Periodic Table:
Alkali Metals, Alkali Earth metals, Actinoids, Transition Metals, Lanthanoids, Noble Gases
The most reactive metal is Francium. The most reactive nonmetal is Fluorine. The small number
refers to the number of atoms chemically combined. Mercury is a liquid metal. Bromine is a
non-metal liquid.
Elements:
Matter in its simplest form is an element. Elements are made up of the same types of
atoms. A substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler substances
by chemical methods.
Atoms:
An atom is the smallest possible particle that a substance can exist in.
Compounds:
Molecules that are made up of different types of atoms.
Molecule:
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically combined.
IT DOES NOT HAVE TO BE MADE UP OF THE SAME ATOMS UNLESS IT IS
CALLED AN ELEMENT.
Diatomic - 2 atoms chemically combined
Polyatomic - 3 or MORE atoms chemically combined
Triatomic - EXACTLY 3 atoms chemically combined
How to compare metal and non-metal:
1. H.M.P./ L.M.P (Melting point)
2. COE/ NOT A COE
3. Color + State/ Colour + State
4. Melts over a fixed temperature or a range of temperatures
Solvent vs. Solute:
A solvent is a substance that dissolves IN THE solute.
A solute is a substance that the solvent dissolves IN.
Properties of Solutions:
1. Homogeneous Mixture
Definition : Colour, density, physical and chemical properties are the same throughout
the mixtures.
2. No residue left after filtration
3. No separation of solute and solvent when left to stand
Properties of Suspensions:
1. Mixtures in which insoluble particles are suspended in a liquid or gas
(Immiscible)
DON'T SAY SOLUTE AND SOLVENT
2. Heterogeneous: Colour, density, physical, and chemical properties are NOT
THE same throughout the mixtures.
3. Melts over a RANGE OF temperature
Pure Substances:
Element Atoms/ molecules
Compound Different/Same types of atoms
Impure Substances – Mixtures:
Can be easily separated by physical methods
Solutions Completely dissolved in water e.g Air, Table salt dissolved in water, Alloy
Suspension Cannot completely dissolve e.g Oil and Water, Sugar and Salt
Solubility:
Maximum mass of solute that can dissolve in 100g of solvent at a given temperature.
Factors that affect Solubility:
1. Nature of the Solvent
2. The nature of the Solute
3. Temperature of the Solvent
AS THE TEMP. INCREASES, SOLUBILITY DECREASES (FOR GAS)
Saturated Solution:
It is formed when the maximum mass of solute is dissolved in a fixed volume of
solvent at a given temperature.
Solubility vs. Dissolving:
Solubility is how much can dissolve. Dissolving is how fast it can be dissolved
Dissolving:
The rate of dissolving is the MASS OF SOLUTE that dissolves in A FIXED MASS/ VOLUME OF
SOLVENT given a FIXED AMOUNT OF TIME.
Separation methods:
Physical separation methods - Evaporation, filtration, Magnetism, Sieving,
Crystallisation(Heating a liquid to separate the solids dissolved in the liquid)
Chemical separation methods-
Distillation
(Used to separate liquid mixtures and components with diff. BP. By heating the mixture,
the lower BP liquid will vaporize, then condense back into a liquid when it passes
through a cold tube and flows into a separate beaker)
Crystallization
Physical crystallization involves the transition of a substance from a liquid or gas
phase to a solid phase without any change in chemical composition, while
chemical crystallization involves the formation of crystals as a result of chemical
reactions between substances leading to the formation of new compounds.
Measuring stuff: Length = Metres
Mass = Kilograms
Time = Second
Temperature = Kelvin
Symbols:
Carcinogenicity- Causes cancer and damages the organs
Flammable- Catches fire easily and produces poisonous gases
when reacted with water and oil.
Pressurized Gas- May explode when heated, and may cause
oxygen deficiency if gas is leaked in an enclosed space.
Corrosive- May cause severe damage when in contact with body
parts.
Environmental toxicity- May cause harmful effects to the
environment
Light: Ray Model of light
1. Convergent Light Rays 2. Divergent Light Rays
Luminous & Non- Luminous:
Luminous- Emit light in all directions (Sun, fireflies, lamps, etc)
Non-luminous- Do not give off light on their own (Moon, humans, etc.)
When light is incident (a ray of light that is pointing towards and striking a surface),
On an object, it can undergo:
- Absorption
- Reflection
- Refraction
- Dispersion
Reflection Of Light:
White light consists of Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Purple, Indigo
Answering Technique: Why does an/a ____ appear _color_ under white (or other colors) light?
When white light is incident on the object, the pigments of the object absorb all the colors
except the color that the object appears to be. Only that color is reflected off the object into
the observer's eye. Therefore the object appears to be that color to the observer.
(Things appear black when they absorb all colors of the light and don’t reflect any color)
Color Mixing:
RED +BLUE= PURPLE
RED +GREEN= Yellow/ Brown
Types Of Mirrors:
1. Plane Mirrors (e.g. Periscopes) When it reflects an object, the size and proportion of the
object remain the same. However, it inverts the object (the object is flipped, like this: 22 l
55. The l is the mirror and 22 when reflected by the mirror is flipped to get 55) If There
are 2 plane mirrors, it does not invert.
2. Concave Mirror (Magnifying glass, Dentist Mirror) The images formed are magnified, and
the field of vision becomes smaller.
3. Convex Mirror (Rear View Mirrors, surveillance mirrors) The images formed are
diminished (smaller), and the field of vision is wider.
Convex Mirror Concave Mirror Plane Mirror
Ray Diagram of Light:
Reflection
Refraction Of Light:
The Bending of light as it passes from one medium to another of different optical densities.
Regular and Irregular Reflection:
Introduction to cells:
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It is the basic unit of life.
Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms:
Unicellular- Single-celled organisms that can carry out all the functions of the organism
Multicellular- Division Of Labour: Sharing of different functions in an organism among its
Cells
Tissues
Organs - Made up of different types of tissues
Systems (Organ)
Organism
Answering technique: It means the sharing of different functions in an organism
among its cells, tissues, organs, and systems, to ensure smooth running and
effective working of the different parts of the organism as a whole.
Parts of a cell (plant and animal)
1. Cell Membrane - Control the movement of substances in and out of the cell
2. Cell Wall (ONLY PLANT)- Gives the cell a regular shape, and prevents it from bursting
easily when placed in water.
3. Nucleus - Contains genetic material (DNA) and controls activities inside the cell
4. Cytoplasm - Jelly-like substance, that allows things in the cell to move around.
5. Ribosomes - Involved in Protein Synthesis
6. Mitochondrion [Singular -drion, Plural -dria] - Carries out cellular respiration. More
abundant in MORE METABOLICALLY ACTIVE CELLS (Muscle and liver)
Respiration equation: glucose+oxygen —> water+carbon dioxide + energy
7. Chloroplasts (ONLY PLANT)- Carry out photosynthesis.
8. Large Central Vacuole (ONLY PLANTS)- Contains cell sap, which is a solution of sugars
and dissolved minerals
9. Vacuole (ONLY ANIMALS)- Stores food and water substances
Plant Cell:
Animal Cell:
Plant VS Animal Cell:
Structures Plant Cells Animal Cells
Cell Wall Plant Cells are surrounded by cell Cell walls are absent in animal cells.
walls however
Chloroplast Some plant cells [e.g. leaf] have Chloroplasts are absent in animal cells
chloroplasts however
Vacuole A Plant cell has an LCB whereas An animal cell has numerous small
vacuoles