms as
they alternate from a positive direction to a negative direction constantly crossing the zero axis point.
 Bi-directional waveforms go through periodic changes in amplitude, with the most common by far being
the Sine-wave.
Whether the waveform is uni-directional, bi-directional, periodic, non-periodic, symmetrical, non-
symmetrical, simple or complex, all electrical waveforms include the following three common
characteristics:
 Period: – This is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start to
finish. This value can also be called the Periodic Time, ( T ) of the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse
Width for square waves.
 Frequency: – This is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time period.
Frequency is the reciprocal of the time period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the standard unit of frequency being
the Hertz, (Hz).
 Amplitude: – This is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or amps.

Periodic Waveforms
Periodic waveforms are the most common of all the electrical waveforms as it includes Sine Waves.
The AC (Alternating Current) mains waveform in your home is a sine wave and one which constantly
alternates between a maximum value and a minimum value over time.
The amount of time it takes between each individual repetition or cycle of a sinusoidal waveform is
known as its “periodic time” or simply the Period of the waveform. In other words, the time it takes for
the waveform to repeat itself.
Then this period can vary with each waveform from fractions of a second to thousands of seconds as it
depends upon the frequency of the waveform. For example, a sinusoidal waveform which takes one
second to complete its cycle will have a periodic time of one second. Likewise a sine wave which takes
five seconds to complete will have a periodic time of five seconds and so on.
So, if the length of time it takes for the waveform to complete one full pattern or cycle before it repeats
itself is known as the “period of the wave” and is measured in seconds, we can then express the
waveform as a period number per second denoted by the letter T as shown below.

A Sine Wave Waveform

Units of periodic time, ( T ) include: Seconds ( s ), milliseconds ( ms ) and microseconds ( μs ).
For sine wave waveforms only, we can also express the periodic time of the waveform in either degrees
or radians, as one full cycle is equal to 360o ( T = 360o ) or in Radians as 2pi, 2π ( T = 2π ), then we can
say that 2π radians = 360o – ( Remember this! ).
We now know that the time it takes for electrical waveforms to repeat themselves is known as the
periodic time or period which represents a fixed amount of time. If we take the reciprocal of the period,
( 1/T ) we end up with a value that denotes the number of times a period or cycle repeats itself in one
second or cycles per second, and this is commonly known as Frequency with units of Hertz, (Hz).
Then Hertz can also be defined as “cycles per second” (cps) and 1Hz is exactly equal to 1 cycle per
second.
Both period and frequency are mathematical reciprocals of each other and as the periodic time of the
waveform decreases, its frequency increases and vice versa with the relationship between Periodic
time and Frequency given as.

Relationship between Frequency and Periodic Time

Where: ƒ is in Hertz and T is in Seconds.

One Hertz is exactly equal to one cycle per second, but one hertz is a very small unit so prefixes are
used that denote the order of magnitude of the waveform such as kHz, MHzand even GHz.
 Prefix Definition Written as Time Period

Kilo Thousand kHz 1ms

Mega Million MHz 1us

Giga Billion GHz 1ns

Tera Trillion THz 1ps

Square Wave Electrical Waveforms

Square-wave Waveforms are used extensively in electronic and micro electronic circuits for clock and
timing control signals as they are symmetrical waveforms of equal and square duration representing
each half of a cycle and nearly all digital logic circuits use square wave waveforms on their input and
output gates.
Unlike sine waves which have a smooth rise and fall waveform with rounded corners at their positive
and negative peaks, square waves on the other hand have very steep almost vertical up and down sides
with a flat top and bottom producing a waveform which matches its description, – “Square” as shown
below.

A Square Wave Waveform

We know that square shaped electrical waveforms are symmetrical in shape as each half of the cycle is
identical, so the time that the pulse width is positive must be equal to the time that the pulse width is
negative or zero. When square wave waveforms are used as “clock” signals in digital circuits the time of
the positive pulse width is known as the “Duty Cycle” of the period.
Then we can say that for a square wave waveform the positive or “ON” time is equal to the negative or
“OFF” time so the duty cycle must be 50%, (half of its period). As frequency is equal to the reciprocal
of the period, ( 1/T ) we can define the frequency of a square wave waveform as:

Electrical Waveforms Example No1

A Square Wave electrical waveform has a pulse width of 10ms, calculate its frequency, ( ƒ ).
For a square wave shaped waveform, the duty cycle is given as 50%, therefore the period of the
waveform must be equal to: 10ms + 10ms or 20ms

So to summarise a little about Square Waves. A Square Wave Waveform is symmetrical in shape and
has a positive pulse width equal to its negative pulse width resulting in a 50% duty cycle. Square wave
waveforms are used in digital systems to represent a logic level “1”, high amplitude and logic level “0”,
low amplitude. If the duty cycle of the waveform is any other value than 50%, (half-ON half-OFF) the
resulting waveform would then be called a Rectangular Waveform or if the “ON” time is really small
a Pulse.

Rectangular Waveforms
Rectangular Waveforms are similar to the square wave waveform above, the difference being that the
two pulse widths of the waveform are of an unequal time period. Rectangular waveforms are therefore
classed as “Non-symmetrical” waveforms as shown below.

A Rectangular Waveform
The example above shows that the positive pulse width is shorter in time than the negative pulse width.
Equally, the negative pulse width could be shorter than the positive pulse width, either way the resulting
waveform shape would still be that of a rectangular waveform.
These positive and negative pulse widths are sometimes called “Mark” and “Space” respectively, with
the ratio of the Mark time to the Space time being known as the “Mark-to-Space” ratio of the period and
for a Square wave waveform this would be equal to one.

Electrical Waveforms Example No2

A Rectangular waveform has a positive pulse width (Mark time) of 10ms and a duty cycle of 25%,
calculate its frequency.
The duty cycle is given as 25% or 1/4 and this is equal to the mark time which is 10ms, then the period
of the waveform must be equal to: 10ms (25%) + 30ms (75%) which equals 40ms (100%) in total.

Rectangular Waveforms can be used to regulate the amount of power being applied to a load such as a
lamp or motor by varying the duty cycle of the waveform. The higher the duty cycle, the greater the
average amount of power being applied to the load and the lower the duty cycle, the less the average
amount of power being applied to the load and an excellent example of this is in the use of “Pulse Width
Modulation” speed controllers.

Triangular Waveforms
Triangular Waveforms are generally bi-directional non-sinusoidal waveforms that oscillate between a
positive and a negative peak value. Although called a triangular waveform, the triangular wave is
actually more of a symmetrical linear ramp waveform because it is simply a slow rising and falling
voltage signal at a constant frequency or rate. The rate at which the voltage changes between each ramp
direction is equal during both halves of the cycle as shown below.

A Triangular Waveform
Generally, for Triangular Waveforms the positive-going ramp or slope (rise), is of the same time
duration as the negative-going ramp (decay) giving the triangular waveform a 50% duty cycle. Then any
given voltage amplitude, the frequency of the waveform will determine the average voltage level of the
wave.
So for a slow rise and slow delay time of the ramp will give a lower average voltage level than a faster
rise and decay time. However, we can produce non-symmetrical triangular waveforms by varying either
the rising or decaying ramp values to give us another type of waveform known commonly as
a Sawtooth Waveform.

Sawtooth Waveforms
Sawtooth Waveforms are another type of periodic waveform. As its name suggests, the shape of the
waveform resembles the teeth of a saw blade. Sawtoothed waveforms can have a mirror image of
themselves, by having either a slow-rising but extremely steep decay, or an extremely steep almost
vertical rise and a slow-decay as shown below.

Sawtooth Waveforms
The positive ramp Sawtooth Waveform is the more common of the two waveform types with the ramp
portion of the wave being almost perfectly linear. The Sawtooth waveform is commonly available from
most function generators and consists of a fundamental frequency ( ƒ ) and all its integer ratios of even
harmonics only, 1/2, 1/4, 1/6 1/8 … 1/n etc. What this means in practical terms is that the Sawtoothed
Waveform is rich in harmonics and for music synthesizers and musicians gives the quality of the sound
or tonal colour to their music without any distortion.

Triggers and Pulses

Although technically Triggers and Pulses are two separate waveforms, we can combine them together
here, as a “Trigger” is basically just a very narrow “Pulse”. The difference being is that a trigger can be
either positive or negative in direction whereas a pulse is only positive in direction.
A Pulse Waveform or “Pulse-train” as they are more commonly called, is a type of non-sinusoidal
waveform that is similar to the Rectangular waveform we looked at earlier. The difference being that the
exact shape of the pulse is determined by the “Mark-to-Space” ratio of the period and for a pulse or
trigger waveform the Mark portion of the wave is very short with a rapid rise and decay shape as shown
below.

A Pulse Waveform
A Pulse is a waveform or signal in its own right. It has very different Mark-to-Space ratio compared to a
high frequency square wave clock signal or even a rectangular waveform.
The purpose of a “Pulse” and that of a trigger is to produce a very short signal to control the time at
which something happens for example, to start a Timer, Counter, Monostable or Flip-flop etc, or as a
trigger to switch “ON” Thyristors, Triacs and other power semiconductor devices.

What are Analog and Digital Signals?

Have you ever sat by the phone waiting for it to ring? Well, I guess we don't sit by the phone anymore
since we carry it with us wherever we go. Regardless, in anticipation of great news we all have probably
looked at the phone and mumbled, ''Come on, ring!'' When the telephone finally rang, we answered it,
connecting to the individual with the good news on the other end. As we speak into a microphone, sound
waves from our voice are transmitted by the telephone in the form of radio waves (both sound waves
and radio waves are analog signals), and when combined with digital signals, we begin moving data
along the telephone line. We will come back to our good news in a few minutes, but first let's define
analog and digital signals, and then discuss what happens during the conversation.
Analog Signal
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave (pictured below) and may vary in signal
strength (amplitude) or frequency (time). The sine wave's amplitude value can be seen as the higher and
lower points of the wave, while the frequency (time) value is measured in the sine wave's physical
length from left to right.
There are many examples of analog signals around us. The sound from a human voice is analog, because
sound waves are continuous, as is our own vision, because we see various shapes and colors in a
continuous manner due to light waves. Even a typical kitchen clock having its hands moving
continuously can be represented as an analog signal.
 Analog signal represented as a sine wave

Digital Signal
A digital signal - a must for computer processing - is described as using binary (0s and 1s), and
therefore, cannot take on any fractional values. As illustrated in the graphic below, digital signals retain
a uniform structure, providing a constant and consistent signal. Because of the inherent reliability of the
digital signal, technology using it is rapidly replacing a large percentage of analog applications and
devices. For example, the wristwatch, showing the time of day, with its minute, hour, and sweeping
second hands, is being replaced by the digital watch, which offers the time of day and other information
using a numerical display. A typical digital signal is represented below. Note the equally dispersed 1s
and 0s.

Digital signal with binary

 Electrical Circuit Elements
The interconnection of various Electrical Circuit Elements in a prescribed manner to form a closed path
is called an electric circuit. The system in which electric current can flow from source to load through one
path and after delivering energy at load the current can return to the other terminal of source through
another path is referred as electric circuit. The main parts of an ideal electric circuit are
1. Electrical Sources (for delivering electricity to the circuit and these are mainly electric generators and
batteries)
2. Controlling Devices (for controlling electricity and these are mainly switches, circuit breakers, MCBs,
and Potentiometer like devices etc.)
3. Protection Devices (for protecting the circuit from abnormal conditions and these are mainly electric
fuses, MCBs, Switchgear systems).
4. Conducting Path (to carry current one point to other in the circuit and these are mainly wires or
conductors)
5. Load
Thus Voltage and Current are the two basic features of an Electric Element. Various techniques by which
voltage and current across any element in any electric circuit are determined is called Electric Circuit

Analysis. In this figure shows a

simple Electric Circuit Containing
 A battery of 30 V
 A carbon resistor of 5kΩ
Due to this a current I flows in circuit and a potential drop of V volts across resistor.

Basic Properties of Electric Circuits

 A circuit is always a closed path.
 A circuit always contain an energy source which acts as source of electrons.
 The electric elements include uncontrolled and controlled source of energy, resistors, capacitors,
inductors, etc.
 In an electric circuit flow of electrons takes place from negative terminal to positive terminal.
 Direction of flow of conventional current is from positive to negative terminal.
 Flow of current leads to potential drop across the various elements.

Types of Electric Circuit

The electric circuit can be categorized in three different ways
1. Open circuit
2. Closed circuit
3. Short circuit

Open Circuit
If due to disconnection of any part of an electric circuit if there is no flow of current the circuit is said to

be open circuited.

Closed Circuit
If there is no discontinuity in the circuit and current can flow from one part to another part of the circuit
then the circuit is said to be closed circuit.
 Short Circuit
If two or more phases, one or more phases and earth or neutral of AC system or positive and negative
wires or positive or negative wires and earth of DC system touch together directly or connected together
by a zero impedance path then the circuit is said to be short circuited. Electric circuits can further be
categorised according to their structural features.
1. Series Circuit
2. Parallel Circuit
3. Series Parallel Circuit.

Series Circuit
When all elements of a circuit are connected one after another in tail to head fashion and due to which
there will be only one path of flowing current then the circuit is called series circuit. The circuit elements
are said to be series connected. In series electrical circuit same current flows through all element connected
in series.

Parallel Circuit
If components are connected in such a way that the voltage drop across each component is same is known
as parallel circuit. In parallel circuit the voltage drop across each component is same but the current
flowing through each component is different. The total current is the sum of currents flowing through each
element. An example of a parallel circuit is the wiring system of a house. If one of the lights burns out,
current can still flow through the rest of the lights and appliances. In a parallel circuit the voltage is the
same for all elements. When the resistors are connected in parallel:- To find the total resistance of all
components, add the reciprocals of the resistances of each component and take the reciprocal of the sum.
When the inductors are connected in parallel:- Total inductance of non-coupled inductors in parallel is
equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual inductances. When the capacitors
are connected in parallel:- The capacitors connected in parallel acts as series combination. The total
 capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual capacitances.

Types of Electric Circuit Elements

 Passive Element
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and the either converts it into heat or stored it
in an electric or magnetic field called Passive Element. Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc.

 Active Element
The elements which supply energy to the circuit is called Active Element. Examples: Include Voltage
and Current sources, Generators etc. Note: A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can
amplify the power of a signal. On the other hand, Transformer is not an active element because it does
not amplify the power and power remains same both in primary sides and secondary sides. Transformer
is an example of passive element.

 Bilateral Element
Conduction of current in both directions in an element with same magnitude is termed as Bilateral
Element. Example: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor etc.
 This figure shows a bilateral element can conduct from both sides and offers same resistance for current
from either side

 Unilateral Element
Conduction of current in one direction is termed as Unilateral Element. Example: Diode, Transistor
etc.

This figure shows the unilateral element. When diode is forward biased it offers very small resistance
and conducts. While when reverse biased it offers very high resistance and don't conduct.

 Lumped Elements
When the voltage across and current through the element doesn't vary with dimension of element, it is
called Lumped Elements. Example: Resistor connected in any electrical circuit.

 Distributed Element
When the voltage across and current through the element changes with dimension of element, it is called
Distributed Element. Example: Resistance of the transmission line.
What is Conductance?
When we apply same potential difference across different conductors, we will see different currents flow
through them. Actually how much current will flow through a specific conductor for certain applied
potential difference across it, depends upon a specific property of the conductor, called electrical
conductance. This property determines how easily a current can flow through a conductor. As we know
resistance is such a property of a conductor which resists the flow of current through it. That means,
electrical conductance is reciprocal property of resistance. Generally conductance is denoted as,

Definition of Electrical Conductance

Electrical conductance is defined as a special property of a conductor which determines how easily an
current can flow through it.

Equation or Formula of Electrical Conductance

Let us take a piece of conductor of length l and cross sectional area A. If length of the conductor is
increased, the electrons have to drift more paths. Hence more chance of inter atomic collision. That means
current gets much harder path to travel, means electrical conductance of the conductor is reduced. Thus
conductance is inversely proportional to length of the conductor.

If cross sectional area of conductor is increased then current gets more drift electrons. Hence, conductance
of the conductor is increased.

From equation (1) and (2)

,
Where, σ = constant of proportional known as conductivity or specific conductance.
Definition of Resistance
Electrical resistance may be defined as the basic property of any substance due to which it opposes
the flow of current through it. While a voltage is applied across any substance, current starts flowing
through it. But if we observe carefully, the current flows through the all substances are not equal even
when the same voltage is applied across each of the substances. This is because current carrying capacity
of all substances is not equal. The current depends upon the number of electrons' crosses the cross-section
per unit time. Again this number of electrons crossing the cross-section is dependable on the free electrons
available in the substances. If free electrons are plenty in a substance, the amount of current is more for
same applied voltage across the substances.
The current through a substance not only depends upon the number of free electrons in it, but also depends
upon the length of path an electron has to travel to reach from lower potential end to higher potential end
of the substance. In addition to that, every electron has to collide randomly with other atoms and electrons
in numbers of times during its traveling. So, every substance has a property to resist current through it and
this property is known as electric resistance. If one volt across a conductor produces one ampere of current
through it, then the resistance of the conductor is said to be one ohm (Ω).

Laws of Resistance
There are mainly two laws of resistance from which the resistivity or specific resistance of any substance
can easily be determined. One law is related to cross-sectional area of the conductor and other law is
related with its length.
As stated earlier, the current through any conductor depends upon number of electrons passes through a
cross-section per unit time. So if cross section of any conductor is large then more electrons can cross it
that means more current can flow through the conductor. For fixed voltage, more current means less
electrical resistance. So it can be concluded like that resistance of any conductor is inversely proportional
to its cross-sectional area.
If the length of the conductor is increased, the path traveled by the electrons is also increased. If electrons
travel long, they collide more and consequently the number of electron passing through the conductor
becomes less; hence current through the conductor is reduced. In other word, resistance of the conductor
increases with increase in length of the conductor.
 The laws of
resistance state that, Electrical resistance R of a conductor or wire is
1. directly proportional to its length, l i.e. R ∝ l,
2. inversely proportional to its area of cross-section, a i.e.

Combining these two laws we get,

Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or specific resistance of the
material of the conductor or wire. Now if we put, l = 1 and a = 1 in the equation,

We get, R = ρ. That means resistance of a material of unit length having unit cross - sectional area is equal
to its resistivity or specific resistance. Resistivity of a material can be alliteratively defined as the
electrical resistance between opposite faces of a unit cube of that material. Hence we have seen that laws
of resistance are very simple.

Unit of Resistivity
The unit of resistivity can be easily determined form its equation

The unit of resistivity is Ω-m in MKS system and Ω-cm in CGS system and 1 Ω-m = 100 Ω-cm.
What is Inductor?
Before knowing what is inductor we should first know the definition of inductance.

Definition of Inductance
If a changing flux is linked with a coil of a conductor there would be an emf induced in it. The property
of the coil of inducing emf due to the changing flux linked with it is known as inductance of the coil.
Due to this property all electrical coil can be referred as inductor. In other way, an inductor can be defined
as an energy storage device which stores energy in form of magnetic field.

Theory of Inductor
A current through a conductor produces a magnetic field surround it. The strength of this field depends
upon the value of current passing through the conductor. The direction of the magnetic field is found using
the right hand grip rule, which shown. The flux pattern for this magnetic field would be number of
concentric circle perpendicular to the detection of current. Now if we wound the conductor in form of a
coil or solenoid, it can be assumed that there will be concentric circular flux lines for each individual turn
of the coil as shown. But it is not possible practically, as if concentric circular flux lines for each individual
turn exist, they will intersect each other. However, since lines of flux cannot intersect, the flux lines for
individual turn will distort to form complete flux loops around the whole coil as shown. This flux pattern
of a current carrying coil is similar to a flux pattern of a bar magnet as shown.
Now if the current through the coil is changed, the magnetic flux produced by it will also be changed at
same rate. As the flux is already surrounds the coil, this changing flux obviously links the coil. Now
according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, if changing flux links with a coil, there would
be an induced emf in it. Again as per Lenz’s law this induced emf opposes every cause of producing it.
Hence, the induced emf is in opposite of the applied voltage across the coil.

Definition of Self Inductance

Whenever, current flows through a circuit or coil, flux is produced surround it and this flux also links with
the coil itself. Self induced emf in a coil is produced due to its own changing flux and changing flux is
caused by changing current in the coil. So, it can be concluded that self-induced emf is ultimately due to
changing current in the coil itself. And self inductance is the property of a coil or solenoid, which causes
a self-induced emf to be produced, when the current through it changes.

Explanation of Self Inductance of a Coil

Whenever changing flux, links with a circuit, an emf is induced in the circuit. This is Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction. According to this law,

Where, e is the induced emf. N is the number of turns. (dφ/dt) is the rate of change of flux leakage with
respect to time. The negative sign of the equation indicates that the induced emf opposes the change flux
linkage. This is according to Len’z law of induction. The flux is changing due to change in current of the
circuit itself. The produced flux due to a current, in a circuit, always proportional to that current. That
means,

Where, i is the current in the circuit and K is the proportional constant.

Now, from equation (1) and (2) we get,

The above equation can also be rewritten as

Where, L (= NK) is the constant of proportionality and this L is defined as the self inductance of the coil
or solenoid. This L determines how much emf will be induced in a coil for a specific rate of change of
current through it.
Now, from equation (1) and (3), we get,
Integrating, both sides we get,

From the above expression, inductance can be also be defined as, “If the current I through an N turn coil
produces a flux of Ø Weber, then its self-inductance would be L”. A coil can be designed to have a specific
value of self-inductance (L). In the view of self-inductance, a coil or solenoid is referred as an inductor.
Now, if cross-sectional area of the core of the inductor(coil) is A and flux density in the core is B, then
total flux inside the core of inductor is AB. Therefore, equation (4) can be written as

Now, B = μoμrH Where, H is magnetic field strength, µo and μr are permeability of free space and relative
permeability of the core respectively. Now, H = mmf/unit length = Ni/l Where l is the length of the coil.
Therefore,

Self Inductance Formula

Unit of Inductance

Which we derived at equation (3). Where, L is known is the self induction of the circuit. In the above
equation of inductance, if e = 1 Volt and (di / dt) is one ampere per second, then L = 1 and its unit is
Henry. That means, if a circuit, produces emf of 1 Volt, due to the rate of change of current through it,
one ampere per second then the circuit is said to have one henry self-inductance. This henry is unit of
inductance.

Mutual Inductance
Inductance due to the current, through the circuit itself is called self inductance. But when a current flows
through a circuit nearer to another circuit, then flux due to first circuit links to secondary circuit. If this
flux linkage changes with respect to time, there will be an induced emf in the second circuit. Similarly, if
current flows through second circuit, it will produced flux, and if this current changes, the flux will also
change. This changing flux will link with first coil. Due to this phenomenon emf will be induced in the
first coil. This phenomenon is known as mutual inductance. If current i 1 flows through circuit 1 then emf
e2 is induced in the nearby circuit is given by,

Where, M is the mutual inductance. If current i 2 flows through circuit 2, then emf e1 is induced in the

nearby circuit 1 is given by,

Defination of Mutual Inductance

Mutual inductance may be defined as the ability of one circuit to produce an emf in a nearby circuit by
induction when current in the first circuit changes. In reverse way second circuit can also induce emf in
the first circuit if current in the second circuit changes.

Coefficient of Mutual Inductance

Let’s consider two nearby coils of turns N1 & N2 respectively. Let us again consider, current i 1 flowing
through first coil produces φ 1. If this whole of the flux links with second coil, the weber-turn in the second
coil would be N2φ1 due to current i1 in the first coil. From this, it can be said, (N2φ1)/i1 is the weber-turn
of the second coil due to unit current in the first coil. This term is defined as co-efficient of mutual
inductance. That means, mutual inductance between two coils or circuits is defined as the weber-turns in
one coil or circuit due to 1 A current in the other coil or circuit.

Formula or Equation of Mutual Inductance

Now we have already found that, mutual inductance due to current in first coil is,

Again, if self inductance of first coil or circuit is L1, then,

Similarly, coefficient of mutual inductance due to current i 2 in the second coil is,
Now, if self inductance of the second coil or circuit is, L 2,

Now, multiplying (5) and (6), we get,

This is an ideal case, when the whole changing flux of one coil, links to another coil. The value of M
practically not equal to √(L1 L2) as because the whole flux of one coil does not link with other, rather, a

part of the flux of one coil, links with another coil. Hence practically,
This k is known as coefficient of coupling and this is the ratio of actual coefficient of mutual inductance
to ideal (maximum) coefficient of mutual inductance. If flux of one coil is entirely links with other, then
value of K will be one. This is an ideal case. This is not possible, but when K nearly equal to unity, that
means, maximum flux of one coil links to other, the coils are said to be tightly coupled or closely coupled.
But when no flux of one coil links with other, the value of K becomes zero (K = 0), then the coils are said
to be very loosely coupled or isolated.

Mutual Inductance of two Solenoids or Coils

Let us assume two solenoids or coils A and B respectively.
 Coil A is connected with an alternating voltage source, V. Due to alternating source connected to coil A,
it will produce an alternating flux as shown. Now, if we connect on sensitive voltmeter across coil B, we
will find a non zero reading on it. That means, some emf is induced in the coil B. This is because, apportion
of flux produced by coil A, links with coil B and as the flux changes in respect of time, there will be an
induced emf in the coil B according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This phenomenon is
called mutual induction. That means, induction of emf in one coil due to flux of other coil is mutual
induction.

Similarly, if the alternating voltage source was connected to coil B and induced voltage is measured by
connecting voltmeter across coil A, the voltmeter gives a non-zero reading. That means, in this case the
emf will be induced in coil A due to flux linkage from coil B. Let us consider coil A and B have turns N 1
& N2. If the entire flux of coil A links with coil B, then weber-turns of the coil B due to unit current of
coil A, would be (N2φ1)/i1, where, φ1 & i1 is flux and current of coil A. As per definition this is nothing
but mutual inductance of coil A and B, M. That is,

Similarly, if the current and flux of the coil B are i 2 and φ2.

Inductances in Series
Let’s coil or inductance A and B are connected in series. The self inductance of coil A , is L A and that of
coil B is LB. Now again consider, M is the mutual inductance between them. There may be two conditions.
1. The direction of flux produced by both coil will be in same direction. In that case, the flux of coil B
links will be coil A, will be in same direction with the flux produced by coil A, itself. Hence, the
effective inductance of coil A will be LA + M. At the same time, the flux of coil A, links with coil B
 will be in the same direction with the self flux of coil B. Hence, the effective inductance of coil B will
be LB + M. Hence total effective inductance of the series connected inductors A and B will be nothing
but,
2. Now, if the direction of instantaneous flux at coil A and B are in opposite, then flux of coil B linking
with coil A, will be in opposite direction of flux produced by coil A itself. So, effective inductance of
coil A will be LA - M. In the same way, the flux of coil A which links with coil B will be in opposite
direction of the self flux of coil B. Hence, effective inductance of coil B will be, LB - M. So, total
inductance in series in this case will be,
So, general form of equivalent inductance of two inductors in series in,
CAPACITANCE
We are now all very much familiar with the fact that static charges can be generated very easily, if we can
somehow apply sufficient frictional force between two bodies under consideration. For example, pulling
a transparent tape off a roll results in the separation of small amounts of positive and negative charge,
which can be accumulated separately within the two bodies. This particular phenomena gave rise to the

concept of capacitors, which is simply a device for charge storage. The earliest
th
written account of charging by friction dates back as far as the 6 Century BC, when a Greek scientist
named Thales of Miletus noted that, a piece of amber rubbed with animal fur acquired the ability to pick
up small bits of material. This is the result of charged particles For the next 2 million years, wherever the
subjects of electricity were studied, two different materials had to be taken and rub together to create a
separated island of positive and negative charges.
Now coming straight to Eighteenth Century Europe, where electricity was one of the major hot topics in
the field of Research and development, and many inventions were done with electrostatic machines that
generated charge by friction. While friction is an easy and inexpensive mean to separate charge for use in
electric experiments, the amount of charge available was quite small. If electricity was going to be
anything other than an irritating side effect of walking on the carpet, some means for increasing the amount
of charge available for experiments had to be found. The first device for storing charge or a capacitor was
discovered in the winter of 1745-46 by two electricians working independently: Firstly Dr. Ewald Georg
von Kleist a scientist from Poland built a device, consisted of a medicine bottle; partly filled with water
and sealed with a cork. A nail was then pushed through the cork into the water. Now holding the bottle in
one hand, the nail was brought in contact with the terminal of an electrostatic machine which allowed it
to acquire charge for some time. Then, when Dr. Von Kleist touched the nail to remove it from the stopper
while still holding the bottle, the separated charges were able to reunite by flowing through his body, and
he received a bitter shock, which later went on to become one of the biggest boons for mankind.
Simultaneously; another scientist from Holland, Sir Pieter Van Musschenbroek built his own device, and
the experiences with it were almost the same as Von Kleist's, but with three major exceptions. Firstly, a
visiting student Andreas Cunaeus to Pieter van’s laboratory made the shocking discovery,not van
 Musschenbroek himself. Secondly, he made many significant improvements to the device; one of them
being, removal of water and then wrapping the jar with metallic foil, inside out. And thirdly, he wrote to
his colleagues to tell them all about his new discovery. It was from this point, that the world came to know
about capacitors, and later on several papers were published and scientists all over the globe studied about
the capacitance of an electrical circuit at large, to develop a modern day capacitor, that we encounter
these days. So, to store more energy in a capacitor, the voltage across the element must be increased. This
essentially means that more electrons will be added to the negative plate, which is at the expense of
electrons being taken away from the positive plate, thus necessitating a flow of current from the positive
to negative direction. Conversely, the reverse is also true, as to release energy from a capacitor; the voltage
across it must be reduced sufficiently. This means some of the excess electrons on the negative plate must
be returned to the positive plate, thus reducing the value of current flowing through the element.

What is Capacitor?
Capacitor is a passive element that stores electric charge statistically and temporarily as an static electric
field. It is composed of two parallel conducting plates separated by non-conducting region that is called
dielectric, such as vacuum, ceramic, air, aluminum, etc. The capacitance formula of the capacitor is

represented by, C is the capacitance that is proportional to the area of the two conducting plates
(A) and proportional with the permittivity ε of the dielectric medium. The capacitance decreases with the
distance between plates (d). We get the greatest capacitance with a large area of plates separated by a
small distance and located in a high permittivity material. The standard unit of capacitance is Farad, most
commonly it can be found in micro-farads, pico-farads and nano-farads.

General uses of Capacitors

1. Smoothing, especially in power supply applications which required converting the signal from AC to
DC.
2. Storing Energy.
3. Signal decoupling and coupling as a capacitor coupling that blocks DC current and allow AC current to
pass in circuits.
4. Tuning, as in radio systems by connecting them to LC oscillator and for tuning to the desired frequency.
5. Timing, due to the fixed charging and discharging time of capacitors.
6. For electrical power factor correction and many more applications.

Charging a Capacitor
Capacitors are mainly categorized on the basis of dielectric used in them. During choosing a specific type
of capacitors for a specific application, there are numbers of factors that get considered. The value of
capacitance is one of the vital factors to be considered. Not only this, many other factors like, operating
voltage, allowable tolerance stability, leakage resistance, size and prices are also very important factors to
be considered during choosing specific type of capacitors.

We know that capacitance of a capacitor is given by, Hence, it is cleared that, by varying ε, A
or d we can easily change the value of C. If we require higher value of capacitance (C) we have to increase
the cross-sectional area of dielectric or we have to reduce the distance of separation or we have to use
dielectric material with stronger permittivity.
If we go only for the increasing area of cross-section, the rise of the capacitor may become quite large;
which may not be practically acceptable. Again if we reduce only the distance of separation, the thickness
of dielectric becomes very thin. But the dielectric cannot be made too thin in case its dielectric strength in
exceeded.

Reactance (unit – ohms) (Symbol X)

Reactance, unlike resistance, is usually undesirable in a circuit.
Whereas resistance is created by a resistor to achieve some effect, reactance is an unfortunate by-product
of certain electrical components.
There are two basic types of reactance: Capacitive reactance and inductive reactance. Appropriately
enough, capacitive reactance is created by capacitors, while inductive reactance is created
by inductors.
Using either of these device types in an AC circuit will introduce some reactance.
Like resistance, reactance is expressed in ohms, and it behaves in much the same way as resistance, in
the sense that it tends to restrict the flow of current through a circuit.
The formula for calculating inductive reactance is as follows:

XL = 2. p. f. L

XL = the inductive reactance (ohms)

X = the general electrical symbol for "reactance", and L is the symbol for "inductance", so put them
together and you get the reactance of an inductor.
f = the frequency of the AC flowing through the circuit (Hz)
L = the inductance of the inductor (henries).
The formula for capacitive reactance is similar, but there's a twist to it:

1
XC = -----------
2. p. f. C
XC = the capacitive reactance (ohms)
f = the frequency (Hz)
C = the capacitance of the capacitor (farads).

The two formulas for inductive reactance and capacitive reactance create interesting counterpoints.
Notice that for inductive reactance, as the frequency of the AC increases, so does the reactance. Higher
frequencies result in lower current.
The opposite is true of capacitive reactance: The higher the frequency of AC, the less reactance a
capacitor will present.
Similarly, a more inductive inductor will present more reactance, while a capacitor with more
capacitance will yield less reactance.
Impedance (unit – ohms) (Symbol Z)
Once you know the resistance and reactance of a circuit, the impedance is actually the overall
opposition to current presented by the circuit.
The impedance of a circuit is also expressed in ohms.
Unfortunately, you cannot simply add the resistance and the reactance to get the impedance.
The total impedance of a circuit is the square root of the sum of the squares of
the resistance and reactance.

Z = ( (R2) + (X2) )0.5

Z = impedance (ohms)
R = resistance (ohms)
X = reactance (ohms)

Inductance (unit – henry) (Symbol L)

Inductance is the ability of an inductor to store energy in a magnetic field.
Inductors generate an opposing voltage proportional to the rate of change in current in a circuit.
This property also is called self-inductance.
The quantitative definition of the self inductance L of an electrical circuit units (henries) is;

V = L di/dt

where v denotes the voltage in volts and i the current in amperes.

There are several voltage sources as well as current sources encountered in our daily life. Batteries, DC
generator or alternator all are very common examples of voltage source. There are also some current
sources encountered in our everyday life, such as photo electric cells, metadyne generator [Link] sources
can be categorized into two different types – independent source and dependent source.

Independent Voltage Source

Output of an independent source does not depend upon the voltage or current of any other part of the
network. When terminal voltage of a voltage source is not affected by the current or voltage of any other
part of the network, then the source is said to be an independent voltage source. This type of sources
may be referred as constant source or time variant source. When terminal voltage of an independent source
remains constant throughout its operation, it is referred as time–invariant or constant independent voltage
source .
Again independent voltage source can be time–variant type, where the output terminal voltage of the
source changes with time. Here, the terminal voltage of the source does not vary with change of voltage
or current of any other part of the network but it varies with time.

Independent Current Source

Similarly, output current of independent current source does not depend upon the voltage or current of
any other part of the network. It is also categorized as independent time-invariant and time-variant current
 source. Symbolic representations of independent time-invariant and time-variant voltage and current
sources are shown below.

Now we will discuss

about dependent voltage or current source. Dependent voltage source is one that's output voltage is the
function of voltage or current of any other part of the circuit. Similarly, dependent current source is one
that's output current is the function of current or voltage of any other parts of the circuit. The amplifier is
an ideal example of dependent source where the output signal depends upon the signal given to the input
circuit of the amplifier.

Dependent Voltage Source and Dependent Current Source

There are four possible dependent sources as are represented below,
1. Voltage dependent voltage source.
2. Current dependent voltage source.
3. Voltage dependent current source.
4. Current dependent current source.
Dependent voltage sources and dependent current sources can also be time variant or time invariant. That
means, when the output voltage or current of a dependent source is varied with time, referred as time
invariant dependent current or voltage source and if not varied with time, it is referred as time variant.

Ideal Voltage Source

Now we will discuss about ideal voltage source.
In every practical voltage source, there is some electrical resistance inside it. This resistance is called
internal resistance of the source. When the terminal of the source is open circuited, there is no current
flowing through it; hence there is no voltage drop inside the source but when load is connected with the
source, current starts flowing through the load as well as the source itself. Due to the resistance inside the
voltage source, there will be some voltage drop across the source. Now if any one measures the terminal
voltage of the source, he or she will get the voltage between its terminals which is reduced by the amount
of internal voltage drop of the source. So there will be always a difference between no-load (when source
terminals are open) and load voltages of a practical voltage source. But in ideal voltage source this
difference is considered as zero that means there would not be any voltage drop in it when current flows
through it and this implies that the internal resistance of an ideal source must be zero. This can be
concluded that, voltage across the source remains constant for all values of load current.
The V-I characteristics of an ideal voltage source is shown below.

There is no as such example of ideal voltage source but a lead acid battery or a dry cell can be considered
an example when the current drawn is below a certain limit.

Ideal Current Source

Ideal current sources are those sources that supply constant current to the load irrespective of their
impedance. That means, whatever may be the load impedance; ideal current source always gives same
current through it. Even if the load has infinite impedance or load, is open circuited to the ideal current
source that gives the same current through it. So naturally from definition, it is clear that this type of
current source is not practically possible.

Current Source to Voltage Source Conversion

All sources of electrical energy give both current as well as voltage. This is not practically possible to
distinguish between voltage source and current source. Any electrical source can be represented as voltage
source as well as current source. It merely depends upon the operating condition. If the load impedance is
much higher than internal impedance of the source, then it is preferable to consider the source as a voltage
source on the other hand if the load impedance is much lower than internal impedance of the source; it is
preferable to consider the source as a current source Current source to voltage source conversion or voltage
source to current source conversion is always possible.
Now we will discuss how to convert a current source into voltage source and vice-versa.
Let us consider a voltage source which has no load terminal voltage or source voltage V and internal
resistance r. Now we have to convert this to an equivalent current source. For that, first we have to
calculate the current which might be flowing through the source if the terminal A and B of the voltage
source were short circuited. That would be nothing but I = V / r. This current will be supplied by the
equivalent current source and that source will have the same resistance connected across it.

Similarly a current source of output current I in parallel with resistance r can be converted into an
equivalent voltage source of voltage V = Ir and resistance r connected in series with it.

Battery Cells
Battery is an electrical element where electrical potential is produced due to chemical reaction. Every
electrochemical reaction has its limit of producing electric potential difference between two electrodes.
Battery cells are those where these electro-chemical reactions take place to produce the limited electric
potential difference. For achieving desired electric potential difference across the battery terminals
multiple numbers of cells are to be connected in series. Hence it can be concluded like that, a battery is a
combination of several cells where a cell is a unit of a battery. For example, Nickel-cadmium battery
cells normally develop about 1.2 V per cell while lead acid battery develop about 2 V per cell. So a 12
volt battery will have total 6 number of cells connected in series.

EMF of Battery
If anyone just measures the electric potential difference between two terminals of a battery when load is
not connected with the battery, he or she will get the voltage developed in the battery when there is no
current flowing through it. This voltage is generally referred as electromotive force or emf of battery. It
is also referred as no-load voltage of battery.

Terminal Voltage of Battery

Terminal voltage of battery is the potential difference across its terminals when the current is being
drawn from it. Actually when load is connected with the battery, there will be load current flowing through
it. As a battery is an electrical equipment, it must have some electrical resistance inside it. Because of this
internal resistance of battery , there will be some voltage drops across it. So, if any one measures the
terminal voltage of the load i.e. terminal voltage of battery when load is connected, he or she will get
the voltage which is less than emf of the battery by internal voltage drop of the battery. If E is the emf or
no – load voltage of the battery and V is the terminal voltage of load voltage of the battery, then E – V =
internal voltage drop of the battery.
As per Ohm’s law, this internal voltage drop is nothing but the product of electrical resistance offered by
the battery and the current flows through it.

Internal Resistance of Battery

The entire resistance encountered by a current as if it flows through a battery from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal is known as internal resistance of battery.

Series Parallel Batteries

Battery cells can be connected in series, in parallel and as well as a mixture of both the series and parallel.

Series Batteries
When in a battery, positive terminal of one cell is connected with the negative terminal of succeeding cell,
then the cells are said to be series connected or simply series battery. Here, overall emf of the battery is
algebraic sum of all individual cells connected in series. But overall discharged current of the battery does
not exceed the discharged current of individual cells.

If E is the overall emf of the battery combined by n number cells and E 1, E2, E3, …………… En are the
emfs of individual cells. Similarly, if r1, r2, r3,
…………… rn are the internal resistances of individual cells, then the internal resistance of the battery
will be equal to the sum of the internal resistance of the individual cells i.e.

Parallel Batteries
When positive terminals of all cells are connected together and similarly negative terminals of these cells
are connected together in a battery, then the cells are said to be connected in parallel. These combinations
are also referred as parallel batteries . If emf of each cell is identical, then the emf of the battery combined
by n numbers of cells connected in parallel, is equal to the emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance

of the combination is, The current delivered by the battery

is sum of currents delivered by individual cells.

Mixed Grouping of Batteries or Series Parallel Batteries

As we said earlier, the cells in a battery can also be connected in mixture of both series and parallel. These
combinations are some time referred as series parallel battery . A load can require both voltage and
current more than that of an individual battery cell. For achieving the required load voltage, the desired
numbers of battery cells can be combined in series and for achieving the required load current, desired
numbers of these series combinations are connected in parallel. Let m, numbers of series, each containing
n numbers of identical cells, are connected in parallel.

Again assume emf of each cell is E and internal resistance of each cell is r. As n numbers of cells are
connected in each series, the emf of each series as well as the battery will be nE. The equivalent resistance
of the series is nr. As, m number of series connected in parallel equivalent internal resistance of that series
and parallel battery is nr / m.
Resistor
It is some time required to introduce electrical resistance in different circuit to limit the current through it.
Resistor is an element of circuit which does the same. Such as series connected resistor limits the current
flowing through the light emitting diode (LED). In addition to that resistors serve many other purposes
in electrical and electronic applications.
The most essential requirement of a resistor is that its value of electrical resistance should not vary with
temperature for a wide range. That means resistance variation with temperature must be as minimal as
possible for a wide range of temperature. In other word the temperature coefficient of resistance of must
be minimum for the materials by which a resistor is made of.

High Frequency Effects on Resistor

The effective resistance value of a resistor may be changed when it is subjected to alternating voltage. Not
only that the value of resistance varies with variation of frequency of supply voltage. This change of
resistance with frequency is called Boella effect. Actually it is not practically possible to make an ideal
resistor. Practically it may have some inductor and capacitance in addition to its resistance. Therefore,
the value of impedance of the resistor may vary with frequency. That is why a resistor is referred to be
used within its useful frequency range. Useful frequency range is defined as the highest frequency limit
beyond which the impedance of the resistor crosses its tolerance value.
High frequency effect on resistor depends upon its constructional feature. The impedance of wire-wound
resistor increases with frequency. On the other hand composition resistor reduces its impedance with
increasing frequency. The impedance of film resistors does not change up to 100 MHz and then it
decreases. Film resistors have the most stable high-frequency performance. The high frequency response
of a resistor may also depend up to some extend on diameter of the resistor. It is seen that smaller diameter
resistor has better frequency response. Because of that the length – diameter ration of high-frequency
resistors is between 4:1 to 10:1.

Voltage Coefficient of Resistance

The resistanceof a resistor may also vary sometime with applied voltage across it. This change is expressed
as a percentage of the resistance at 10 % of rated voltage. Thus the voltage coefficient of resistance is give

by Where, R1 is the resistance at the rated voltage V1 and

R2 is the resistance at 10 % of rated voltage V2.

Noise of a Resistor
Noise in a resistor is caused by its applied voltage, its physical dimensions, and materials by which it is
made of. The noise includes Johnson noise, noise due to flow of current, noise due to cracked bodies, and
 noise due to loosen end caps and leads of the resistor. For variable resistors the noise can also be caused
by the jumping of a moving contact over turns and by an imperfect electrical path between the contact and
resistance element. Johnson noise is thermal noise. This noise depends upon temperature but does not
depend upon frequencies. As this noise is same for all frequencies it is referred as “white noise”. The
magnitude of thermal noise is given by, Where, ERMS is the value of the
noise voltage (V) in rms, R is the resistance measured in ohm, k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10 – 23 J/K),
T is the temperature measured in Kelvin, and Δf is the bandwidth in Hz over which the noise energy is
measured.

Power Rating of Resistor

When current passes through a resistor there would be I2R loss and hence as per Joules law of heating
there must be temperature rise in the resistor. A resistor must be operated within a temperature limit so
that there should not be any permanent damage due high temperature. The power rating of resistor is
defined as the maximum power that a resistor can dissipate in form of heat to maintain the temperature
within maximum allowable limit. How much power a resistor will dissipate depends upon material,
dimensions, voltage rating, maximum temperature limit of the resistor and ambient temperature.

Voltage Rating of Resistor

This rating is defined as the maximum voltage that can be applied across a resistor due to which power
dissipation will be within its allowable limit. Actually voltage rating of resistor is related to the power

rating. As we know that power rating of resistor is expressed as Where, V is

the applied voltage across the resistor and R is the resistance value of the resistor in ohms. From above
equation it is clear that for limiting P, V must be limited for a particular resistor of resistance R. This V is
voltage rating of resistor of power rating P watts and resistance R Ω.

Types of Resistor
There are different types of resistor depending upon their construction, power dissipation capacities and
tolerance of the value. Such as
1. Carbon Composition Resistor
2. Metal Film Resistor
3. Carbon Film Resistor
4. Non Linear Resistor
5. Varistor
6. Thermistor

Carbon Composition Resistor

These types of resistor are very commonly used low cost resistor. The construction of carbon
composition resistor is very simple. It is also commonly referred as carbon resistor. It is mainly made
of carbon clay composition covered with a plastic case. The lead of the resistor is made of tinned copper.
The main advantages of these resistors are that they are easily available in local market in very low cost
and they are very durable too. But the main disadvantage is that they are very much temperature sensitive.
These resistors are available in wide range of values. It is available in as low as 1 Ω value and it is also
available in as high as 22 Mega Ω value. The tolerance range in resistance of carbon composition resistor
is of ± 5 to ± 20 %. Such resistor has a tendency of electric noise due to passage of electrical current from
one carbon particle to other. Where low cost is the main criteria of designing a circuit rather than it's
performance, these resistors are normally used.
These carbon resistors are provided with different colored band on their cylindrical body. These color
bands are code for the resistance values of carbon composition resistor along with their tolerance range.

Resistor Color Code

There are mainly four color bands provided on the body of resistors and each color indicates unique digit.
Such as Black ⇒ 0, Brown ⇒ 1, Red ⇒ 2, Orange ⇒ 3, Yellow ⇒ 4, Green ⇒ 5, Blue ⇒ 6, Violet ⇒ 7
Gray ⇒ 8, White ⇒ 9. The first and second color bands indicate a two digits number. The 3rd color band
indicates the power of ten as multiplier. The fourth band indicates the tolerance.

If fourth band is of
golden color the resistors may have ± 5 % tolerance in its value, if fourth band is of silver color, the resistor
must have ± 10 % tolerance and if there is no fourth band provided, then the carbon resistor may have ±
20 % tolerance in it's value.
Suppose we have a carbon composition resistor which has four color bands among which first band is
blue second band is yellow, third band is red and fourth band is golden. So from the above rule the first
digit of the number will be 6 ( as Blue ⇒ 6 ), the second digit of the number will be 4 ( as Yellow ⇒ 4 )
and the multiplier of this two digit number will be 10 2 ( as Red ⇒ 2 ). Hence, electrical resistance value
of the resistor will be 64 X 102 Ω. The tolerance of that value may be ± 5 % as the color of fourth band is
golden.

Video Presentation-Resistor Color Codes

Wire Wound Resistor

The construction of this type of resistor is also very simple. In wire wound resistor a wire of manganin
or constantan is wound around a cylinder of insulated material. The temperature coefficient of resistance
of these two materials is almost zero. So there would no resistance variation with temperature. The
wounded wire is covered with an insulating material such as baked enamel. This cover of insulating heat
resistible material is provided to resist the effect of ambient temperature variation. Different sizes and
ratings of wire wound resistor can easily be achieved by using different lengths and diameters of the wire.
These resistors are easily available for wide range of ratings. The range of resistance values varies from 1
Ω to 1 MΩ. Typical tolerance limit of these resistors varies from 0.01 % to 1 %. They can be used for high
power applications of 5 to 200 W dissipation ratings. The cost of these resistors is much higher than carbon
resistor. Normally wire wound resistor is used where carbon composition resistor cannot meet the purpose

because of its limitations.

The main disadvantage of this resistor is the inductor that arises because of its coil like structure. At high
frequency the behavior of the circuit may be changed due to its reaction. This problem can be solved if
one half of the wire is wound in one direction and other half in opposite direction so that the inductor due
to these two halves cancel each other hence net inductive effect of the resistor becomes nil. The non -
inductive wire wound resistor is ideal for high frequency circuit but it is costlier than an ordinary one.

Metal Film Resistor and Carbon Film Resistor

Basic structure of this type of resistor is constructed by means of film deposition technique of deposition
a thick film of resistible material such as pure carbon or metal on to an insulating core. The desired value
of resistance of metal film resistor or carbon film resistor can easily be obtained by either trimming the
layer of thickness or by cutting helical grooves of suitable pitch along its length. That means for different
resistance values, the length and depth of the helical grooves is maintained accordingly.

Metallic contact cap is fitted at both ends of the resistor. The caps must be in contact with resistible film
or helical grooves. The lead wires are welded to these end caps. Metal Film Resistor or Carbon Film
Resistor can be made up to a value of 10,000 MΩ and size of this type of resistor is much smaller than
wire wound resistor resistor. Because of their constructional features these resistor are fully non -
inductive. The accuracy level of metal film resistor can be of order ± 1 % and they are suitable for high
grade applications.
Carbon film resistor givers lower tolerances and smaller values of electrical resistance than those available
with metal film. However the carbon film posses a mildly negative temperature coefficient of resistance
which is very useful for certain electronic circuit.

Variable Resistor
The variable resistor means its resistance value can be changed at will. There is a rotating shaft or sliding
contact is provided so that by sliding the contact we can change the resistor value. Basically there we have
a resistance coil and by sliding the contact we change the position of the coil and hence the resistance
changes. Examples of such resistors are Potentiometer, Rheostat etc.

Symbol of Variable Resistor

Thermistor
This is a special resistor that is used in electrical circuit. The word means that it is thermal resistor. Its
resistance value changes with the change in the temperature value. Most of the thermistors have the
negative temperature coefficient which means its resistance will fall down when the temperature value
increases. The temperature coefficient may be positive as well. It is constructed by the use of various
metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper etc. Also it can be prepared from the semiconductor devices as well.
We can obtain a resistance upto a few mega ohms value. They are used to detect the small temperature
changes, when there is a temperature change, however small, there will be a large change in the value of
 the resistance. Also they are used for voltage stabilization and remote sensing.

Symbol of Thermistor

Non Linear Resistor

They are also known as varistors. They are popular for having the non linear V-I characteristics curve.
That is its resistance is not uniform and it does not obey OHM’s law. They are made of materials such as
silicon carbides, zinc oxide. They are of three types-
1. Silicon carbide disc type varistor.
2. Silicon carbide rod type varistor.
3. Zinc oxide type varistor.
Light Dependent Resistor
As the name suggests its resistance value depends on the intensity of light falling on it. This is made of
cadmium sulfide containing a very small number of electrons when not illuminated. When light ray of a
particular intensity falls on it electrons are ejected and hence the conductivity of it increases. That is it
offers low resistance when light falls on it and offers high resistance in the dark or no light condition.
They are only light dependent up to a wavelength of 680 nm. Mathematically we can say that, R = KE -α
Where, K and α are constant. R is the resistance value in ohm. E is the intensity of illumination in lux.
Symbol of Varistor
 Ohms Law | Equation Formula and Limitation of Ohms Law

The most basic quantities of electricity are voltage, current and resistance. Ohm's law shows a simple
relationship between these three quantities, hence this law can be considered as the most basic law of
electrical engineering. This simple, easiest to remember, three character law of electrical engineering helps
to calculate and analyze electrical quantities related to power, efficiency and [Link]'s law first
appeared in the book written by Georg Simon Ohm (German) in 1827.

Statement of Ohm’s Law

The statement of Ohm’s law is simple, and it says that whenever a potential difference or voltage is
applied across a resistor of a closed circuit, current starts flowing through it.
This current is directly proportional to the voltage applied if temperature and all other factors remain
constant. Thus we can mathematically express it as: Now putting the constant of proportionality
we get, This particular equation essentially presents the statement of this law where I is the current
through the resistor, measured in Ampere (Ampere, or amps), when the electric potential difference V is
applied across the resistor in unit of volt, and ohm(Ω) is the unit of measure for the resistance of the
resistor R. It’s important to note that the resistance R is the property of the conductor and theoretically has
no dependence on the voltage applied, or on the flow of current. The value of R changes only if the
conditions (like temperature, diameter length etc.) of the material are changed by any means.

History of Ohm’s Law

In the month of May 1827, Georg Simon Ohm published a book by the name ‘Die galvanischeKette,
mathematischbearbeitet’ meaning "The galvanic circuit investigated mathematically" where he presented
the relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (Ω) based on his experimental data. He
performed his experiment with a simple electro-chemical cell, as shown in the figure below.
1. There were two copper electrodes X and Y.
2. Reference electrodes A, B and C are partly immersed in electrolyte as shown.
3. A glass container is used to hold the for electrolyte, as shown.
 By observing the results of this experiment,
Georg Simon Ohm had defined the fundamental interrelationship between current, voltage and resistance
of a circuit which was later named Ohm’s law. Because of this law and his excellence in the field of
science and academics, he got the Copley Medal award in 1841. In 1872 the unit of electrical resistance
was named 'OHM" in his honor.

Ohm’s Law Physics

To understand the physics behind Ohm’s law in the most simplistic manner possible, let us have a look
at this picture below, and study it very closely.
From here we can draw the analogy that the person at the extreme left is the cause or the external force
due to which current (or the person in the middle) tends to flows across a particular circuit from one end
to the other in the direction of the applied voltage. Where as the one at the top is resistance, which increases
the difficulty for the cause to be fulfilled or in achieving end result. The more powerful the person at the
top is, or the greater the resistance, the more difficulty will be encountered by the current to flow through.
As a result, we will get less than expected. Or to increase the flow and get a greater required amount of
current in the presence of resistance, greater applied force or voltage needs to be applied. Thus from here
we can reach the conclusion that resistance, which is an inherent property of the conducting material, is
an independent parameter. And depending on it are the voltage and current, which are directly and
inversely proportional to it respectively.

This is the exact phenomena that occurs even at the molecular level, where a solid conductor contains free
electrons which carry negative charge. The atoms and ions are heavier in weight compared to the electrons
and therefore have no contribution towards flow of current. In fact they are barriers to the path of the
electron flow. These barriers are the real cause behind the resistance in a circuit. Let us look into it in
detail.
When, we apply a voltage V, between the leads of a resistor, we can expect a current, I = V/R to flow
through it. The way the electrons move through the solid material is a bit like the way toothpaste squeezes
along a tube or as shown in the comic picture above. The electrons keep being accelerated by the applied
static electric field or voltage. This means they acquire some kinetic energy as they move towards the +
Ve end of the piece of material (resistor). However, before they get very far they collide with an atom or
ion, lose some of their kinetic energy and may bounce back. Again due to presence of static electric field
the free electrons again accelerate. This keeps happening. As a result they tend to "drift" towards the + Ve
end, bouncing around from atom to atom on the way. This is illustrated in figure below.

This process of drifting or diffusing of electrons in the presence of static atoms and ions, is the exact
reason why materials resist current. This is the physics behind Ohm’s Law. The average drift velocity of
the electrons is proportional to the applied static electric field. Hence the current we get is also proportional
to the applied voltage. It thus explains why we need to constantly supply the energy to maintain the current.
The electrons need to be given the required kinetic energy to move them along, as it keeps being 'lost'
every time they interact with an atom. Now from law of conservation of energy we know, that the energy
of electrons lost due to collision is not vanished for ever, in fact it is taken up by the atoms, as it makes
them jiggle around and vibrate more furiously due to increased energy level. This increases the total
internal energy of the material and results in heat formation. As a result, we see here that electrical energy
is being converted into heat energy and dissipated as loss.
The rate of energy loss or the power dissipation, P, in the resistor can be calculated from the equation P =
VI. This equation makes sense since we can expect a higher voltage to make the electrons speed up more
swiftly, hence they have more energy to lose when they strike an atom. Doubling the voltage would double
the rate at which each electron picks up kinetic energy and loses it again by banging into the atoms.
The current we get at any particular voltage depends upon the number of free electrons that are able to
flow across, in response to the applied field. Twice the number of electrons would give us twice the
current. So it means twice as many electrons requiring kinetic energy to move them and collie with atoms.
 So, the rate at which the resistor 'eats up' electrical energy and converts it into heat is proportional to the
current also. i.e. the power dissipation (rate of energy loss) is P = VI.

Applications of Ohm’s Law

The applications of ohm’s law are that it helps us in determining either voltage, current or resistance of
a linear circuit when the other two quantities are known to us. Apart from that, it makes power calculation
a lot simpler, like when we know the value of the resistance for a particular circuit, we need not know
both the current and the voltage to calculate the power dissipation since P = VI. Rather we can use Ohm’s
Law.

To replace either the voltage or current in the above expression to produce the result

These are the applications of Ohm’s law as we can see from the results, that the rate of energy loss varies
with the square of the voltage or current. When we double the voltage applied to a circuit, obeying Ohm’s
law, the rate at which energy is supplied (or power) gets four times bigger. This phenomenon occurs
because increasing the voltage also makes the current rise by the same amount as it has been explained
above.

Limitation of Ohm’s Law

The limitations of Ohm’s law are explained as follows:
1. This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has unilateral elements like
diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for both directions of current.
2. Ohm’s law is also not applicable for non – linear elements.
Non-linear elements are those which do not give current through it, is not exactly proportional to the
voltage applied, that means the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage
and current. Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor, electric arc, etc.