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Pharm Human Anatomy & Physiology Tissues 1

Chapter 3: TISSUES
❖ Tissues are a group of cells that have a similar structure and function, and work together to perform a
specific task within an organism. Tissues are the basic building blocks of organs and organ systems in
multicellular organisms.
❖ Study of tissue is called as Histology

Epithelial tissue
❖ Epithelial tissue covers the body's surfaces, both externally and internally, as well as lines many organs
and cavities.

The key characteristics of epithelial tissue are:

1. Cellular organization:
❖ Epithelial cells are tightly packed together, with little intercellular space.
❖ They are attached to a basement membrane, which provides structural support.

2. Polarity:
❖ Epithelial cells have a distinct apical (top) and basal (bottom) surface.
❖ This allows them to carry out directional functions like secretion and absorption.

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3. Avascular nature:
❖ Epithelial tissues do not have their own blood supply.
❖ They receive nutrients and oxygen by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

4. Regenerative capacity:
❖ Epithelial tissues have a high rate of cell division and renewal.
❖ This allows them to quickly repair damage and replace lost cells.

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Epithelial tissues perform a wide range of vital functions, including:

• Protection of underlying tissues
• Secretion of substances like mucus, enzymes, and hormones
• Absorption of nutrients, water, and other substances
• Filtration, as in the kidneys
• Sensory reception, as in the skin and taste buds

A. Simple Epithelial Tissue Subtypes:

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium
2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
4. Ciliated SCE
5. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
6. Transitional Epithelium

B. Stratified Epithelial Tissue Subtypes:

1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium
4. Stratified Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
5. Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
6. Non-Keratinized

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium: It consists of single layer of flat cells having centrally located nucleus.
❖ Location: It lines heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, air sacs of lungs, Bowman's capsule of
kidneys, and inner surface of the tympanic membrane (eardrum), forms epithelial layer of serous
membranes, such as the peritoneum.
❖ Function: Filtration (eg., kidneys), diffusion (eg., oxygen in lungs) osmosis, and secretion in serous
membranes.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: It consists of single layer of cube-shaped cells having centrally located
nucleus.
❖ Location: It covers surface of ovary, lines kidney tubules and smaller duct of many glands, and make
up the secreting portion of some glands like thyroid gland and the ducts of some glands, eg., the
pancreas.
❖ Function: It performs the function of secretion and absorption.

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium(non-ciliated): It consists of single layer of nonciliated column like cells with
nuclei near base of cells. It contains goblet cells and cells with microvilli in some locations.
❖ Location: It lines the gastrointestinal tract, ducts of many glands, and gall bladder.
❖ Function: Secretion and absorption.

4. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium: It consists of single layer of ciliated column like cells with nuclei near
base, contains goblet cells in some locations.
❖ Location: Lines a few portions of upper respiratory tract, uterine (fallopian) tubes, uterus, some
paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricles of the brain.
❖ Function: Moves mucus and other substances by ciliary action.

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5. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium: Appears to be stratified but is actually a single layer of irregularly
shaped columnar cells
❖ Location: Lining of respiratory tract, vas deferens
❖ Function: Secretion, ciliary action for movement of substances

6. Transitional Epithelium: Cells can change shape from cuboidal to squamous

❖ Location: Lining of urinary bladder, ureters.
❖ Function: Accommodate changes in volume and pressure

1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium: It consists of several layers of cells, Squamous cells form the apical layer
and several layers deep to it. Cells from the basal layer replace surface cells as they are lost regularly.
❖ Location: Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety lines wet surfaces,
such as lining of the mouth, esophagus, part of the epiglottis, part of pharynx and vagina, and covers
the tongue.
❖ Function: Protection and limited secretion.

2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium: It consists of two or more layers of cells in which the cells in the apical layer
are cube-shaped.
❖ Location: Ducts of adult sweat glands and oesophageal glands and part of male urethra.
❖ Function: Protection and limited secretion and absorption.

3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium: It consists of several layers of irregularly shaped cells; only the apical layer
has columnar cells.
❖ Location: part of urethra, large excretory ducts of some glands, such as oesophageal glands, small
areas in anal mucous membrane, and part of the conjunctiva of the eye.
❖ Function: Protection and secretion.

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4. Stratified Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium: Columnar cells that appear stratified but are not
❖ Location: Respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi)
❖ Functions: Mucus secretion, ciliary action to remove particles

5. Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Flattened, keratin-filled squamous cells

Cell shapes: Superficial cells thin and scaly
❖ Location: Epidermis of skin
❖ Functions: Protection, waterproofing, prevents dehydration

6. Non-Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Cells: Squamous cells without keratin

Cell shapes: Basal cuboidal, superficial squamous
❖ Location: Oral cavity, esophagus, vagina
❖ Functions: Protection, abrasion resistance

Glandular epithelium is a specialized type of epithelial tissue that is responsible for the production and
secretion of various substances. There are two main types of glandular epithelium:
1. Exocrine Glandular Epithelium: Cuboidal or columnar cells arranged in a secretory portion
• Function: Secrete substances to the body's surface or into a duct
❖ Locations: Sweat glands (in skin), Salivary glands (in oral cavity), Mammary glands (in breasts), Exocrine
pancreas (in digestive system), Lacrimal glands (producing tears), Mucous glands (in respiratory and
digestive tracts).
❖ Functions: Secretes substances to the body's external surfaces or into ducts
• Sweat (thermoregulation, lubrication)
• Saliva (digestion, lubrication, antimicrobial)
• Milk (nutrition for infants)
• Digestive enzymes (from pancreas)
• Tears (eye lubrication, antibacterial)
• Mucus (protect/lubricate epithelial surfaces)

2. Endocrine Glandular Epithelium:

• Cells: Scattered, hormone-secreting cells
• Function: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream

❖ Locations: Thyroid gland, Adrenal glands, Pituitary gland, Islets of Langerhans (in pancreas)
❖ Functions: Secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream
• Thyroid hormones (regulate metabolism)
• Adrenal hormones (stress response, blood pressure)
• Pituitary hormones (regulate other endocrine glands)
• Insulin, glucagon (regulate blood sugar) Pancreas

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue connects different organs or different parts of an organ.
Classification:
1. Loose Connective Tissue
❖ Areolar connective tissue
❖ Adipose tissue
❖ Reticular connective tissue
2. Dense Connective Tissue

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❖ Dense regular connective tissue

❖ Dense irregular connective tissue
❖ Elastic connective tissue
3. Specialized connective tissue
Solid matrix
❖ Cartilage (Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage)
❖ Bone tissue
Liquid matrix
❖ Blood tissue
❖ Lymph tissue

Loose connective Tissue

❖ Contains more cells and fewer fibers compared to dense connective tissue
❖ Allows more flexibility and movement
❖ Has abundant ground substance
❖ Rich in blood vessels
❖ Provides padding and support
1. Areolar Connective Tissue
Location: Just beneath skin surface, Around organs, Between muscle groups, Between muscles and skin
Function:
• Provides cushioning
• Allows movement between tissues
• Supports blood vessels and nerves
• Helps transport nutrients and waste
• Provides immune system support

2. Adipose Tissue (Fat Tissue)

Location: Under skin, Around organs, Between muscles, In bone marrow, Around joints
Function:
• Energy storage
• Thermal insulation
• Cushions and protects organs
• Provides mechanical support
• Produces hormones

3. Reticular Connective Tissue

Location: Lymph nodes, Bone marrow, Spleen, Liver
Function:
• Creates supportive network for cells
• Helps form structural framework
• Supports immune cell movement
• Assists in cell organization

Dense Connective Tissue

4. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• Fibers arranged in parallel lines
• Provides tensile strength
• Found in tendons and ligaments

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• Highly organized fiber orientation

• Connects muscles to bones (tendons)
• Connects bones to other bones (ligaments)
Location: Tendons (connecting muscle to bone), Ligaments (connecting bone to bone)
Function
• Transmits force between muscles and bones
• Provides strong, unidirectional resistance to tension
• Enables body movement
• Maintains joint stability

5. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

• Fibers arranged in multiple, random directions
• Provides multidirectional strength
• Found in skin, organ capsules
• Helps resist stress from different angles
• Provides structural support to organs
Location: Dermis (lower layer of skin), Joint capsules, Organ capsules, Periosteum (bone surface covering),
Perichondrium (cartilage covering)
Function
• Provides multidirectional structural support
• Resists mechanical stress from various angles
• Helps maintain organ shape
• Protects underlying structures
• Provides mechanical strength to tissues

6. Dense Elastic Connective Tissue

• Contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen
• Provides flexibility and ability to return to original shape
• Found in structures like vocal cords and certain blood vessel walls
• Allows stretching and recoiling
Location: Vocal cord walls, Elastic arteries (like aorta), Lung tissue, Certain ligaments (like ligamentum flavum
in spine)
Function:
• Allows stretching and recoiling
• Maintains tissue elasticity
• Helps in sound production (vocal cords)
• Enables blood vessel expansion and contraction
• Provides flexibility with strength

Specialized Connective Tissue

Bone
• Rigid, mineralized connective tissue
• Contains osteocytes embedded in a matrix of collagen and calcium salts

Functions
o Provides structural support and protection for organs
o Facilitates movement and leverage through attachment to muscles
o Stores minerals like calcium and phosphorus

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o Houses red and yellow bone marrow for blood cell production
Cartilage
❖ Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found throughout the body that provides support, cushioning, and
smooth surfaces for joint movement. Here are the three main types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline Cartilage
• Most common type of cartilage
• Appears bluish-white and translucent
• Contains type II collagen fibers
Locations
✓ Articular surfaces of joints
✓ Costal cartilage connecting ribs to sternum
✓ Supporting cartilage in nose, trachea, and larynx
✓ Growth plate cartilage in developing bones
Functions
✓ Provides smooth, low-friction surfaces for joint movement
✓ Absorbs shock in joints
✓ Supports respiratory passages
✓ Facilitates bone growth during development

2. Elastic Cartilage
• Contains abundant elastic fibers in addition to type II collagen
• More flexible and resilient than hyaline cartilage
• Yellow in appearance due to elastic fiber content
Locations
✓ External ear (pinna)
✓ Eustachian tubes
✓ Epiglottis
Functions
✓ Maintains shape while allowing flexibility
✓ Helps structures return to original shape after bending

3. Fibrocartilage
• Strongest type of cartilage
• Contains abundant type I collagen fibers
• White in appearance
Locations
✓ Intervertebral discs
✓ Menisci of knee joints
✓ Pubic symphysis
✓ Temporomandibular joint disc
Functions
✓ Resists compression and tensile forces
✓ Provides strong connections between bones
✓ Absorbs shock in spine and joints

Blood
• Fluid connective tissue

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• Contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Functions
o Transports oxygen, nutrients, waste, and other substances
o Provides immune defense against pathogens
o Assists in blood clotting and wound healing

Lymph: Lymph is a tissue fluid which is formed by the passage of substance from blood capillaries into tissue
spaces.

MUSCULAR TISSUE
❖ Muscular tissue is one of the four primary tissue types in the human body, responsible for generating
movement and locomotion. There are three main types of muscular tissue:
Types:
1. Voluntary muscle / Skeletal muscle / Striated muscle
2. Involuntary muscle / Smooth muscle / Non striated muscle
3. Cardiac muscle

7. Skeletal Muscle
Structure
• Organized into fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers)
• Muscle fibers are long, cylindrical cells containing myofibrils
• Myofibrils contain contractile proteins actin and myosin
• Sarcolemma (cell membrane) and sarcoplasmic reticulum
Function
• Responsible for voluntary, conscious movement
• Contracts and relaxes to generate force and motion
• Attached to bones via tendons
• Examples: biceps, quadriceps, diaphragm
Innervation
• Motor neurons from the somatic nervous system
• Acetylcholine released at neuromuscular junctions
Blood Supply
• Capillaries penetrate between muscle fibers
• Provide oxygen and nutrients, remove waste

8. Cardiac Muscle
Structure
• Composed of interconnected, branching muscle fibers (cardiomyocytes)

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• Striations and intercalated discs between cells

• Extensive mitochondria for aerobic respiration

Function
• Responsible for the rhythmic contraction of the heart
• Contracts involuntarily to pump blood through the circulatory system
Innervation
• Autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
• Regulates rate and force of contraction
Blood Supply
• Coronary arteries and veins provide oxygenation
• Oxygen demand is very high due to constant activity

9. Smooth Muscle:
Structure:
• Composed of spindle-shaped, unbranched muscle fibers
• Lack the striated appearance of skeletal and cardiac muscle
• Less organized structure compared to other muscle types
Function:
• Responsible for involuntary, unconscious movements
• Controls the diameter of blood vessels (vasoconstriction/vasodilation)
• Regulates the movement of substances through organs
• Examples: digestive tract, urinary bladder, blood vessels
Innervation:
• Autonomic nervous system (primarily sympathetic)
• Modulates contraction and relaxation
Blood Supply
• Varies depending on location, often less extensive than skeletal muscle
Extra:
Characteristic Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
❖ Attached to bones via ❖ Heart ❖ Walls of internal organs
Location
tendons and blood vessels
Function ❖ Voluntary, conscious ❖ Involuntary, rhythmic ❖ Involuntary, unconscious
movement contraction of the heart movement of organs and
vessels
Appearance ❖ Striated ❖ Striated, but with branching ❖ Non-striated, smooth
structure

Cellular ❖ Long, cylindrical muscle ❖ Interconnected, branching

Structure fibers muscle fibers ❖ Spindle-shaped,
(cardiomyocytes) unbranched muscle fibers

Innervation ❖ Somatic nervous system ❖ Autonomic nervous system ❖ Autonomic nervous system

Examples ❖ Biceps, quadriceps, ❖ Heart ❖ Digestive tract, blood

diaphragm vessels, urinary bladder

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NERVOUS TISSUE
• The nervous system is specialized in rapid regulation, integration, and coordination of activities of
various body parts.
• All the body cells have the property of excitability, irritability, and conductivity but the cells of nervous
tissues are much more advanced than any other type of tissue.

Structure of neuron: It is the smallest structural and functional unit of nervous system.
❖ It mainly consists of
1. Cell body
2. Axon
3. Dendrite
a. Cell body: Each cell body has a nucleus and a highly specialized protoplasm. The body of the nerve cell
gives rise to nerve fibers.
b. Axon: It is the main fiber which arises from cell body.
c. Dendrites: These are short fibers arising from the body of the nerve cell. They conduct impulses towards
the cell body. Synapse is the junction between axon of one neuron and dendrite of another.
d. Myelin sheath: It is the sheath which covers and protects the axon of some nerves. Nerves which contain
this sheath are called as medullated nerves. Nerves which do not contain this sheath are called as non-
medullated nerves. The medullated nerves contain nuclei. The nucleus lies in between the myelin sheath
and outer covering called neurilemma.
e. Node of Ranvier is the interruption found in the myelin sheath at regular intervals

Types of neurons
• Sensory neurons: Transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system
• Motor neurons: Transmit signals from the central nervous system to effector organs like muscles
• Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons, perform information processing.

Functions
• Receive, integrate, and transmit electrical impulses (action potentials)

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• Facilitate communication between different parts of the body

Glial Cells:
❖ Also called neuroglia or simply glia
❖ Functions to support and protect neurons
Key types of glial cells
• Astrocytes: Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS) / Schwann cells (PNS): Provide myelin sheath insulation for axons
• Microglia: Act as immune cells of the nervous system

Functions
• Provide structural and metabolic support for neurons
• Facilitate neurotransmitter recycling and ion homeostasis
• Contribute to the blood-brain barrier
• Phagocytose pathogens and cellular debris
• Promote neurodevelopment and plasticity
Note: it has the poorest capacity for renewal. Some stem cells, though present in brain, normally do not
undergo mitosis to replace damaged neurons. Research finds the reasons for it is going on

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