1

Preface
Welcome to the exciting world of experimenting on the strength of materials. Great strides in the
world of mechanics have been achieved only through keen experimental observations.
Translating experimental observations to meaningful aspect of analytical understanding is not a
simple task. Even great minds in the field of mechanics have committed blunders and it took 200
years to develop an acceptable theory on the deflection of beams!
In a first course on Mechanics of Solids one learns the stress distribution on slender
members subjected to simple loading configurations. The cross-section of the slender member
and the loadings are carefully chosen such that plane sections remain plane before and after
loading. This considerably simplifies the analytical approach and thus you read torsion of circular
cross-sections and bending of rectangular beams / I beams etc.
It is worthwhile to note that in analytical development, torsion of rectangular cross-section
is postponed to a second level course in Mechanics of Solids primarily because plane sections
do not remain plane before and after loading! In beams, the flexure formula is valid only for a
beam subjected to pure bending. For all other cases, it is only approximate and the books term
the analysis for such beams as Engineering analysis of beams. This is because, the presence of
shear force violates the assumption that plane sections remain plane before and after loading.
Nevertheless, the solution based on flexure formula is acceptable from an engineering
standpoint. On the contrary experimental measurement of these complex problems are straight
forward and represents truth.

Prof. K. Ramesh

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General Guidelines

• Please read the details of the experiment given in the booklet thoroughly before you
come for the laboratory class.
• Come prepared with tables to enter raw data pertaining to your experiment.
Necessary guidelines to prepare the table for raw data is mentioned in this booklet.
• The table of raw data should be extensive and should contain all details of the
experiment including the initial readings so that any error in measurement could be
checked even at a later date.
• Raw data is to be entered in ink and at the end of the experiment get the signature of
the lab-incharge on it.
• There will be one report per group.
• One person has to write it and the other two must check it. Doing correct calculations
is important in this lab course. Otherwise one will not be able to draw right
conclusions. Difference of 10% in results is easily acceptable in experimental work.
Any mistake in calculation means – heavy penalty to checkers only.
• If you miss a lab, you will have to do the experiment separately and write the report
separately too.
Lab Report :- Lab report has to be formal, neatly written on good sheets in legible handwriting.
(i) Flower Garland Analogy :- A technical write-up can be compared with a flower garland
whose flowers are figures, graphs, pictures and equations. Your text works as a thread.
So, prepare your tables, figures and graphs before you start writing.
(ii) Graphs :- They are the most important elements of the report. A reader can easily grasp
the results through well prepared graphs. Graphs, figures and photographs must be
numbered as Fig.1, Fig.2, etc. with appropriate captions. The axes should be defined
completely. If there are more than one line on the graph, each line should be identified
clearly. Each figure should be called by the text.
Tables : Tables are also to be numbered and for each table give a title. Moreover a table
should be readable. Do not bring unnecessary details from the raw data.
Precise and to the point : A report should be precise but complete. Theory and experimental
details should be to the point. I do not want to see essays in theory and experimental details
Units : Only S.I. units please. There is a separate unit for a quantity. Force should be
represented in N, stress in MPa and modulus generally in GPa.
Tampering with data : Biggest crime in technical work is if you tamper with data. I will accept
any absurd data and still give you good marks. May be our instrument has gone bad on that
particular day and you are getting faulty readings. However, if I find you cheating – all the
members of the group will get zero in that report.

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Sign Convention

Imagine a hypothetical cut or section across the slender member. If either part of the member is
considered as an isolated free body, the force and moment required at the section to keep that part of the
member in equilibrium can be obtained by applying the conditions of equilibrium. In general, there will be
both a force and moment acting across the section as shown in the figure below.
The notation Fxx , …, etc., of the
components in the figure is used to indicate
both the orientation of the cross section and
the direction of the particular force or moment
component. The first subscript indicates the
direction of the outwardly directed normal
vector to the face of the cross section. The
cross-sectional face is considered positive
when the outward normal points in a positive
co-ordinate direction and negative when its
outwardly directed normal vector points in the negative coordinate direction. The second subscript
indicates the coordinate direction of the force or moment component. The equations presented in this
booklet follow the above sign convention.
In drawing the shear force diagram and bending moment diagrams various sign conventions are
used by different authors. The following sign convention is adopted in this booklet and the flexure formula
needs to be interpreted based on this sign convention.

Force or moment in the

positive direction on the positive face
is positive and on the negative face
the negative direction of these is
considered positive. This sign
convention is in tune with the general
sign convention mentioned previously.
In some books you may find
one of the sign conventions for either
shear force or bending moment will be
same as shown in the figure and the
other would be just the reverse. This
may modify the final equation. Always make it a habit to show the sign convention adopted along with the
SFD or BMD as shown above.

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Saint Venant’s Principle

Saint-Venant illustrated the principle which goes by his name by

experimenting on rubber bars and showed that if a system of self-
equilibrating forces is distributed on a small portion of the surface of the
bar, a substantial deformation will be produced only in the vicinity of these
forces.
In nutshell the principle states that for the purposes of analysis the
actual loading can be replaced by a statically equivalent system. The
disturbance thus introduced is local and its effect diminishes at distances
away from the point of loading. This could be better understood by the following.

Consider that a uniformly distributed load needs to be applied to a bar as shown.

Instead a concentrated load which is statically equivalent is applied at the end. The
rigorous solution to this problem by theory of elasticity reveals that the loading becomes
uniform at a distance b, which is the thickness of the specimen. Closer to the loading
one cannot estimate the stress by invoking P/A. This can be done only beyond b.
This principle finds wide application in the mathematical theory of elasticity and in
experimental work to design loading rigs.
In 1853, Saint-Venant presented his epoch-making memoir on torsion to the
French Academic composed of Cauchy, Poncelet, Piobert and Lamé.

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Qualitative Visualization of Stress Fields by Photoelasticity

Objective

To learn that one gets whole field information of certain stress fields in photoelasticity.

Visualization of Stress Fields

Spanner and Nut

1. View the model in a circular polariscope with white light as illumination.

2. Tighten the epoxy nut by the epoxy spanner. To simulate this put a light load at the far end of
the spanner.
3. Observe the formation of fringes. Slightly increase the load by lightly pressing the load pan,
observe how the fringes change.
4. Could you identify a correlation between the load applied and the formation of fringes?
5. Make a neat sketch of the fringes and label the fringes based on the colour code available at
the laboratory. Also record the finges using your Cell phone camera and attach it with your
report.
6. Can you comment what these fringes represent?

Other Models

Flex the polyurethane models given to you gently in various ways to visualize the stress
fields. Record them using your Cell phone camera and attach them with your reports with the
type of load that you have applied to them.

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Evaluation of Stress Field In a Beam Under Four Point Bending by

Photoelasticity

Objective

To study the whole field nature of the stress field in a beam under four point bending and to find
the normal stress variation over the depth of the beam.

Equipment Required

Rectangular beam made of birefringent material, Loading Equipment.

Fig.1 Loading Arrangement of the beam (Typical – the loading set up may vary)

Theory

Unlike other experiments you have done in this laboratory, you will see for the first time the
visualization of field nature of stress in this experiment. Photoelasticity uses light as a sensor and
the input and exit lights are analysed to evaluate the stress field in the model. Photoelasticity
directly gives only the contours of difference in principal stresses (σ1-σ2) and its orientation θ.
Usually a circular polariscope is used to determine the fringe order N corresponding to contours
of σ1-σ2. Using stress optic law, the fringe order is interpreted as difference in principal stresses
as,

NF
σ1 − σ 2 = σ (1)
t

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where, N is the fringe order, Fσ is the material stress fringe value and t is the model thickness.

The stress field in the case of a beam under pure bending is quite simple and the flexure
formula states
Mb σ E
=− xx = (2)
I zz y ρ

where Mb is the bending moment applied, Izz is the moment of inertia of the beam cross-section,
σ xx is the normal stress acting on plane x in the direction x, y is the distance of the fiber from the
centroidal axis, E is the Young’s Modulus of the beam material and ρ is the radius of curvature of
the bent beam.
Please note from Eq. (2) that σxx is a function of y but is independent of x. Theoretical
modeling reveals that σxx varies linearly over the depth of the beam and this needs to be verified
experimentally which is the purpose of this experiment.
Stress is a tensor and can be expressed with respect to any three mutually perpendicular
directions as

σ xx τ xy τ xz  σ 1 0 0 
  0 σ
 τ yx σ yy τ yz  or  2 0  (3)
 τ zx τ zy σ zz   0 0 σ 3 
 
(a) (b)

Please note that the above three mutually perpendicular directions are different for case(a)
and (b). Mathematical procedures exist on how to get (b) if (a) is given and vice-versa. This you
will learn as part of the course on Strength of Materials / Mechanics of Solids.
In the case of a slender beam in pure bending, the only stress component that exists is
σ xx and the stress tensor is

σ xx 0 0
 0 0 0  (4)

 0 0 0 

Using the symbolism used in Eq. 3(b) and combining Eq. (1) and Eq. (4) one gets

NFσ
σx = (5)
t

Thus, the experimental evaluation of normal stress variation over the depth of the beam
reduces to the evaluation of fringe order variation over the depth of the beam.

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Procedure

1. Set up the birefringent model to apply pure bending in the central section. Pure bending
means bending without shear and this occurs in a region where the bending moment is
constant.
2. Record the relevant distances to evaluate the bending moment acting on the beam.
3. Set the polariscope in dark field with circularly polarized light impinging on the model.
4. Apply a suitable load and view the model in white light.
5. Identify the zeroth order fringe.
6. Identify the fringe order gradient in the central section of the beam. Use the Color Code
displayed in the lab.
7. Measure the distance of the fringes (identify the tint of passage) from the bottom surface
of the beam.
8. Sketch in your note book, the isochromatic fringe pattern and label its numbers.
9. Using stress optic law, determine the distribution of normal stress over the depth of the
beam and compare it with theory.

Sample Table

Bending Moment(N-m)=
Load Applied = N Fσ =
Fringe Distance of fringe from Distance from Middle Normal Stress
Order Bottom Surface Surface,y σxx
N (mm) (mm) (MPa)

Points for Discussion

1. Is the stress field symmetric about the neutral axis?

2. On the sketch of fringe patterns drawn for the complete beam, mark the zone of validity
of flexure formula. Is experimental data away from this zone reliable?
3. If you are asked to find the material stress fringe value from your results, how do you go
about? Calculate the value and record it in your report.
4. The experiment is conducted on plastics. How do you correlate the results to metallic
specimen?*
4. Does Poisson’s ratio of the beam material has any influence on the formation of fringes?
(Hint: Fringe order is directly proportional to the thickness. Study how does beam
bending alters the thickness.)*

The typical material stress fringe value (Fσ )for various materials are:
Epoxy 12 N/mm/fringe; Polycarbonate 8 N/mm/fringe ; Polyurethane 0.3 N/mm/fringe

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Measurement of Stress - Introduction to Photoelasticity

Introduction

Photoelasticity is a whole field technique for visualizing and measuring stress fields in structures.
It can directly give the field information of difference in principal stresses and its orientation θ .
The method utilizes a bi-refringent model (usually made of plastics) of the actual
structure to view the stress contours due to external loading. The specimen under loading is
viewed in an equipment called polariscope. When white light is used for illumination, a colorful
fringe pattern reveals the stress distribution in the part. Qualitative analysis such as identification
of stress concentration zones, uniform stress regions etc., can be done quite easily.
Monochromatic light source for illumination enables better definition of fringes especially in
areas with dense fringes and is usually recommended for manual data reduction.
Though Photoelastic experiment is conducted on plastics, the results are directly
applicable for structures made of metals, as elastic constants do not influence stress and its
distribution for problems of plane stress and strain when the body force is constant.
Photoelasticity can also be applied for the study of prototypes. This comes in handy to
analyse problems such as measurement of assembly stresses and residual stresses. In such a case,
a thin birefringent coating is pasted on the prototype and light reflected from the model is
analysed.

Physical Principle Used in Photoelasticity

Certain non-crystalline transparent materials, notably some polymeric plastics are optically
isotropic under normal circumstances but become doubly refractive (for a single incident ray two
refracted rays are observed) or bi-refringent when stressed. This effect normally persists while
the loads are maintained but vanishes almost instantaneously or after some interval of time
depending on the material and conditions of loading when the loads are removed. Brewster first
observed this phenomenon of temporary or artificial bi-refringence in 1816. This is the physical
characteristic on which photoelasticity is based.

Formation of Fringes

Photoelasticity uses light as a sensor and fringe contours are formed along points where light
transmitted through the model is extinct. Interpretation of the fringe pattern to meaningful
representation of stress information is possible through the knowledge of crystal optics and
associated mathematics. In this brief note we shall see only the salient results and for the
derivation of the results one has to refer to detailed books on this subject.
The equipment used for Photoelastic analysis is called a polariscope. One uses basically a
polarized beam of light for data interpretation and hence the name polariscope. Polarised light is
obtained from a normal light source through the use of appropriate optical elements. The angular
positions of the optical elements dictates the state of polarization of light. Since these elements
can be rotated freely on their mounts, the polarization state of the incident light can be easily
controlled.

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Polarisation and Various States of Polarization

Most light sources consist of a large number of randomly oriented atomic or molecular emitters.
The light rays emitted from such a source will have no preferred orientation and the tip of the
light vector describes a random vibratory motion in a plane transverse to the direction of
propagation. If the tip of the light vector is forced to follow a definite law, the light is said to be
polarized.

Fig.1 Linearly Polarised Light Fig.2 Circularly Polarised Light

For example, if the tip is constrained to lie on the circumference of a circle, it is said to be
circularly polarized. If the tip describes an ellipse, it is said to be elliptically polarised. If the
light vector is parallel to a given direction in the wave front, it is said to be linearly or plane
polarised. Plane polarized light can be produced from a natural source by the following ways:
 Reflection
 Scattering
 Use of polarized sheet (Polariser, Analyser)
 Nicole’s prism

Plane Polariscope

One of the simplest optical arrangements possible is the plane polariscope in which, a plane
polarized light is incident on the model. A plane polariscope consists essentially of two
polarizing elements called the polarizer and analyzer. Although they have different names, these
elements are identical in nature and simply transmit plane-polarized light. The model to be
analyzed is placed between them.
Y
Source

P α X

Polarizer
F S
Fig.3 Arrangement for a Plane Polariscope
θ
α = 90°
β = 0°
Specimen
β A
Analyzer

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In a plane polariscope, one observes two sets of contours namely isochromatics and
isoclinics. When white light is used for illumination, isochromatics represent contours of constant
color. An isochromatic fringe passes through points of equal principal stress difference and are
usually numbered 0, 1, 2,… when the background field is dark.
When the polarizer axis coincides with one of the principal stress directions at the point of
interest, one can observe a dark fringe even in white light. When the polarizer-analyser
combination is rotated in unison, this black contour will also move. These are known as
isoclinics, which means contours of constant inclination. Isoclinics are usually numbered with
angles such as 0°, 10°,15° etc. The principal stress direction on all points lying on an isoclinic is a
constant. The zeroth fringe order of isochromatics will also be black but this will not change
when the polarizer-analyser combination is rotated.

Circular Polariscope

In this the incident light on the model is circularly polarized. Four optical elements are used in a
circular polariscope. In the order in which the light pass through them are
a) A Plane-polarizing element called the polarizer
b) A quarter wave plate, which is followed by the model
c) A second quarter wave plate and finally
d) A second plane-polarizing element called the analyzer.
In a circular polariscope, one has only one set of contours namely Isochromatics. The
background field could be either dark or bright. In dark field arrangement, fringes correspond to
0, 1, 2, … and in case of bright field arrangement, fringes correspond to 0.5, 1.5, 2.5,…etc.
y
P Source
o
S 90
F x
ξ Polarizer
F S
I Quarter
Wave plate ξ = 135°
θ η = 45°
F S
β = 0°
A η Specimen
II Quarter Fig.4 Arrangement for a
β Wave plate Circular polariscope
Analyzer

Stress-Optic Law

Consider a transparent model made of high polymer subjected to a plane state of stress. Let the
state of stress at a point be characterized by the principal stresses σ1,σ2 and their orientation with
reference to a set of axes. When the model is stressed, experiments show that the model becomes
doubly refractive and the directions of the polarizing axes in the plane of the model at any point
coincide with the directions of the principal axes at that point.
Stress-Optic law gives the relation between the stress information and isochromatic fringe
order N.

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NF
σ1 − σ 2 = σ (1)
t
where, Fσ is the Material Stress Fringe value, N is the Fringe Order and t is the Thickness of the
specimen.

Color Code

White light is useful if the isochromatic fringe orders are low i.e., 3 or less. Based on the colors
observed one can identify the value of the isochromatic fringe order. Sensitivity is further
augmented if observations are restricted to the positions of the purple bands — termed 'tints of
passage' for the first three fringe orders. These occur at very narrow, sharply defined purple
bands between red and blue fringes in the isochromatic pattern, and the positions of the tint-of-
passage fringes can be ascertained with high precision.
Color Code is useful to identify fringe gradient direction. Look at the color code
displayed in the Laboratory.

Additional Information

Video Course Site : [Link]

Pdf File of Video course Location: [Link]

From the site download the following file:

Experimental Stress Analysis - Course organisation and lecturewise contents
This provides link information to the various lectures.

Essential Lectures for Photoelasticity:

Lecture 1: Overview of Experimental Stress Analysis
Lecture 3: Stress, Strain and Displacement Fields (Relevant portion)
Lecture 4: Physical Principle of Strain Gauges, Photoelasticity and Moiré. (Relevant portion)
Lecture 17: Circular Polariscope (Relevant Portion)

Essential Lectures for Strain Gauges:

Lecture 1: Overview of Experimental Stress Analysis.
Lecture 4: Physical Principle of Strain Gauges, Photoelasticity and Moiré. (Relevant portion)
Lecture 32: Strain Sensitivity of a Strain gauge, Bridge sensitivity, Rosettes.

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Report Writing
A report must be concise (but complete) and readable. Generally a report is typed but due to our
limitations, it can be legibly handwritten preferably on bond papers. Attach the raw data to your
report. Although this is not a general practice it helps to verify your calculation.
A laboratory report is generally divided into sub-headings like objective, theory,
experimental details, results, discussion, conclusion and appendix. The objective is stated
concisely in a sentence or two. For the experimental work of this laboratory, only the important
definitions and theoretical results are to be presented. If you want to include a derivation,
present it in an appendix and make a reference of it in the main text. The report is generally
written for a technically trained person who may not be familiar with the work described in the
report. Hence, some information on the background and the methodology adopted need to form
part of the report. At the same time, in this busy world, one wants to reach the discussion and
conclusion sections without spending too much time in knowing the background.
One of the best ways to discuss results is to compare them either with the results of
other experimental results available in research papers or books or with theoretical predictions of
a model. The comparison is generally found effective if presented in a graph or through a table.
It is very important to present the data in a readable table. Show sample calculations
wherever necessary. Each table should be titled, too many columns crowd it and make it hard to
read and therefore only the relevant portion of the raw data should be included. For example,
initial reading of dial gauge is not carried to the formal text of the report; only the displacements
are reported.
Graphs are very useful and are important features of a report to understand the results at
a glance. Therefore, it pays to complete all the requirements of a graph; a suitable title should be
stated clearly and if there are more than one line on the graph, each line should be identified
properly. To make the graph readable, simple scales should be chosen for the axes and the
axes are to be labeled with appropriate units.
Since tables and figures are the main parts of the report, they should be prepared with
care and patience. All tables and figures (sketches, photographs and graphs) must be
numbered, i.e., Table 1, Table 2 etc. and Fig.1, Fig. 2 etc. They do not become part of the report
until they are referred to in the text. Only Figures and Tables referred in the text will be checked.
Since the writer spends hours in conducting the experiment and in reducing the data, he
is in a good position to bring the highlights of the results to the attention of the reader. Also, the
writer may discuss various aspects of the results such as limitations of the test equipments,
problems arose during the experimentation, likely places of large errors etc.

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Courtesy: Experimental Stress Analysis Note Book, Measurements Group, Inc., USA

Courtesy: Experimental Stress Analysis Note Book, Measurements Group, Inc., USA

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How to Avoid Errors in Comparing Experimental Results with

Theoretical Model

When you make measurements experimentally, the resulting value, if done carefully, is truth and
can be used as a benchmark to test the analytical model. In many instances you may not
measure force, torque or bending moment directly. You must clearly understand the functioning
of the force application system and verify whether you have adjusted the necessary aspects
suitably. If necessary draw the free body diagram of the system and check whether you are
adopting a correct procedure in calculating the force/torque or bending moment as the case may
be. If any distance measurement is involved, measure them with utmost care and always apply
statistical principles in measurement. Take a few readings and use its average for any
calculations.
Learn to be alert (difficult after a heavy lunch in the afternoon!) while doing the
experiment. One should have a rough idea of what would be the trend of the experimental
readings. For example if loading is increased, the deflection, stress or strain, should also
increase in the same proportion. The results for loading and unloading should be close enough!
If any deviation is observed you must make mid-course correction on the experimental
procedure.
In the laboratory, the choice of dimensions of the test specimens are so chosen that it
closely satisfies the assumptions made in the analytical model. Despite this, considerable
deviations could exist if you do the experiment for the first time. One of the most common
sources of error made by several students is the input that they feed to the analytical model.
This input mainly consists of force, length, and cross-sectional details. These are to be
measured and a careless approach in measurement could cost you dearly! For example if you
do not measure the cross-sectional details of the specimen carefully, the error can blow up since
I = bd3 /12 and any small error in d can blow up! On the other hand, the actual experimental
measurement of deflection, strain or stress may be quite accurate yet the comparison is poor
because input to analytical model is erroneous!

AM2540 Strength of Materials Laboratory - Course Material, IIT Madras