CONCRETE WALL FABRICATION BY CONTOUR CRAFTING
Dooil Hwang and Behrokh Khoshnevis
Daniel J. Epstein Department of Industrial & Systems Engineering
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089
khoshnev@[Link], dooilhwa@[Link]
Abstract: The feasibility of CC along with its unique capabilities and key performance characteristics (speed,
surface quality, material variety, possibility of embedding reinforcement, etc…) have been demonstrated in the
construction of relatively large geometrical shapes and structural components using a variety of construction
materials. Construction and testing of full-scale concrete wall sections has been the goal of our recent project
which this article reports.
Keywords: Contour Crafting; automation; construction; structures; dwellings; fabrication; rapid
prototyping.
1. Introduction during operation. Also, fully automated construction
systems do not allow much flexibility in the design of
Due to advances in sensing technology, numerical structures. The cross section of a structural member,
machine controllers, and automated drive systems, for example, cannot be readily changed. A system
robotic systems have dramatically increased their capable of generating a variable cross section
performance, capability, and accuracy in recent years. structure would be rather expensive. Furthermore,
Today robotic systems routinely replace many current automated systems require many
complicated, tedious, and dangerous human prefabricated parts. This translates into extra costs for
production activities in a variety of manufacturing inventory, transportation, and additional machinery.
applications.
Using conventional automation technology,
During the last 18 years, construction automation implementing a fully developed automated system
and robotics have been implemented at various that will address the problems facing the construction
extents to address problems facing the construction industry will be expensive. The following barriers
industry such as productivity, quality, safety, high hinder the efficient implementation of automation
costs and skilled labor shortages in the United State technology in construction [5]:
and Japan [1]. The Japanese construction industry,
in particular, is very active in automated construction • Availability of feasible fabrication
research, seeking a solution to the skilled labor technologies for large scale products
shortage. Many large Japanese construction • Conventional design approaches not suitable
companies have their own research centers with for automation
sophisticated equipment and large staffs researching • Small production quantities compared to
new construction technologies. Kajima Corporation, other industries
for example, spends more than $900M / year on • Limitation of material choices
construction research; a significant portion is • High equipment costs and maintenance fees
invested in construction automation [2]. • Management issues
Approximately 89 single task construction robots Previous attempts at developing automated
have been prototyped and deployed in construction construction systems have not adequately addressed
sites in Japan [3]. These single task robots replace these barriers. Current available automation
simple human tasks thereby reducing labor costs and technologies and engineering know-how may not be
construction time. Automated construction systems sufficient to overcome these barriers cost effectively.
such as AMURA, SMART and FACES are capable The construction industry could seek alternate
of fabricating high raised structures. These systems approaches to existing fabrication and assembly
typically use precision fabricated components such as processes. The new approach should consider
pillars, beams, ceilings, floor slabs and others [4]. adaptability to automated construction technologies
and processes.
However, the usage of single task robots is
limited to small construction sectors mainly because In recent years rapid prototyping (RP) processes
the robots cannot detect and fix problems in real time have been implemented in a variety of applications
and disciplines such as architecture, automobile
design, aerospace and medical industries. RP
processes are capable of fabricating complex
structures, as shown in Fig. 1. However, RP systems
today are not suitable for fabrication of larger scale
parts. A special RP technology developed at the
Side trowel
University of Southern California (USC) is Contour control
Crafting, which was introduced at the 19th mechanism
International Symposium on Automation and
Robotics in Construction (ISARC) in 2002. CC
technology adapts RP capabilities and extends them
to the field of large scale construction. As in other RP
methods, in Contour Crafting (CC) material is added
layer by layer according to a computer control
sequence. Side trowel
Figure 3. CC single nozzle (left) and multiple nozzle
assemblies.
On the right side of Figure 3 a compound nozzle
assembly is shown by which concurrent extrusion of
two wall sides and filling of the previously built layer
may be performed. As the extrusion nozzle moves
according to the predefined material deposition path
of each layer, the rims (smooth outer and top surface
of outside edges) are first created. The troweled outer
Figure 1. A complex geometry (Hagia Sophia in surface of each layer determines the surface finish
Istanbul) fabricated by a RP process quality of the object. The smooth top surface of each
[Source: MIT 3DP Laboratory] layer is also important for building a strong bond
with the next layer above. Once the boundaries of
CC is suitable for rapid fabrication of large-scale each layer are created, the filling process begins and
complex shaped objects with smooth surface finish. material is poured or injected to fill the internal
The CC extrusion and filling process is shown in volume. For viewing several animations of the CC
Figure 2. process please refer to [Link].
3. Current state of research and development
Contour Crafting has been the focus of intensive
research at the USC rapid prototyping laboratory.
The laboratory has been improving CC’s superior
surface forming capability, speed, part size and
nozzle designs [6-9]. Various materials have been
tested and evaluated to date. Rapid advances in this
Figure 2. Extrusion and Filling Process research will be a critical if CC is to be considered as
a viable option for construction automation.
The extrusion process forms the smooth object 3.1 Hardware system design
surface by constraining the extruded flow in the
vertical and horizontal directions by the use of A special simplified CC nozzle system and a
trowels. A schematic view of extrusion using a single three axis motion control mechanism have been
nozzle is shown on the left side of Figure 3. The developed for demonstration of full scale wall
orientation of the side-trowel is dynamically changed construction. The new CC system, shown in Figure 4,
for better surface fit for each decomposed layer. The consists of an extrusion system that conveys a mortar
side-trowel allows thicker material deposition while mixture from the material reservoir and deposits it in
maintaining high surface finish. Thicker material controllable amounts to form a desired shape. A
deposition cuts down fabrication time, which is piston is attached to and driven by the lead screw
essential for building large-scale parts by using the which turns at constant rotational speed upon
additive process. Maximum deposition layer extruding the mixture. As the mortar exits the
thickness is limited by the trowel height.
extrusion nozzle, the machine moves the nozzle extruded form becomes an integral part of the wall.
assembly in the X-direction at pre-specified speed.
Lead screw
System main frame
Piston
Extrusion System
z
Material Carrying Tank
Extrusion nozzle
with CC’s trowels
Figure 4. A picture of a new CC machine for fabricating a concrete wall
Once the extrusion system finishes its single layer The extruded boundary establishes both the internal
cycle, the entire extrusion system moves vertically an and external surface finish which plays a key role in
incremental distance equal to the height of the next the appearance of the finished product.
layer. The cycle is repeated until the final shape of
the boundary is established. The machine structure 0.75 inch
supports and precisely guides the entire extrusion
system during fabrication. The machine frame has
two V-shape profiles that are used as a rail to guide
the extrusion system. The current frame permits 6 inch
extrusion only in the X and Z directions, therefore is
limited in the types of 3-D objects that can be created. 2 feet
3.2 Target geometry Concrete
To reproduce a full scale concrete wall segment,
the geometric specifications of a typical concrete
wall used in housing construction was pre-
programmed. Figure 5 details the wall specifications Concrete form
and dimensions. The concrete form is first fabricated
by extruding the material in incremental vertical
layers of 19 mm (0.75”) in width and 13 mm (0.5”)
in height. The final concrete form is a hollow wall
structure with a curved radius at each end. Following 5 feet
the boundary extrusion, any type of concrete can be
poured in as filler structural material either manually
or automatically with the CC machine. Filling the
inside space with concrete may be also done in a Figure 5. A schematic view of target concrete wall
layer-by-layer fashion. After the concrete sets, the
3.3 CC Nozzle Assembly To verify its early compressive strength, three
cylindrical test specimens, 5 cm X 10 cm (2” X 4”)
To fabricate the target geometry a new CC nozzle were made and cured for 7 days in room temperature.
system was designed and integrated with a new CC Tests were conducted at USC’s Civil Engineering
machine. Unlike previous designs, the new CC structural testing laboratory with the results shown in
nozzle is equipped with dual trowels to control both Table 1.
the internal and external surface finish of the
extruded rims. Figure 6 shows the new CC nozzle Table 1. Results of testing compressive strength
assembly. The nozzle assembly is offset 70mm Cylinders Compressive strength (PSI)
(2.75”) from the flow center of the extrusion system. Specimen 1 2,786
Specimen 2 2,830
Specimen 3 2,606
Mean 2,741
Trowel rotation
mechanism The results indicated that the compressive strength of
thee test specimens were both consistent and
adequate for their use as a permanent structural
The center of
Extrusion component of the finished concrete wall. Our
extrusion flow
nozzle with CC research team in collaboration with industry is
trowels aiming at the use of mixes that can cure to near
maximum strength in a few hours.
The center of CC
extrusion flow 4.2 Fabrication
The mortar mixture was prepared using power drill
Figure 6. A closer view of CC nozzle with trowels driven mixing paddles and was loaded into the
To fabricate the rounded ends, extrusion in the X- material carrying tank, shown in Figure 4. The
direction is stopped and the assembly is rotated 180 velocity of the extrusion system in the horizontal
degrees. With this configuration the Y axis is not direction was set to 20 mm/sec with stabilized
used, hence reducing the machine complexity at the continuous extrusion flow from the CC nozzle
cost of being limited to fabrication of straight wall assembly. Initial extrusion flow is discarded until the
sections. flow is stabilized and the system starts its fabrication.
Once an entire batch of the mortar mixture loaded
4. Fabrication of a Concrete Wall inside the material carrying tank is used up, the CC
system pauses until another batch of mortar is loaded
The success in fabricating a part using the CC and the extrusion continues to form the remaining
process mostly depends on the extruded material concrete form. A batch of mortar is consumed in
characteristic. Any paste-like material that can be approximately 10 minutes and yields a concrete form
extruded using conventional tooling can also be used approximately 64 mm (2.5”) high. To complete the
in Contour Crafting.. target geometry shown in Figure5, nine batches were
needed. The final concrete form fabricated by the CC
4.1 Mortar Mixture and its Compressive Strength system exceeded a height of 60 cm (2 feet) and is
shown in Figure 7.
Extruding a dense mortar mixture through a small
nozzle orifice is quite difficult. The optimum mixture 4.3 Lateral Pressure on Concrete Form
ratio of cement, sand, and water necessary to
fabricate a concrete form depends on the application. The function of the concrete form is to contain
Through several trial and error experiments, a freshly poured concrete in a contained mold until the
mixture characteristic found to be suitable for the placed concrete sets. Lateral pressure against the
new CC machine is as follows; concrete form is a function of the height and mass of
the poured concrete; the pressure is not affected by
• Type II hydraulic Plastic Portland cement: the wall thickness. The following is a standard
9.5 lb formula widely used as a design guide for vertical
• Sand: 10.5 lb formwork based on ACI standard 347:
• Plasticizer: 0.8 lb
P=W*H
• Water: 4.8 lb
2feet
5feet
Figure 7. A concrete form of desired span and height fabricated by the CC machine
For CC applications, pour rates less than 13 cm/hour
Where: P = Lateral pressure (5”/hour) will allow erection of a 3 meter (10 feet)
W = Unit weight of fresh concrete or 150 pcf tall concrete wall without using special high strength
for normal weight concrete form materials. Once concrete inside the form
H= Depth of fresh concrete hardens, pressure is no longer generated below the
level of fresh concrete. It is not necessary, however,
Table 2. Concrete pressure for wall form to wait until the concrete hardens completely since
even partially cured concrete generates minimal
Pour lateral pressure on the form. Figure 8 illustrates the
Pressures of Vibrated Concrete (psf) CC concrete pouring process.
rate
(ft/hr)
50°F 70°F Concrete form
1 330 280
2 510 410
3 690 540 Fresh concrete
4 870 660
5 1,050 790 1 hour cured
6 1,230 920 5 inch concrete
7 1,410 1,050
8 1,470 1,090
9 1,520 1,130 5 inch
10 1,580 1,170
Some approximated lateral pressures are in Table
2. These are design guides for wall concrete for
mwork. The actual pressures may vary. Note that Figure 8. Placing concrete procedures
reliable data is difficult to obtain in published
references when the pour rate is less than 1 ft / hr. The bottom cross-hatched section represents concrete
which has been cured for one hour. The cured
concrete produces minimal lateral pressure on the
form but the exact value was difficult to quantify in time and strength requirements. In the next
our experiments. Data was not available in the generation CC system, the mechanical assembly for
available literature; therefore, a simple test was continuous concrete pouring will be integrated into
devised to validate the strength capability of the form. the CC extrusion nozzle assembly.
Figure 9 shows the test bed.
5. Conclusion
Contour Crafting is a new approach to solving
problems facing the construction industry,
particularly at the automation and process level.
Currently available automated systems are geared
toward conventional construction process and cannot
fabricate complex structures nor adapt to
sophisticated designs. To be successful, construction
automation will require a paradigm shift in process
technology. The CC technology fits in this category
and has the potential to revolutionize the industry,
changing it from the conventional “beam and post”
paradigm to a layer by layer approach.
Figure 9. Pouring concrete in layer by layer
The CC technology is one that is scalable to
A batch of concrete was poured to a height of 13 cm fabricate larger parts without difficulty. The
(5”). The second batch was poured on top of the first corresponding increase in cost or fabrication time
batch after one hour without problems. The test compares well to other layer based manufacturing
procedure, if repeated 24 times, will result in the processes. Through this research we have shown that
erection of a 10 feet high “conventional” concrete the CC technology is capable of using even standard
wall in 24 hours. Ten feet is a standard height for industry materials. CC may hence be regarded as an
concrete walls in residential housing construction. immediately available technology which can be
extended to full-scale housing construction.
5. Results
Note that due to mechanical speed limitations with
the new CC system, actual material deposition speed
was not well established in this research. In the next
generation CC system design, material deposition
speed will be a carefully considered parameter. The
goal of the next research phase is to erect a 3 meter
(10 feet) concrete wall around a 200 m2 housing unit
within a single day.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This material is based upon work supported by the
National Science Foundation under Grants No.
9522982, 9615690, and 0230398, and by a grant
from the Office of Naval Research.
Figure 10. A concrete wall made by CC machine
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