Chemistry
Module1
Atomic structure
1.1: Democritus Atomic view
2.2:Daltons Atomic theory
1.3:Thomson Atomic Model
1.4:Rutherfords Atomic Model
1.5:Bohrs Atomic Model
Introduction
Atoms, the fundamental building blocks of matter, have intrigued scientists and
philosophers for centuries. Understanding the structure of atoms is essential for comprehending
the behavior of elements and compounds. The concept of the atom has evolved significantly over
time, with various models proposed to explain its structure and properties. This module delves
into the fascinating journey of atomic models, highlighting key developments and discoveries
that have shaped our current understanding of the atom.
The study of atomic models begins with ancient Greek philosophers like
Democritus, who first suggested the existence of indivisible particles called "atomos." Fast
forward to the 19th century, and we encounter John Dalton's solid-sphere model, which laid the
groundwork for modern atomic theory. As we progress through the timeline, we'll explore J.J.
Thomson's plum pudding model, Ernest Rutherford's nuclear model, and Niels Bohr's planetary
model, each contributing unique insights into atomic structure.
This module focused on the basic knowledge of atomic structure, which provides
accurate and comprehensive description of atomic behavior. After the complexion of this
module reader will gain basic knowledge that how the today’s modern concept was raised with
in the changing of time.
Module No:1
Module Title:- Atomic structure
Module subtitles:-
1.1: Democritus Atomic view
2.2:Daltons Atomic theory
1.3:Thomson Atomic Model
1.4:Rutherfords Atomic Model
1.5:Bohrs Atomic Model
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this module, students will be able to:
1. Describe the historical evolution of atomic models.
2. Identify key contributions of scientists such as Dalton, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr,
and Schrödinger.
3. Explain the basic concept of the atomic structure.
Suggested allotment time: 5 Teaching hour
Learning Activities:-
1. Read hands out
2. Watch lecture related web vedios
3. Complete assignment
4. Complete personal information
Module 1.1
Do you know,What is the smallest particle that have separate existence in the world? Or What
would be the particle that can not be divisible in to other parts?
To give the answer of such type of questions, different philosopher and chemist give different
ideas and conclusion with experimental evidences one after another simply known their
coclusion in the form of atomic theory or model with their name given as follows.
Democritus Atomic view
You have shown wall made up of many bricks on above figure. As same as according to the
Democritus atom model, he stated that all matter that exists in the universe was made up of very
small indivisible particles and these particles are called atoms. Democritus told us that different
types of atoms have different types of properties, sizes, and shapes. It means the properties of the
atom are determined by their shape and size and also the properties of the substance they make
up.
Democritus believed that the whole universe was made up of atoms and empty spaces. he also
said that these atoms are always in constant motion. Atoms are non-destructible, eternal, and
non-divisible. he also told us that atoms cannot be created nor destroyed. The main fact of
Democritus’s theory was that it was mostly based on observation and reasoning more than
experimentation.
For deeper understanding open you tube links [Link] and watch.
Module 1.2
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory , From his own experiments and observations, as well as
the work of his peers, Dalton proposed a new theory of the atom. This later became known as
Dalton's atomic theory. The general tenets of this theory are as follows:
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of
different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements can combine in simple whole number ratios to form
chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Do you imagine how Dalton had been reached such conclusion??
In 1803 Dalton discovered that oxygen combined with either one or two volumes of nitric oxide
in closed vessels over water and this pioneering observation of integral multiple proportions
provided important experimental evidence for his incipient atomic ideas.
Dalton's atomic theory has been largely accepted by the scientific community, with the exception
of three changes. We now know that (1) an atom can be further subdivided, (2) all atoms of an
element are not identical in mass, and (3) using nuclear fission and fusion techniques, we can
create or destroy atoms by changing them into other atoms.
For deeper understanding open and you tube link [Link] and
watch.
ASSIGNMENT
Now, check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!
Learning Activity 1 Time:-7MIN.
Tick the correct option
Q1: Who first proposed the idea of the atom as an indivisible particle?
A) John Dalton
B) Ernest Rutherford
C) Democritus
D) Niels Bohr
Q2: What was the main difference between Democritus's and Dalton's atomic theories?
A) Democritus believed atoms could be created and destroyed, while Dalton did not.
B) Democritus believed atoms had internal structure, while Dalton considered them
indivisible.
C) Dalton's theory included the concept of isotopes, while Democritus's did not.
D) Dalton proposed that atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds, while Democritus did not.
Q3: If you were to apply Dalton’s atomic theory to explain why water and hydrogen peroxide
have different properties, which principle would you use?
A) The idea that atoms are indivisible.
B) The concept of fixed ratios of atoms in compounds.
C) The notion that atoms of the same element are identical.
D) The principle that atoms combine in random ratios.
Q4: Given the properties of gold and silver, how can Dalton's atomic theory help explain why
gold is more malleable than silver?
A) By analyzing the different atomic masses of gold and silver.
B) By examining the indivisibility of atoms in both metals.
C) By comparing the types of isotopes present in each metal.
D) By understanding the different atomic structures and bonding in each metal.
Q5: Evaluate the impact of Dalton’s atomic theory on the development of modern chemistry.
Which statement best summarizes its significance?
A) It was the first theory to incorporate the concept of atomic structure.
B) It introduced the idea that atoms of the same element can vary in mass.
C) It provided a comprehensive explanation for chemical reactions and the law of
conservation of mass.
D) It established that atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
Q6: Imagine you are developing a new atomic theory building on Dalton’s principles. What
additional concept would you introduce to explain isotopes?
A) The idea that atoms can be divided into smaller particles.
B) The existence of subatomic particles with varying masses.
C) The concept of atoms having different shapes and sizes.
D) The principle that atoms can change their elemental identity.
Thank you for completing your learning activity 1. Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
Module:1.3
Thomson Model of Atom
It was proposed by JJ Thomson, in 1898. According to this model, an atom possesses a spherical
shape in which the positive charge is uniformly distributed.
This model can be visualized as a pudding with plums or watermelon of positive charge with
seeds (electrons) embedded into it. Hence, it is also called plum pudding, raisin pudding, or
watermelon model.
Limitations of Thomson Model
Although this model was able to explain the overall neutrality of the atom, it was not consistent
with the results of later experiments, like the α-ray scattering experiment.
For deeper understanding open youtube link [Link] and watch.
Now, check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!
Learning Activity 2 Time:-5MIN.
Tick the correct option.
1. Who proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom?
A) Ernest Rutherford
B) Niels Bohr
C) J.J. Thomson
D) Albert Einstein
2. According to Thomson’s model, what is the atom composed of?
A) A dense nucleus surrounded by electrons
B) Electrons embedded in a positively charged "pudding"
C) Electrons orbiting a positively charged nucleus
D) Only electrons
3. If you were to describe Thomson’s atomic model to a friend using an analogy, which of
the following would be most appropriate?
A) A solar system with planets orbiting the sun
B) A muffin with raisins evenly distributed throughout
C) A solid sphere made of positive charge
D) A dense core surrounded by a cloud of electrons
4. Which of the following criticisms could be made about Thomson’s model based on later
discoveries?
A) It inaccurately predicted the distribution of positive and negative charges
B) It correctly described the arrangement of electrons
C) It accurately explained atomic spectra
D) It accounted for the existence of neutrons
Thank you for completing your learning activity 2. Check your work. Answers are at the
end of this module.
Module 1.4
Rutherford's Atomic Model
Having known that atom contains electrons and a positive ion, Rutherford proceeded to
perform experiments to know as to how and where these were located in the atom. In 1909
Rutherford and Marsden performed their historic Alpha Particle-Scattering Experiment, using
the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 1.6.
Lets you can imagine you are flying the paper rockets towards direction of wind
balowing?You can imagine the effects of winds on paper rockets. Or if you have take the
positive pole of one magnet near the same pole of another magnets. What kind of effects
would you observed?
Look at the picture, a stream of very highly energetic α-particles(positively charged
particle) from a radioactive source is directed against a thin gold foil provided with a circular
fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. Whenever an α-particle struck the screen, a tiny flash
of light was produced at that point.
You can see that most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil and thus
produced a flash on the screen behind it. This indicated that gold atoms had a structure with
plenty of empty space. To their great astonishment, tiny flashes were also seen on other portions
of the screen, some time in front of the gold foil. This showed that gold atoms deflected or
‘scattered’ α-particles through large angles so much so that some of these bounced back to the
source. This experiment was done by Rutherfords and Marsdens at first time so it is called
Rutherfords alpha particle experiment .
Can you conclude some logical argument from this above experimental
evidences?
Based on these observations, Rutherford proposed a model of the atom which is named after
him. This is also called the Nuclear Atom. According to it:-
(1)Atom has a tiny dense central core or the nucleus which contains practically the entire mass of
the atom, leaving the rest of the atom almost empty. The diameter of the nucleus is about 10–13
cm as compared to that of the atom 10– 8 cm. If the nucleus were the size of a football, the entire
atom would have a diameter of about 5 miles. It was this empty space around the nucleus which
allowed the α-particles to pass through undeflected.
(2) The entire positive charge of the atom is located on the nucleus, while electrons were
distributed in vacant space around it. It was due to the presence of the positive charge on the
nucleus that α-particle (He2+) were repelled by it and scattered in all directions.
(3) The electrons were moving in orbits or closed circular paths around the nucleus like planets
around the sun.
Limitations of Rutherford Model
According to classical electromagnetic theory, accelerated charged particles emit
electromagnetic radiation and hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the motion of the electron
which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collape in
the nucleus. So Rutherford model was not in accordance with classical electromagnetic and
could not explain the stability of an atom.
For deeper understanding open you tube links [Link] and
watch.
Now, check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!
Learning Activity 3 Time:-7MIN.
Tick the correct option
(1) What was the name of the experiment that led to the discovery of the nucleus?
A) Gold foil experiment
B) Oil drop experiment
C) Cathode ray experiment
D) Photoelectric effect experiment
(2) According to Rutherford’s model, where are the positive charges in an atom located?
A) Spread evenly throughout the atom
B) On the outer shell
C) In a dense central nucleus
D) Amongst the electrons
(3) Which of the following observations from the gold foil experiment supported the nuclear
model of the atom?
A) Most alpha particles passed through the foil with little or no deflection
B) All alpha particles were deflected back
C) Alpha particles were absorbed by the foil
D) No alpha particles passed through the foil
(4) TO propose a simple experiment or observation that could have challenged the validity of
Thomson's atomic model,which following statement is correct.
A) Observing deflected alpha particles using a gold foil
B) Measuring the charge-to-mass ratio of electrons
C) Conducting the Millikan oil drop experiment
D) Observing spectral lines from hydrogen atoms
(5) Which key experiment or observation supports the transition from Thomson’s to
Rutherford’s atomic model?
A) Observation of spectral lines
B) Cathode ray tube experiment
C) Discovery of the neutron
D) Gold foil experiment
(6) Contrast the electron distribution in Thomson's and Rutherford's models.
A) Both models place electrons in fixed orbits around a nucleus
B) Thomson's model distributes electrons throughout a positive sphere, while Rutherford's
model places electrons around a central nucleus
C) Both models describe electrons as forming a dense core
D) Thomson's model has no electrons, while Rutherford's model has electrons in a positively
charged sphere.
Thank you for completing your learning activity 3. Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
Module:1.5
Bohr’s Model of Atom
You have known already in last chapter that Rutherford’s atomic model have some
limitation. Rutherford’s nuclear model simply stated that atom had a nucleus and the negative
electrons were present outside the nucleus. It did not say anything as to how and where those
electrons were arranged. It also could not explain why electrons did not fall into the nucleus due
to electrostatic attraction. In 1913 Niels Bohr proposed a new model of atom which explained
some of these things and also the emission spectrum of hydrogen. Bohr’s theory was based on
Planck’s quantum theory and was built on the following postulates.
Postulate of Bohrs Theory
(1) Electrons travel around the nucleus in specific permitted circular orbits and in no others.
Electrons in each orbit have a definite energy and are at a fixed distance from the
nucleus. The orbits are given the letter designation n and each is numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. (or
K, L, M, etc.) as the distance from the nucleus increases.
(2) While in these specific orbits, an electron does not radiate (or lose) energy. Therefore in
each of these orbits the energy of an electron remains the same i.e. it neither loses nor gains
energy. Hence the specific orbits available to the electron in an atom are referred to as
stationary energy levels or simply energy levels.
(3) An electron can move from one energy level to another by quantum or photon jumps
only. When an electron resides in the orbit which is lowest in energy (which is also closest to
the nucleus), the electron is said to be in the ground state. When an electron is supplied
energy, it absorbs one quantum or photon of energy and jumps to a higher energy level. The
electron then has potential energy and is said to be in an excited state.
The quantum or photon of energy absorbed or emitted is the difference between the lower
and higher energy levels of the atom.
ΔE = Ehigh – Elow = hν ...(1)
where h is Planck’s constant and ν the frequency of a photon emitted or
absorbed energy.
(4) The angular momentum (mvr) of an electron orbiting around the nucleus is an integral
multiple of Planck’s constant divided by 2π .
Angular momentum = mvr = nh/ 2 h ...(2)
where m = mass of electron, v = velocity of the electron, r = radius of the
orbit ; n = 1, 2, 3, etc., and h = Planck’s constant.
By putting the values 1, 2, 3, etc., for n, we can have respectively the angular momentum
2h/ 2 π, 2h/2 π, 3h/2 π
There can be no fractional value of h/2π. Thus the angular momentum is said to be
quantized. The integer n in equation (2) can be used to designate an orbit and a
corresponding energy level n is called the atom’s Principal quantum number.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
Bohr’s model was not able to explain the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
It failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of atoms).
It is also failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic field on the spectra of
atoms)
For deeper understanding open youtube link [Link] and watch.
Now, check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!
Learning Activity 4 Time:-5MIN.
Tick the correct option.
(1) What key feature distinguishes Bohr’s model from Rutherford’s model?
A) Introduction of quantized energy levels for electrons
B) Discovery of the neutron
C) Concept of indivisible atoms
D) Model of atoms as solid spheres
(2) In Bohr’s model, how do electrons move around the nucleus?
A) Randomly throughout the atom
B) In fixed paths or orbits
C) Continuously emitting energy
D) At very low speeds near the nucleus
(3) Which of the following real-world analogies best describes Bohr’s model of the atom?
A) Bees buzzing around a hive
B) A marble embedded in putty
C) Planets orbiting the sun in fixed paths
D) A crowded marketplace
(4) Why might Bohr’s model be considered an improvement over Rutherford’s model?
A) It explains the stability of electron orbits
B) It accounts for the discovery of neutrons
C) It describes the atomic nucleus in detail
D) It includes a detailed description of chemical bonds
Thank you for completing your learning activity 4. Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
Answer key of activity/MCQ
Activity1
1 C
2 D
3 B
4 D
5 C
6 B
Activity2
1 C
2 B
3 B
4 A
Activity 3
1 A
2 C
3 A
4 A
5 D
6 B
Activity 4
1 A
2 B
3 C
4 A
References
Prakash Satya,Tuli G.D.,Basu S.K.& Madan [Link] inorganic Chemistry, ( voll
ii).[Link] & Company [Link].
Bahl Arun,Bahl B.S.& Tuli G.D.,The Essential of Physical Chemistry; [Link] & Company
[Link].