Radiographic Anatomy and 1.

Epithelial (ep-i-the' le-al): Tissues that

cover intemal and external surfaces of the
Physiology body, including the lining of vessels and
organs, such as the stomach and the
Anatomy intestines

► Anatomy (ah-nat'o-me) is the study of the 2. Connective: Supportive tissues that bind
structure and shape of the body and its together and support various structures
parts and their relationships to one another.
3. Muscular: Tissues that make up the
the term anatomy, derived from the Greek substance of a muscle
words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
4. Nervous: Tissues that make up the
Physiology substance of nerves and nerve centers

► Physiology (fiz'e-ol'o-je) is the study of Organs

how the body and its parts work or function
(physio = nature; ology = the study of). When complex assemblies of tissues are
joined to perform a specific function, the
► Like anatomy, physiology has many result is an organ. Organs usually have a
subdivisions. For example, neurophysiology specific shape.
explains the workings of the nervous
system, and cardiac physiology studies the Examples of organs of the human body are
function of the heart. the kidneys, heart, liver, lungs, stomach,
and brain.
It is the branch of biology that aims to
understand the mechanisms of living things. System

STRUCTURAL A system consists of a group or an

association of organs that have a similar or
ORGANIZATION common function. The urinary system,
consisting of the kidneys, ureters, bladder,
The lowest level of organization is the and urethra, is an example of a body
chemical level. system.

All chemicals necessary for maintaining life The total body comprises 10 Individual body
are composed of atoms, which are joined in systems.
various ways to form molecules. Various
chemicals in the form of molecules are
Organism
organized to form cells.

The four basic types of tissue are as The 10 systems of the body when
follows: functioning together make up the total
organism -one living being.
Levels of human structural
• The lymphatic system - lymph nodes,
organization.
lymph vessels, lymph glands, and spleen

Systemic Anatomy The six functions of the circulatory system

are as follows:
BODY SYSTEMS
1. To distribute oxygen and nutrients to the
The human body is a structural and cells of the body
functional unit made up of 10 lesser units 2. To carry cell waste and carbon dioxide
called systems. from the cells
3. To transport water, electrolytes,
These 10 systems include: hormones, and enzymes
4. To protect against disease
(1) Skeletal System 5. To prevent hemorrhage by forming blood
clots
The skeletal system is an important system 6. To help regulate body temperature
for the technologist to study.
(3) Digestive System
The skeletal system includes the 206
separate bones of the body and their The digestive system includes the
associated cartilages and joints. alimentary canal and certain accessory
organs. The alimentary canal is made up of
The study of bones is termed osteology, the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
whereas the study of joints is called small intestine, large intestine, and anus.
arthrology.
Accessory organs of digestion include the
The four functions of the skeletal system are salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
as follows: pancreas
.
1. To support and protect many soft tissues The two fold function of the digestive
of the body system is as follows:
2. To allow movement through interaction
with the muscles to form a system of levers 1. To prepare food for absorption by the
3. To produce blood cells cells through numerous physical and
4. To store calcium chemical breakdown processes
2. To eliminate solid wastes from the body
(2) Circulatory System,
(4) Respiratory System
The circulatory system is composed of the
following: The respiratory system is composed of two
lungs and a series of passages that connect
• The cardiovascular organs - heart, blood, the lungs to the outside atmosphere.
and blood vessels
The structures that make up the
passageway from the exterior to the alveoli The organs of reproduction in the female
of the lung interior include the nose, mouth, are the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and
pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tree. vagina.

The three primary functions of the The function of the reproductive system is to
respiratory system are as follows: reproduce the organism.

1. To supply oxygen to the blood and (7) Nervous System

eventually to the cells
2. To eliminate carbon dioxide from the The nervous system is composed of the
blood brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia, and
3. To assist in regulating the acid-base special sense organs such as the eyes and
balance of the blood ears. The function of the nervous system is
to regulate body activities with electrical
(5) Urinary System impulses that travel along various nerves.

The urinary system includes the organs that - Muscular System

produce, collect, and eliminate urine. The
organs of the urinary system consist of the The muscular system, which includes all
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. muscle tissues of the body, is subdivided
into three types of muscles: (1) skeletal, (2)
The four functions of the urinary system are smooth, and (3) cardiac.
as follows:
Most of the muscle mass of the body is
1. To regulate the chemical composition of skeletal muscle, which is striated and under
the blood voluntary control.
2. To eliminate many waste products
3. To regulate fluid and electrolyte balance The voluntary muscles act in conjunction
and volume with the skeleton to allow body movement.
4. To maintain the acid-base balance of the About 43% of the weight of the human body
body is accounted for by voluntary or striated
skeletal muscle.
(6) Reproductive System
Smooth muscle, which is involuntary, is
The reproductive system is made up of located in the walls of hollow internal organs
organs that produce, transport, and store such as blood vessels, the stomach, and
the germ cells. intestines. These muscles are called
involuntary because their contraction
The testes in the male and the ovaries in usually is not under voluntary or conscious
the female produce mature germ cells. control.
Transport and storage organs of the male
include the vas deferens, prostate gland, Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of
and penis. the heart and is involuntary but striated.
 The five functions of the integumentary
The three functions of muscle tissue are as system are as follows:
follows:
1. Regulate body temperature
1. To allow movement, such as locomotion 2. Protect the body, within limits, against
of the body or movement of substances microbial invasion and mechanical,
through the alimentary canal chemical, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation
2. To maintain posture damage
3. To produce heat 3. Eliminate waste products through
perspiration
(9) Endocrine System 4. Receive certain stimuli such as
temperature, pressure, and pain
The endocrine system includes all the 5. Synthesize certain vitamins and
ductless glands of the body. These glands biochemical such as vitamin D.
include the testes, ovaries, pancreas,
adrenals, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, General Terms
pineal, and pituitary. The placenta acts as a Radiograph: An image of a patient's
temporary endocrine gland. anatomic part(s), as produced by the action
of x-rays on an image receptor. If the
Hormones, which are the secretions of the radiograph is produced with the use of
endocrine glands, are released directly into traditional film-screen technology, the image
the bloodstream. is stored and displayed on film; if the
radiograph is produced via digital
The function of the endocrine system is to technology, the image is viewed and stored
regulate bodily activities through the various with the use of computers.
hormones carried by the cardiovascular
system. Radiography: The process and
procedures of producing a radiograph.
(10) Integumentary System
Radiograph versus x-ray film: In
The tenth and final body system is the practice, the terms radiograph and x-ray film
integumentary (in-teg"-umen'-tar-e) system, (or just film) are often used interchangeably.
which is composed of the skin and all However, x-ray film specifically refers to the
structures derived from the skin. These physical piece of material on which a latent
derived structures include hair, nails, and (non processed) radiographic image is
sweat and oil glands. stored. The term radiograph includes the
recording medium and the image.
The skin is an organ that is essential to life.
The skin is the largest organ of the body,
Image receptor (IR): The device that
covering a surface area of approximately
captures the radiographic image that exits
7620 cm2 and constituting 8% of total body
the patient; refers to both film-screen
mass in the average adult.
cassettes and digital acquisition devices.

Central ray (CR): Refers to the center-

most portion of the x-ray beam emitted from
the x-ray tube; the portion of the x-ray beam Four fundamental planes
that has the least divergence.
► Coronal plane
Radiographic examination or -separates the body into the anterior to
posterior.
procedure
►Transverse plane
A radiologic technologist is shown
-separates the body into superior and
positioning the patient for a routine chest
inferior.
examination or procedure.
Sagittal plane
A radiographic examination involves five
-separates the body into right and left
general functions:
segment.

1. Positioning of body part and alignment

Oblique plane
with the IR and CR
-separate the body at any angle between
the three planes.
2. Application of radiation protection
measures and devices
SECTION: "CUT" OR "SLICE"
3. Selection of exposure factors IMAGE OF BODY PART
(radiographic technique) on the control
panel Longitudinal sections - sagittal,
coronal, and oblique
4. Instructions to the patient related to - These sections or images run lengthwise
respiration (breathing) and initiation of the x- in the direction of the long axis of the body
ray exposure or any of its parts, regardless of the position
of the body (erect or recumbent).
5. Processing of the IR (film-based [analog] Longitudinal sections or images may be
and cassette-based [PSP] system) taken in the sagittal, coronal, or oblique
plane.
ANATOMIC POSITION
Transverse or axial sections (cross-
►The international standard anatomical sections)
position - Sectional images are at right angles along
any point of the longitudinal axis of the body
Body position: or its parts.
►Palms facing forward
►Arms at side Sagittal, coronal, and axial
►Limbs extended - images CT, MRI, and sonography images
►Erect are obtained in these three common
orientations or views
►Six inches Feet distance
PLANES OF THE SKULL Plantar
Plantar (plan'-tar) refers to the sole or
Base plane of skull posterior surface of the foot.
- This precise transverse plane is formed by
connecting the lines from the infraorbital Dorsal
margins (inferior edge of bony orbits) to the Foot Dorsal (dor-sal) refers to the top or
superior margin of the external auditory anterior surface of the foot (dorsum pedis).
meatus (EAM), the external opening of the
ear. Hand Dorsal also refers to the back or
posterior aspect of the hand (dorsum
Occlusal plane manus).
- This horizontal plane is formed by the
biting surfaces of the upper and lower teeth NOTE: The term dorsum (or dorsal) in
with jaws closed (used as a reference plane general refers to the vertebral or posterior
of the head for cervical spine and skull part of the body. However, when used in
radiography). relationship with the foot, dorsum (dorsum
pedis) specifically refers to the upper
Body Surfaces and Parts surface, or anterior aspect, of the foot
opposite the sole, whereas for the hand
(dorsum manus), it refers to the back or
TERMS FOR THE BACK AND FRONT
posterior surface opposite the palm.
PORTIONS OF THE BODY
Palmar
Posterior or dorsal
Palmar (pal'-mar) refers to the palm of the
- Posterior or dorsal refers to the back half
hand; in the anatomic position, the same as
of the patient, or the part of the body seen
the anterior or ventral surface of the hand.
when the person is viewed from the back;
includes the bottoms of the feet and the
Superior (cranial or cephalic)
backs of the hands as demonstrated in the
Toward the head end or upper part of a
anatomic position
structure or the body; above

Anterior or ventral
Inferior (caudal)
- refers to front half of the patient, or the part
Away from the head end or toward the lower
seen when viewed from the front; includes
part of the a structure or the body; below
the tops of the feet and the fronts or palms
of the hands in the anatomic position.
Anterior (Ventral)
Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
TERMS FOR SURFACES OF THE HANDS
AND FEET
Posterior (Dorsal)
Three terms are used in radiography to Toward or at the backside of the body;
describe specific surfaces of the upper and behind
lower limbs.
Medial
Toward or at the middle of the body; on the
inner side of Posteroanterior (PA) projection
- refers to a projection of the CR from
Lateral posterior to anterior.
Away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of ► Combines these two terms, posterior and
anterior, into one word, abbreviated as PA.
Intermediate The CR enters at the posterior surface and
Between a more medial and a more lateral exits at the anterior surface (PA projection).
structure
► Assumes a true PA without intentional
Proximal rotation, which requires the CR to be
Closed to the origin of the body part or the perpendicular to the coronal body plane and
point of attachment of a limb to the body parallel to the sagittal plane, unless some
trunk qualifying oblique or rotational term is used
to indicate otherwise.
Distal
Farther from the origin of a body part or the Anteroposterior (AP) projection
point of attachment of a limb to the body - refers to a projection of CR from anterior to
trunk posterior, the opposite of PA.

►Combines these two terms, anterior and

Superficial (external)
posterior, into one word. Describes the
Toward or at the body surface
direction of travel of the CR, which enters at
an anterior surface and exits at a posterior
Deep (internal)
surface (AP projection).
Away from the body surface, more intemal
► Assumes a true AP without rotation
Radiographic Projection unless a qualifier term also is used,
indicating it to be an oblique projection.
Projection is a positioning term that
describes the direction or path of the CR AP oblique projection
of the x-ray beam as it passes through the An AP projection of the upper or lower limb
patient, projecting an image onto the IR. that is rotated is called "oblique." This is not
a true AP projection and must also include a
Although the term position is used in the qualifying term that indicates which way it is
clinical setting, the term projection is rotated, such as medial or lateral rotation.
considered to be the most accurate term for
describing how the procedure is performed. PA oblique projection

A PA projection of the upper limb with

lateral rotation (from PA). (This is applicable
to both upper and lower limbs.)
Common Projection Terms
This projection is described as a PA
oblique. It must also include a qualifying Recumbent (reclining)
term that indicates which way it is rotated. Lying down in any position (prone, supine,
With a PA oblique projection, the CR enters or on side).
the surface and exits
• Dorsal recumbent: Lying on back
Mediolateral and lateromedial (supine).
projections
A lateral projection is described by the path • Ventral recumbent: Lying face down
of the CR. Two examples are the (prone).
mediolateral projection of the ankle and the
lateromedial projection of the wrist. The
medial and lateral sides are determined with
the patient in the anatomic position.
• Lateral recumbent: Lying on side (right or
Body Position left lateral).
In radiography, the term position is used in
two ways, first as general body positions, as 5. Trendelenburg position
described next, and second as specific body A recumbent position with the body tilted
positions. with the head lower than the feet.

General Body Positioning

The eight most commonly used general
body positions in medical imaging are as
follows:

6. Fowler's position
1. Supine
A recumbent position with the body tilted
Lying on back, facing upward.
with the head higher than the feet.

7. Sims' position (semiprone

position)
A recumbent oblique position with the
2. Prone patient lying on the left anterior side, with
Lying on abdomen, facing downward (head the right knee the left arm extended back.
may be turned to one side). and thigh flexed and down behind the

A modified Sims' position as used for

insertion of the rectal tube for barium enema
is shown.

8. Lithotomy position
3. Erect (upright)
An upright position, to stand or sit erect.
 body plane is perpendicular or at a right
angle to the IR.

Oblique body positions of the thorax,

abdomen, or pelvis are described by the
part closest to the IR or the body part from
A recumbent (supine) position with knees
which the CR exits.
and hip flexed and thighs abducted and
rotated externally, supported by ankle
Left and right posterior oblique (LPO and
supports
RPO) positions

SPECIFIC BODY POSITIONS Describe the specific oblique positions in

which the left or right posterior aspect of the
In addition to a general body position, the body is closest to the IR. A left posterior
second way the term position is used in oblique (LPO) is demonstrated in both
radiography is to refer to a specific body examples
position described by the body part closest
to the IR (oblique and lateral) or by the Right and left anterior oblique (RAO and
surface on which the patient is lying LAO) positions
(decubitus).
Refer to oblique positions in which the right
Lateral position or left anterior aspect of the body is closest
to the IR and can be erect or recumbent
Lateral position refers to the side of, or a general body positions. (A right anterior
side view. Specific lateral positions oblique [RAO] is shown in both examples.
described by the part closest to the IR or the
body part from which the CR exits. NOTE: These also can be described as PA
oblique projections if a position clarifier is
A right lateral position is shown with the added, such as an RAO or LAO position.
right side of the body closest to the IR in the
erect position. It is not correct to use these oblique terms
or the abbreviations LPO, RPO, RAO, or
demonstrates a recumbent left lateral LAO as projections because they do not
position. describe the direction or path of the CR;
rather, these are positions.
► A true lateral position is always 90°, or
perpendicular, or at a right angle, to a true
AP or PA projection. If it is not a true lateral, Decubitus (decub) position
it is an oblique position. The word decubitus literally means to "lie
down," or the position assumed in "lying
Oblique position down."*

Oblique position refers to an angled position ► This body position, meaning to lie on a
in which neither the sagittal nor the coronal horizontal surface, is designated according
to the surface on which the body is resting. The final group of positioning and related
This term describes a patient who is lying terms that every technologist should know
on one of the following body surfaces: back relates to various movements. Most of these
(dorsal), front (ventral), or side (right or left are listed as paired terms that describe
lateral). movements in opposite directions.

Right or left lateral decubitus position- Flexion versus extension

AP or PA projection - When a joint is flexed or extended, the
angle between parts is decreased or
In this position, the patient lies on the side, increased.
and the x-ray beam is directed horizontally
from anterior to posterior (AP) or from Flexion decreases the angle of the joint
posterior to anterior (PA). (see examples of knee, elbow, and wrist
flexions.)
The AP or PA projection is important as a Extension increases the angle as the body
qualifying term with decubitus positions to part moves from a flexed to a straightened
denote the direction of the CR. This position position. This is true for the knee, elbow,
is either a left lateral decubitus or a right and wrist joints, as is shown.
lateral decubitus. It is named according to
the dependent side (side down) and the AP Hyperextension
or PA projection indication. Extending a joint beyond the straight or
Dorsal decubitus position-left or right neutral position.
lateral
Abnormal hyperextension
In this position, the patient is lying on the A hyperextended elbow or knee results
dorsal (posterior) surface with the x-ray when the joint is extended beyond the
beam directed horizontally, exiting from the straightened or neutral position. This is not
side closest to the IR. a natural movement for these two joints and
results in injury or trauma.
The position is named according to the
surface on which the patient is lying (dorsal Normal flexion and hyperextension of
or ventral) and by the side closest to the IR spine, Flexion is bending forward, and
(right or left). extension is returning to the straight or
neutral position. A backward bending
Ventral decubitus position-right or left beyond the neutral position is
lateral hyperextension

In this position, the patient is lying on the Normal hyperextension of wrist

ventral (anterior) surface with the x-ray A second example of a special use of the
beam directed horizontally, exiting from the term hyperextension concerns the wrist,
side closest to the IR. where the carpal canal or carpal tunnel view
of the carpals is visualized by a special
Terms Related to Movements
hyperextended wrist movement
in which the wrist is extended beyond the Inversion is inward stress movement of the
neutral position. This specific wrist foot as applied to the foot without rotation of
movement is also called dorsiflexion the leg.
(backward or posterior flexion).
Valgus versus Varus
Acute flexion of wrist
An acute or full flexion of the wrist is Valgus describes the bending of the part
required for a special tangential projection outward or away from the midline of the
for a carpal bridge view of the posterior body. Valgus sometimes is used to describe
aspect of the wrist. eversion stress of the ankle joint.

Ulnar deviation versus radial deviation of Varus meaning "knock-kneed," describes

wrist the bending of a part inward or toward the
Deviation literally means "to turn aside" or midline. The term varus stress sometimes
"to turn away from the standard or course. is used to describe inversion stress
applied at the ankle Joint.
Ulnar deviation is to turn or bend the hand
and wrist from the natural position toward
the ulnar side, and radial deviation is toward
the radial side of the wrist. Medial (internal) rotation versus
lateral (external) rotation
Dorsiflexion versus plantar flexion of
foot Medial rotation is a rotation or turning of a
Dorsiflexion of foot To decrease the body part with movement of the anterior
angle (flex) between the dorsum (top of aspect of the part toward the inside, or
foot) and the lower leg, moving foot and median, plane.
toes upward.
Lateral rotation is a rotation of an anterior
Plantar flexion of foot Extending the body part toward the outside, or away from
ankle joint, moving foot and toes downward the median plane.
from the normal position; flexing or
decreasing the angle toward the plantar
(posterior) surface of the foot.

NOTE: See preceding page for dorsiflexion

of the wrist compared with dorsiflexion of
the foot. Abduction versus adduction

Eversion versus inversion

Eversion is an outward stress movement of
the foot at the ankle joint.
Abduction is the lateral movement of the shoulders. Depressing the shoulders is
arm or leg away from the body. lowering them.
Another application of this term is the
abduction of the fingers or toes, which Circumduction
means spreading them apart. means to move around in the form of a
circle. This term describes sequential
Adduction is a movement of arm or leg movements of flexion, abduction, extension,
toward the body, to draw toward a center or and adduction, resulting in a cone-type
medial line. movement at any joint where the four
Adduction of the fingers or toes means movements are possible (e.g., fingers, wrist,
moving them together or toward each other. arm, leg).

Supination versus pronation Rotation versus Tilt

Supination is a rotational movement of the

hand into the anatomic position (palm up in
supine position or forward in erect position).

This movement rotates the radius of the

forearm laterally along its long axis.

Pronation is a rotation of the hand into the

Rotate is to turn or rotate a body part on its
opposite of the anatomic position (palm
axis, the midsagittal plane of the entire
down or back).
body, including the head, is rotated.

Protraction versus retraction Tilt is a slanting or tilting movement with

respect to the long axis, demonstrates no
Protraction is a movement forward from a rotation of the head but a tilting (slanting) of
normal position. the midsagittal plane of the head, which
therefore is not parallel to the tabletop.
Retraction is a movement backward or the
condition of being drawn back.

Elevation versus depression

Elevation is a lifting, raising, or moving of a Body cavities

part superiorly.
►VENTRAL:
Depression is a letting down, lowering, or
moving of a part inferiorly. Thoracic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Example Shoulders are elevated when they Pelvic cavity
are raised, as when shrugging the
►DORSAL:
Spinal cavity
Cranial cavity

Other Body Cavities

Oral cavity and digestive cavity

The oral cavity, or the mouth, contains the

teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and
continuous with the digestive organs, which
open to the exterior at the anus.

Nasal cavity Located within and posterior

to the nose, the nasal cavity is part of the DIVISIONS OF THE ABDOMEN AND
respiratory system. PELVIS
•2 sagittal plane
Orbital cavities The orbital cavities (orbits)
in the skull house the eyes and present - Each midway between the ASIS and
them in an anterior position. MSP.

Middle ear cavities. The middle ear

cavities carved into the skull lie just medial
to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny •2 horizontal
bones that transmit sound vibrations to the
hearing receptors in the inner ears. - Tip of the 9th costal cartilage

- Superior margin of the iliac crest

Divisions of the abdomen and pelvis
QUADRANTS:

REGIONS

Transverse and midsagittal plane

intersecting at the navel
Body Landmarks

Body habitus

Habitus is simply a classification of the four

general shapes of the trunk of the human
body.