Study Notes: Body Systems and Physiology

Introduction to Body Systems and Homeostasis

 Living organisms have multiple body systems that work together to

maintain homeostasis (stable internal conditions).

 Anatomy: The physical structure of an organism.

 Physiology: The study of how body structure’s function and the

processes that occur within them.

 Key physiological processes covered:

1. Motor neuron function

2. Muscle cell contraction

3. The cardiac cycle

Neurons and Action Potentials

Types of Neurons

1. Sensory Neurons: Receive information from the external and internal

environment and transmit it to the brain.

2. Interneurons: Connecting neurons that integrate information and

facilitate communication within the nervous system.

3. Motor Neurons: Carry outgoing messages from the brain to muscles

or glands to trigger a response.

Neuron Structure and Function

 Neuron: A nerve cell responsible for transmitting signals in the

nervous system.

 Cell Body: Contains cellular organelles and processes incoming

signals.

 Dendrites: Branched extensions that receive signals from other

neurons.

 Axon Hillock: The junction between the cell body and axon where
action potentials are generated.

 Axon: The long extension that transmits electrical signals.

  Synaptic Terminals: The ends of the axon that form connections
(synapses) with other neurons or target tissues.

 Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers released at the synapse to

communicate with the next neuron or target cell.

 Living organisms have multiple body systems that work together to

maintain homeostasis (stable internal conditions).

 Anatomy: The physical structure of an organism.

 Physiology: The study of how body structure’s function and the

processes that occur within them.

 Key physiological processes covered:

1. Motor neuron function

2. Muscle cell contraction

3. The cardiac cycle

Neurons and Action Potentials

Types of Neurons

1. Sensory Neurons: Receive information from the external and internal

environment and transmit it to the brain.

2. Interneurons: Connecting neurons that integrate information and

facilitate communication within the nervous system.

3. Motor Neurons: Carry outgoing messages from the brain to muscles

or glands to trigger a response.

Neuron Structure and Function

 Neuron: A nerve cell responsible for transmitting signals in the

nervous system.

 Cell Body: Contains cellular organelles and processes incoming

signals.

 Dendrites: Branched extensions that receive signals from other

neurons.
  Axon Hillock: The junction between the cell body and axon where
action potentials are generated.

 Axon: The long extension that transmits electrical signals.

 Synaptic Terminals: The ends of the axon that form connections

(synapses) with other neurons or target tissues.

 Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers released at the synapse to

communicate with the next neuron or target cell.

Membrane Polarization and Resting Potential

 Neuron membranes are polarized, meaning there is a charge

difference across the membrane.

 Resting Membrane Potential: Around -70 mV, with the inside of the
neuron being more negative than the outside.

 Ion movement across the membrane changes this potential and

enables communication between neurons.

Ion Channels and Action Potential Generation

 Gated Ion Channels: Remain closed until activated by a specific

voltage (voltage-gated) or ligand (ligand-gated).

 Potassium (K+) Channels: When open, K+ exits the neuron, making

the inside more negative (hyperpolarization).

 Sodium (Na+) Channels: When open, Na+ enters the neuron,

making the inside more positive (depolarization).

 Threshold (-55 mV): If depolarization reaches this point, an action

potential is triggered.

Graded Potentials vs. Action Potentials

 Graded Potentials: Small, localized voltage changes that dissipate

over time; magnitude depends on stimulus size.

 Action Potentials: Large, uniform electrical signals that follow an all-

or-none response and propagate along the axon.

Phases of an Action Potential

1. Rising Phase (Depolarization): Voltage-gated Na+ channels open,

Na+ enters, and membrane potential rises to +62 mV.
 2. Falling Phase (Repolarization): Na+ channels close, K+ channels
open, K+ exits, and membrane potential decreases.

3. Undershoot (Hyperpolarization): K+ channels stay open too long,

making the inside more negative than -70 mV.

4. Refractory Period: Na+ channels inactivated, preventing immediate

re-firing and ensuring one-way action potential travel.

Neurotransmitter Release and Synaptic Transmission

 The goal of an action potential is to trigger the release of

neurotransmitters at the axon terminals.

 Voltage-gated Calcium (Ca²⁺) Channels open when the action

potential reaches the terminals.

 Calcium Ions (Ca²⁺) enter the terminal, bind to vesicles, and cause
neurotransmitter release via exocytosis.

 Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to

ligand-gated ionotropic receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.

Post-Synaptic Potentials

 Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP): Sodium (Na⁺) enters,

depolarizing the post-synaptic membrane (closer to threshold).

 Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (IPSP): Chloride (Cl⁻) enters,

hyperpolarizing the membrane (further from threshold).

 Post-synaptic cells integrate multiple EPSPs and IPSPs via summation

to determine if an action potential will fire.

Neurotransmitter Clearance

 To prevent continuous stimulation, neurotransmitters must be removed

from the synapse:

1. Enzymatic Degradation: Enzymes break down

neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholinesterase breaks down
acetylcholine).

2. Reuptake: Pre-synaptic neurons reabsorb neurotransmitters

using specialized transport channels.
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
There are three types of muscle within the body: skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac muscle.

 Smooth muscle is found within blood vessels and organs. Its

movement is involuntary and controlled by the autonomic nervous
system.

 Cardiac muscle is exclusive to the heart. Like smooth muscle, its

movement is involuntary and regulated by the autonomic nervous
system.

 Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control via the somatic nervous

system. It is attached to bones and functions by contracting and
relaxing to facilitate movement.

Muscle Structure

Each skeletal muscle consists of bundles of individual muscle fibers. Each

muscle fiber is a cell that contains:

 Numerous mitochondria

 Multiple nuclei

 Microtubules and intermediate filaments

 Endoplasmic reticulum

 Myofibrils, which consist of thin filaments (actin) and thick

filaments (myosin)

Sarcomeres and Striations

Skeletal muscle has a striated appearance due to the presence of

sarcomeres, the smallest contractile units. Key structural components of
sarcomeres include:

 Z-lines: Define the sarcomere boundaries and serve as attachment

points for actin filaments.

 M-line: Located at the center of the sarcomere, serving as the

attachment point for thick filaments.

 Overlapping regions: Areas where actin and myosin interact for

contraction.
The Sliding Filament Model

Muscle contraction occurs as actin and myosin slide past one another,
shortening the sarcomere without changing filament length. The process
includes:

1. Relaxed State: The sarcomere has distinct Z-lines, actin, myosin, and
the M-line.

2. Contraction: Actin filaments slide toward the M-line, decreasing

sarcomere length.

3. Full Contraction: Actin filaments overlap completely.

Myosin-Actin Interaction

The contraction cycle relies on myosin and actin interactions:

1. ATP Binding: Myosin binds ATP, transitioning to a high-energy state.

2. Cross-Bridge Formation: Myosin binds actin, hydrolyzing ATP into

ADP + Pi.

3. Power Stroke: Myosin releases ADP + Pi, pulling actin toward the M-
line.

4. Detachment: A new ATP molecule binds to myosin, breaking the

cross-bridge.

5. Cycle Repeats: Myosin binds to a new actin site, continuing

contraction.

Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction

Muscle contractions require ATP, which is generated through:

 Creatine Phosphate System: Provides energy for ~15 seconds by

transferring phosphate to ADP.

 Aerobic Respiration: Sustains contractions for ~1 hour using oxygen

and glucose.

 Anaerobic Respiration: Used when oxygen is limited, producing

lactic acid and lasting ~1 minute.

Rigor Mortis

Rigor mortis occurs postmortem due to sustained cross-bridge interactions:

  Increased calcium permeability triggers contractions.

 ATP depletion prevents cross-bridge detachment.

 Muscles remain rigid until decomposition breaks down actin-myosin

linkages (~72 hours).

Key Terms and Concepts:

1. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Required for muscle contraction, but

other molecules like calcium and regulatory proteins are also involved.

2. Tropomyosin: A protein that wraps around actin filaments and blocks

myosin-binding sites.

3. Troponin Complex: A group of proteins that bind with calcium and

cause tropomyosin to change shape, exposing myosin-binding sites on
actin.

4. Calcium Ions (Ca²⁺): Act as a key regulatory ion for muscle

contraction, binding to troponin to expose myosin-binding sites.

5. Motor Neuron: Delivers a stimulus to muscle fibers. Each neuron

controls multiple muscle fibers, forming a motor unit.

6. Motor Unit: A single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it
controls.

7. Transverse (T) Tubules: Extensions of the plasma membrane that

help propagate action potentials deep into muscle fibers.

8. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): A modified endoplasmic reticulum

that stores calcium ions.

9. Acetylcholine (ACh): A neurotransmitter that triggers muscle cell

depolarization by binding to ligand-gated ion channels.

10. Acetylcholinesterase: Enzyme that breaks down ACh in the

synaptic cleft to end the muscle contraction.

11. Excitatory Signal: The action potential generated in muscle

fibers due to ACh binding, leading to muscle contraction.

12. Twitch: A single cycle of contraction and relaxation in response

to one stimulus.

13. Recruitment: The process where more motor units are activated
to increase the force of a muscle contraction.
 14. Summation: When rapid stimuli lead to partial relaxation and
the forces from multiple twitches combine to create stronger
contractions.

15. Physiologic Tetanus: Prolonged muscle contraction without

relaxation due to rapid stimuli, resulting in maximum muscle tension.

16. Fatigue: When muscle fibers can no longer respond to stimuli,

due to aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

17. Reflex Arc: An involuntary, rapid response to stimuli that

bypasses the brain and is processed in the spinal cord. Example:
Knee-jerk reflex.

Important Points:

 Role of Calcium in Contraction: When calcium is released from the

SR, it binds to troponin, which shifts the tropomyosin, exposing the
myosin-binding sites on actin. This allows cross-bridge formation
between actin and myosin.

 Motor Units: Muscle contraction is controlled by motor units, which

consist of a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it activates.

 Acetylcholine and Muscle Contraction: ACh is released from motor

neurons, triggering muscle depolarization, leading to calcium ion
release and muscle contraction.

 T-Tubules and SR: T-tubules carry action potentials deep into the
muscle fiber, stimulating the SR to release calcium.

 Twitch, Recruitment, and Summation: Muscle contraction strength

can be increased by recruiting more motor units (recruitment) or by
rapid stimuli leading to summation, resulting in stronger contractions.

 Fatigue: Muscles eventually fatigue when they can no longer generate

contractions due to metabolic factors.

 Reflexes: Reflex arcs like the knee-jerk response are involuntary, rapid
muscle contractions coordinated by the spinal cord.

Key Terms and Concepts: CARDIAC MUSCLES

1. Cardiac Muscle: Muscle tissue found in the heart; striated,
branched, and interconnected by intercalated discs.

2. Intercalated Discs: Specialized connections between cardiac

muscle cells that allow for coordinated electrical signaling and
muscle contraction.

3. Autorhythmic: Cardiac muscle can contract without external

nervous system input, regulated by pacemaker cells in the SA
node.

4. Sinoatrial Node (SA Node): The pacemaker of the heart that

generates electrical impulses to initiate contraction.

5. Cardiac Cycle: The process of the heart contracting (systole)

and relaxing (diastole) to pump blood.

6. Systole: Contraction phase of the cardiac cycle.

7. Diastole: Relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle.

8. Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the heart per

minute, calculated as:
Cardiac Output=Heart Rate×Stroke Volume\text{Cardiac
Output} = \text{Heart Rate} \times \text{Stroke
Volume}Cardiac Output=Heart Rate×Stroke Volume

9. Heart Rate: The number of heartbeats per minute (normal

range: 60-100 bpm).

10. Stroke Volume: The amount of blood ejected by the heart

with each beat (approximately 70 mL in adults).

11. Valves: Structures that prevent blood from flowing

backward within the heart:

o Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: Found between atria and

ventricles; prevent backflow into the atria.

o Semilunar Valves: Found at the exits of the heart

(pulmonary arteries and aorta); prevent backflow into
ventricles.

12. Lub-Dub: The heart sounds made by the closure of the AV

and semilunar valves.
 13. Acetylcholine (ACh): A neurotransmitter that has an
inhibitory effect in cardiac muscle by binding to G protein-
coupled receptors and slowing the heart rate.

14. Atrioventricular Node (AV Node): Cells between the atria

that delay electrical impulses to ensure complete atrial
contraction before ventricles contract.

15. Purkinje Fibers: Specialized fibers that conduct impulses

to the ventricles, causing strong coordinated contractions.

16. Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): A test that measures the

electrical activity of the heart and displays the cardiac cycle,
helping identify irregularities.

Important Points:

 Heart Structure and Function:

o The heart is composed of four chambers: two atria and

two ventricles.

o Cardiac muscle is unique to the heart, striated like

skeletal muscle, but with branched fibers connected by
intercalated discs for coordinated contraction.

 Cardiac Cycle:

o The heart operates as a double pump: one side pumps

blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation), and the other
side pumps oxygenated blood to the body (systemic
circulation).

o Systole: Contraction phase, pumps blood out.

o Diastole: Relaxation phase, allows chambers to fill with

blood.

 Cardiac Output: The amount of blood the heart pumps per

minute. The formula to calculate cardiac output is:

Cardiac Output=Heart Rate×Stroke Volume\text{Cardiac Output}

= \text{Heart Rate} \times \text{Stroke
Volume}Cardiac Output=Heart Rate×Stroke Volume
 o Average stroke volume: 70 mL per beat.

o A healthy adult’s cardiac output is approximately 5 L/min.

 Valves:

o AV valves prevent blood from flowing back into the atria

during ventricular contraction.

o Semilunar valves prevent blood from flowing back into

the ventricles after contraction.

o The "lub" sound comes from the closing of AV valves,

while the "dub" sound comes from the closing of
semilunar valves.

 Electrical Conduction in the Heart:

o The SA node triggers the heartbeat and sends electrical

impulses through the atria, causing them to contract.

o The AV node delays the impulse to allow the atria to fully

contract before the ventricles are stimulated.

o Impulses are sent through bundle branches and Purkinje

fibers, leading to a strong contraction of the ventricles.

 Acetylcholine and Heart Rate:

o In cardiac muscle, ACh has an inhibitory effect and slows

heart rate by opening potassium channels.

 ECG (Electrocardiogram):

o ECG records the electrical activity of the heart, showing

the stages of the cardiac cycle.

o Variations in the ECG can help identify abnormalities in

the heart’s electrical conduction.

Mechanics of Circulation – Study Notes

Blood Vessels Overview

 Arteries: Elastic, strong vessels that carry blood away from the
heart. They have smooth muscle in their walls, allowing them
to change diameter.
  Arterioles: Smaller branches of arteries that lead to capillaries.

 Capillary Beds: Tiny, one-cell thick vessels where gas exchange

occurs. They are narrow enough to allow red blood cells to
pass in a single file line.

 Venules: Small vessels that collect deoxygenated blood from

capillaries.

 Veins: Larger vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to

the heart to be pumped to the lungs for reoxygenation.

Blood Flow Velocity and Pressure

 Velocity of Blood Flow:

o Fastest in the aorta (immediately after the heart).

o Slows down as it passes from arteries to arterioles.

o Slowest in the capillaries due to the vast total cross-

sectional area.

o Increases again as blood moves into venules and veins

because the total area is smaller.

 Blood Pressure:

o Greatest in the aorta and arteries, due to the force of

ventricular contraction.

o Pressure drops as blood moves through arterioles and

capillaries, reaching near zero in venules and veins.

Mechanisms Maintaining Blood Pressure

 Recoil of Artery Walls: After the ventricular contraction, the

artery walls stretch and then recoil, maintaining pressure to
push blood forward.

 Systolic Pressure: The pressure during ventricular contraction,

when the arteries expand as blood is pushed through.

 Diastolic Pressure: The pressure when the ventricles relax and

artery walls recoil. This pressure is still detectable and
important for circulation.

Vasoconstriction vs. Vasodilation

  Vasoconstriction: Contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls,
narrowing the vessel diameter, which increases pressure.

 Vasodilation: Relaxation of smooth muscle, widening the

vessel diameter, which decreases pressure.

Gravity and Circulation

 Gravity affects blood flow, especially in standing positions.

o In a standing position, the head is higher than the heart,

so pressure in the brain is lower than in the heart.

o If the pressure drop is too great, a fainting mechanism is

triggered, and the body collapses to a lying position,
which helps restore blood flow to the brain.

Key Concepts:

 Blood Flow Velocity: Fast in arteries → slowest in capillaries →

faster in veins.

 Pressure: Highest in arteries, lowest in veins.

 Systolic/Diastolic Pressure: Represents ventricular contraction

and relaxation.

 Vasoconstriction/Vasodilation: Mechanisms that control blood

pressure through changes in vessel size.