Network layer

application
 transport segment from transport
network

sending to receiving host data link

physical
network network

 on sending side network

data link
data link
physical
data link
physical

encapsulates segments physical network

data link
network
data link

into datagrams physical physical

 on receiving side, delivers network

data link
network
data link

segments to transport physical physical

network
data link

layer network
physical
application
transport
 network layer protocols network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

in every host, router data link

physical
physical physical

 router examines header

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-1
Two key network-layer functions
 forwarding: move packets analogy:
from router’s input to
appropriate router  routing: process of
output planning trip from source
to dest
 routing: determine route
taken by packets from  forwarding: process of
source to dest. getting through single
interchange
 routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-2

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-3

Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets forwarded using destination host address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams
2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-4

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so
routing algorithm rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
list range of addresses
dest address output link
(aggregate table entries)
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-5

Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range
Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-6
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1

11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2

otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-7
Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-8
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet  given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-9
Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-10

Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct control
of CPU
 packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-11

Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
 bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient bus
speed for access and enterprise
routers

Network Layer 4-12

Switching via interconnection network
 overcome bus bandwidth limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-13

Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

 buffering required when datagrams

Datagram (packets)arrive
can be lost
from fabric faster than the
due to transmission
congestion, lack of buffers
rate
 scheduling discipline chooses
Priority among
scheduling – who queued
gets best
datagrams for transmission
performance, network neutrality
Network Layer 4-14
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer
overflow!
Network Layer 4-15
 IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number 32 bits total datagram
header length head. type of length (bytes)
(bytes) ver length
len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
each router) 32 bit source IP address

upper layer protocol 32 bit destination IP address

to deliver payload to e.g. timestamp,
options (if any)
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
(variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of TCP
typically a TCP to visit.
 20 bytes of IP
or UDP segment)
 = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-16

 IP fragmentation, reassembly
 network links have MTU
([Link] size) -
largest possible link-level fragmentation:
frame

…
in: one large datagram
 different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
 large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net reassembly
 one datagram becomes
several datagrams
 “reassembled” only at …
final destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-17
 IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
 MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-18

IP addressing: introduction
[Link]
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, router
[Link]

interface [Link]
[Link] [Link]
 interface: connection
between host/router and [Link]
physical link [Link]
[Link]
 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
 host typically has one or
two interfaces (e.g., wired [Link] [Link]

Ethernet, wireless 802.11)

 IP addresses associated
with each interface [Link] = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-19

 IP addressing: introduction
[Link]
Q: how are interfaces
actually connected?
[Link]

A: we’ll learn about that [Link]

[Link] [Link]

in chapter 5, 6.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
[Link] [Link]

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-20

Subnets
 IP address: [Link]
subnet part - high order
bits [Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]
host part - low order
bits [Link]
 what ’s a subnet ? [Link] [Link]

device interfaces with subnet

same subnet part of IP
address [Link] [Link]

can physically reach

each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-21

Subnets
[Link]/24
[Link]/24
recipe [Link]

 to determine the [Link] [Link]

subnets, detach each [Link] [Link]

interface from its host [Link]

or router, creating [Link] [Link]

islands of isolated subnet

networks
 each isolated network [Link] [Link]

is called a subnet
[Link]/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-22
Subnets [Link]

how many? [Link] [Link]

[Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

Network Layer 4-23

IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
[Link]/23

Network Layer 4-24

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Windows: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
 UNIX: /etc/[Link]
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
 “plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-25

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
 can renew its lease on address in use
 allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
 support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-26

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
[Link]/24
server
[Link] [Link]

[Link] arriving DHCP

[Link] [Link]
client needs
address in this
[Link]
[Link] network
[Link]

[Link]/24

[Link] [Link]

[Link]/24

Network Layer 4-27

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: [Link] DHCP discover arriving
client
src : [Link], 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: [Link],67
DHCPyiaddr:
server [Link]
out there?
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: [Link], 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: [Link], 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: [Link]
address youID:can
transaction 654 use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: [Link], 68
Broadcast: OK. I’ll take
dest:: [Link], 67
yiaddrr: [Link]
that IP address!
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: [Link], 67
Broadcast: OK. You’ve
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
got that IPID:
transaction address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-28
DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
 address of first-hop router for client
 name and IP address of DNS sever
 network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)

Network Layer 4-29

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
IP
first-hop router, addr of
DHCP

DHCP Eth
Phy DNS server: use DHCP
DHCP
 DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP [Link] encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP UDP Ethernet
IP
Ethernet frame broadcast
DHCP

DHCP Eth router with DHCP
Phy server built into (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
router received at router running
DHCP server
 Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed to
DHCP

Network Layer 4-30

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
 encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into  client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DSN server, IP
address of its first-hop
router

Network Layer 4-31

 DHCP: Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home LAN) Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Relay agent IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = [Link]
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = [Link]
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = [Link]
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: [Link];
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: [Link];
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: [Link]
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "[Link]."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = [Link]
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-32

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 [Link]/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 [Link]/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 [Link]/23

Network Layer 4-33

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0
[Link]/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
[Link]/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
[Link]/16”

Network Layer 4-34

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
[Link]/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning [Link]/16
or [Link]/23”
[Link]/23

Network Layer 4-35

IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers [Link]
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-36

 NAT: network address translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 [Link]

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
[Link],different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
Network Layer 4-37
 NAT: network address translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far
as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one
IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus)

Network Layer 4-38

NAT: network address translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of

every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr

 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address,

port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair

 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in

dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-39

 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table 1: host [Link]
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from [Link], 5001 [Link], 3345 [Link], 80
[Link], 3345 to …… ……
[Link], 5001,
updates table S: [Link], 3345
D: [Link], 80
[Link]
1
S: [Link], 5001
2 D: [Link], 80 [Link]
[Link]
[Link] S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 3345
4
S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 5001 3 [Link]
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
[Link], 5001 [Link], 5001 to [Link], 3345

Network Layer 4-40

NAT: network address translation
 16-bit port-number field:
 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, e.g., P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

Network Layer 4-41

NAT traversal problem
 client wants to connect to
server with address [Link]
 server address [Link] local to [Link]
client
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr) ?
 only one externally visible NATed [Link]
address: [Link]
 solution1: statically configure [Link] NAT
NAT to forward incoming router
connection requests at given
port to server
 e.g., ([Link], port 2500)
always forwarded to [Link] port
25000

Network Layer 4-42

NAT traversal problem
 solution 2: Universal Plug and Play
(UPnP) Internet Gateway Device
(IGD) Protocol. Allows NATed [Link]
host to: IGD
 learn public IP address
([Link])
 add/remove port mappings
(with lease times) NAT
router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-43

 NAT traversal problem
 solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
 NATed client establishes connection to relay
 external client connects to relay
 relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to [Link]
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
[Link] NAT
router

Network Layer 4-44

ICMP: internet control message protocol

 used by hosts & routers

to communicate network- Type Code description
0 0 echo reply (ping)
level information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used by 3 6 dest network unknown
ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
 ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
 ICMP message: type, code 10 0 router discovery
plus first 8 bytes of IP 11 0 TTL expired
datagram causing error 12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-45

Traceroute and ICMP
 source sends series of  when ICMP messages
UDP segments to dest arrives, source records
 first set has TTL =1 RTTs
 second set has TTL=2, etc.
 unlikely port number stopping criteria:
 when nth set of datagrams  UDP segment eventually
arrives to nth router: arrives at destination host
 router discards datagrams  destination returns ICMP
 and sends source ICMP “port unreachable”
messages (type 11, code 0) message (type 3, code 3)
 ICMP messages includes
 source stops
name of router & IP address

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer 4-46
 IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-47

IPv6 datagram format
priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-48
Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
 options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-49

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
 no “flag days”
 how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-50
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-51

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-52