Chapter 32.2 - 32.

3
Topic 32.2: The Endocrine and Nervous Systems Act Individually and
Together in Regulating Animal Physiology & Topic 32.3: Feedback Control
Maintains the Internal Environment in Many Animals
An Overview of Coordination and Control
➢​ Animals have two major systems for coordinating and controlling responses to stimuli.
○​ Endocrine System
■​ Signaling molecules (hormones) are released into the bloodstream by endocrine
cells that are carried to all locations in the body.
■​ The endocrine system is especially well adapted for coordinating gradual changes
that affect the entire body, such as growth, development, reproduction, metabolic
processes.
○​ Nervous System
■​ Neurons transmit signals along dedicated routes connecting specific locations in
the body.
■​ Nerve impulses travel to specific target cells along communication lines which
consist of axons. They can act on other neurons, muscle cells, and on cells and
glands that produce secretions.
■​ The nervous system conveys information by the particular pathway the signal
takes.
■​ Communication in the nervous system usually involves more than one type of
signal.
●​ Nerve impulses travel along axons, sometimes over long distances, as
changes in voltage. In contrast, passing information from one neuron to
another often involves very short-range chemical signals. The transmission
in the nervous system is extremely fast (nerve impulses take barely a
second to reach the target and last only a fraction of a second.)
■​ The nervous system is well suited for directing immediate and rapid responses to
the environment, such as reflexes and other rapid movements.
○​ Different types of hormones cause distinct effects and only cells that have receptors for
a specific hormone respond. Depending on the receptors that cells have for that
hormone, it can affect one location or all throughout the body. It takes a while for the
hormone to be released but the effects are usually long-lasting and the hormones can be
in the blood for minutes or hours.
Regulation of Endocrine Signaling
➢​ The stimulus for endocrine cells to release hormones are different. Sometimes, organic
molecules trigger an endocrine response.
○​ Ex. high levels of glucose stimulate the pancreas to secrete insulin, a hormone that causes
a decrease in the level of glucose in the blood.
➢​ In other cases, the nervous system provides the stimulus for hormone release, a type of control
called neuroendocrine.
 ➢​ The hypothalamus controls most of the neuroendocrine
signaling in animals.
➢​ Some hormones are secreted in response to other hormones.
➢​ Negative feedback (aka feedback inhibition): maintains
homeostasis for a condition. If a system is moving away from
equilibrium, the negative feedback inhibition returns the system
to its original state.
○​ Ex. Agnostic Hormones: 1 hormone counters the effect of
the opposing hormone.
■​ Alpha cells in the pancreas secrete glucagon when
blood glucose levels are low to stimulate the liver to
breakdown glucagon and release glucose.
■​ Beta cells in the pancreas secrete insulin when
blood glucose levels are high to stimulate uptake of
glucose and formation of glucagon in the liver.
○​ Ex. Thermoregulation
■​ If your body temp falls, the blood vessels constrict so heat is conserved and the
sweat glands don’t secrete fluids. Shivering also generates heat → warms up body.
■​ If the temp rises, the blood vessels expand, so heat is lost to the environment. You
sweat and as the sweat evaporates, the heat is lost from the body.
○​ “If you get negative feedback you change something and till you get positive feedback.”
➢​ Positive feedback: amplifies responses and processes in the organism. Amplification occurs
when the stimulus is further activated which initiates an extra response that produces a system
change.
○​ “If you get positive feedback on something you keep doing it!”
○​ Ex. Fruit ripening: as ethylene is released the fruit ripens and the more riper the fruit, the
more ethylene is released. (One bad apple ruins a barrel)

Chapter 31.1 & 31.3

Topic 31.1: Plant Hormones Help Coordinate Growth, Development, and
Responses to Stimuli & Topic 31.3: Plants Respond to a Wide Variety of
Stimuli Other Than Light
➢​ A hormone is a signaling molecule that is produced in tiny amounts by one part of an
organism’s body and transported to other parts, where it binds to a specific receptor and
triggers responses in target cells and tissues.
➢​ Animal hormones are produced in small quantities and can travel through the circulatory
system.
➢​ Plant hormones are produced in large or small concentrations, don’t travel through the
circulatory system, act locally, and have many effects based on the life cycle.
The Discovery of Plant Hormones
➢​ A tropism is any growth response that
results in plant organs curving towards or
away from any stimulation.
➢​ Phototropism is the growth of a plant
towards light or away from light. The stems
(aka shoots) generally exhibit positive
phototropism (stems grow towards the
sunlight) that powers photosynthesis. On the
darker side grow faster than cells on the
brighter side.
➢​ Charles Darwin and his son Francis
conducted some experiments on
phototropism. (Image below)
​ ​ Plant Hormones
➢​ Auxin - Stimulates stem growth (in low
concentrations), involved in phototropism and
gravitropism, promotes lateral root growth and vascular
differentiation.
➢​ Cytokinin - Regulates cell division, promotes
lateral bud growth, stimulates seed germination.
➢​ Gibberellin - Stimulates stem growth, pollen and
seed development and germination.
➢​ Brassinosteroid - Promotes cell division in shoots
and root growth (in low concentration) and inhibits root
growth (in high concentrations)
➢​ Abscisic Acid - Inhibits growth and promotes
stomatal closure during drought
➢​ Ethylene - Promotes fruit ripening

Tropisms
➢​ Phototropism: Growth of a plant organ toward or
away from light.
➢​ Gravitropism: Shoots display negative
gravitropism (move the opposite as gravity). Roots
display positive gravitropism.
➢​ Thigmotropism: Vines have tendrils that coil
around structures when they contact them. Respond to
touch (Ex. Venus Fly Trap)
➢​ Drought: Dry, sunny days increase the rate of
transpiration and cause plants to lose more water than
they can take in. Close stomata, roll up to limit surface
area, drop leaves (response to ABA release)
➢​ Flooding: Too much water fills soil and oxygen gas is not available for respiration. Oxygen
deprivation → ethylene → apoptosis of cells in root cortex → empty tubes act as snorkels.
➢​ Salt Stress: There can be a water deficit in plants even if the soil has enough water. As the water
potential of the soil solution becomes more negative, the water potential gradient from soil to
roots is lowered, thereby reducing water uptake and growth. Also, too much sodium can be
toxic to the plant when the concentrations are too high.
➢​ Heat Stress: Excessive heat causes enzymes to denature, killing the [Link] stomata
cools the plant due to evaporative cooling (however also risks dehydration). Some plants
produce heat-shock proteins at high temperatures to protect other proteins from denaturing.
➢​ Cold Stress: At cold temperatures cell membranes become less fluid. In response to cold cells
alter the composition of the membrane to prevent freezing (more unsaturated fatty acids →
more fluid)