በጎንደርና አካባቢው ሀገር አቀፍ የ12ኛ ክፍል መልቀቂያ ፈተና

ለሚወስዱ ተማሪዎች ማጠናከሪያ የተዘጋጀ ሞዱል

(ከጎጎ ኢንጂኔሪንግጋር በመተባበር የተዘጋጀ)

ጎንደር የልማት እና የሰላምና ማኅበር (ጎልሰማ) በጎንደር እና አካባቢው ከጊዜ ወደ ጊዜ ሥር እየሰደደ የመጣውን የሰላም
እጦት እንዲሁም በአካባቢው ሰፍኖ የሚገኘውን ከፍተኛ ኢኮኖሚያዊ ችግር በመቅረፍ ረገድ መንግሥት የሚያደርገውን ጥረት
ለመደገፍ የተቋቋመ እና ከኢፌዴሪ የሲቪል ማኅበረሰብ ድርጅቶች ባለሥልጣን ዕውቅና የተሰጠው (የተመዘገበ) ማኅበር ነው፡
፡

ጎንደርና አካባቢው እምቅ የሆኑ በርካታ የተፈጥሮ ፀጋዎችንና ሰው ሠራሽ ሃብቶችን ባለቤት ቢሆንም እነዚህን እምቅ ሃብቶች
በጋራ አልምቶ በእጅጉ የወደቀውን ኑሮውን ለማሻሻል አልቻለም፡፡ ለዚህም ዋነኛው ምክንያት የማኅበረሰቡ የማኅበራዊና
የኢኮኖሚ ግንዛቤ እጥረት መሆኑን በማመን የጎንደር የልማት እና የሰላምና ማኅበር (ጎልሰማ) አስፈላጊውን የዘርፉ ንቃት
ለመፍጠር እቅድ በመንደፍ እየተንቀሳሰቀ ይገኛል፡፡

ከማኅበረሰቡ አካላት መካከልም የዛሬው ትውልድ አካልና የነገ ሀገር ተረካቢ የሆኑት ተማሪዎች ላይ መሥራት፣ ለማኅበረሰቡ
ካላቸው ቅርበት አንፃር ከወዲሁ የማኅበረሰባቸውን ኑሮ ለማሻሻል ዓልመው እንዲሰሩና በዚህ ዙሪያ በንቃት እንዲሳተፉ
ማድረግ አጠቃላይ ሥራውን የተሳለጠና የሰመረ የሚያደርገው ይሆናል፡፡

በተለይም ከቅርብ ጊዜ ወዲህ የዩኒቨርሲቲ መግቢያ ፈተና እየወሰዱ ማለፍ ያልቻሉ ተማሪዎች ቁጥር እያሻቀበ መምጣቱ በዚህ
ደረጃ ያሉትን ተማሪዎች የተሻለ ለማዘጋጀት በሁሉም የጎንደር ዞኖች ሥር ባሉት ከ 66 በላይ ወረዳዎች ውስጥ በሚገኙና
የ12ኛ ክፍል መልቀቂያ ፈተናን በሚያስፈትኑ 145 ት/ት ቤቶች የሚሰራጩ በ9 የትምህርት ዓይነቶች የተዘጋጁ ሞጁሎች
በብቁ መምህራን እንዲዘጋጅ አድርጓል። በዚህ ለማኅበረሰባቸው የተሻለ ሃሳብና ራይዕ ያላቸው ዜጎች እንዲሆኑ በመሥራት
ለራሳቸውም ሆነ ለአካባቢው ማኅበረሰብ ሥራ ፈጣሪና ሩቅ አሳቢ፣ ኃላፊነት የሚሸከም ትውልድን ለመፍጠር ይሞክራል፡፡

ይህ ለጂኦግራፊ የትምህርት ዓይነት ፈተና ማዘጋጃ የተዘጋጀ ሞጁል በዚህ አግባብ የቀረበ ሲሆን በጎልሰማ አስተባባሪነት
ከሥር ባሉት በጎ ፈቃደኛ ሙያተኞች የተሰናዳ ነው፡፡

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MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTES AND
QUESTIONS

Authors, Writers and Editors:

Melaku Mihret (MA.)
Anteneh Wubu (MA.)
Solomon Emiru (MA.)
Abraraw Ayalew (MA.)
Gebrie Mekonen (MA.)
Debassu Addis (MA.)

Gondar, Ethiopia
April, 2015/ 2023

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Contents
PART ONE (GRADE 9- 10)
UNIT ONE ············································································································· 1
Map Reading and Map Interpretation ············································································ 1
General objectives/ learning objectives ······································································· 1
1.1. Definition and Concepts of Map ············································································· 1
1.2. Uses of Map ···································································································· 2
1.3. Classification of Maps ························································································ 2
1.4. How to Find the Scale of a Map ············································································· 4
1.5. Marginal Information of Maps ··············································································· 5
1.6. Measurement in Maps (Location, Distance, Area and Direction) ······································· 6
1.6.1. Position or Location on Maps ··········································································· 6
1.6.2. Direction on Maps ························································································ 8
1.6.3. Measuring Distance from Maps ·······································································10
1.6.4. Measuring Areas from Maps ···········································································10
Exercise One ····································································································11
1.7. Map Enlargement and reduction ············································································11
1.8. Relief on Maps ································································································12
The Physical Environment of the Earth ·········································································20
2. Physical Environment of the World and Ethiopia ·······················································20
2.1.1. The Earth in the Universe ··············································································20
The Origin and Structure of the Earth ········································································20
2.1.2. The Structure of the Earth ··············································································21
2.1.3. The Movement of Continents ··········································································22
2.1.4. Components of the Earths Physical Environment ···················································22
2.1.5. Components of the Lithosphere ·······································································22
Exercise Three ··································································································25
2.2. Forces that Change the Surface of the Earth ······························································26
2.2.1. Internal Forces ···························································································27
2.2.2. External Forces ··························································································30

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2.3. Weather and Climate ·························································································33

2.3.1. Earth and Atmosphere ··················································································33
2.3.2. Meaning of Weather and Climate ········································································34
[Link]. Major Elements of Weather and Climate ···························································34
[Link]. Controls of Weather and Climate ···································································41
Exercise Four ····································································································43
2.3. Natural Regions of the Earth ················································································46
2.3.1. Major Natural Regions of the Earth ···································································46
[Link]. Tropical (Hot) Zone ···················································································46
[Link]. Temperate Zone ·······················································································49
[Link] .Frigid (Cold) Zone ····················································································52
2.4. Classification of world Climate ·············································································54
2.5. Drought in Ethiopia ·······················································································57
2.6. Ecosystem ··································································································58
2.6.1. Factors that Affect the Distribution of Ecosystems ·················································59
2.6.2. Diversity of Fauna, Flora and Soil of Ecosystems···················································59
Exercise Five ····································································································61
3.1 Concepts and Facts about Human Population ·····························································67
3.1.1. World Population Size and Percentage, By Continent (2009) ·····································67
3.1.2. Source of Population Data··············································································68
3.1.4. Components of Population Change ···································································69
3.1.5. Measures of Population Change······································································73
3.1.6. Population Structure ····················································································73
3.2. Spatial Distribution of World Population ··································································75
3.2.1 Factors of Population Distribution ·····································································75
3.2.2 Population Density ·······················································································76
3.3. Migration ·····································································································77
Exercise Six ·····································································································78
UNIT FOUR ·········································································································81
Economic Activities, Economic System and Development ··················································81

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4.1. Economic Activities ·······················································································81

4.1.1. Classification of Economic Activities ································································81
4.1.2. Land use ··································································································84
4.2. Natural Resources ····························································································85
4.2.1. Types of Resources······················································································85
4.2.2. Importance of Natural Resources ······································································85
4.3. Economic System and Development ····································································86
4.3.1 Types of Economic Systems ············································································86
4.3.2. Sustainable Economic Development ··································································88
4.3.3. Economic Organizations of the World ································································90
4.3.4. Globalization ·····························································································91
4.4. Public and Policy Related Issues in Ethiopia ···························································91
4.4.1. HIV/AIDS ································································································91
4.5. Environmental policy ·····················································································92
4.5.1. Economic Policy of Ethiopia···········································································92
1.2.1. Branches of Geography ·················································································96
1.3 Approaches in Geography ·················································································96
1.4 Major School Of Thought in Geography ································································96
1.5 The Relationship between Geography and Other Disciplines·········································98
Exercise One ····································································································98
Map Reading and Interpretation ··············································································· 100
2.1. Relief Representation on Contour Map ··························································· 100
2.1.1 Drawing Contour Lines from Spot Heights ························································· 101
2.1.3. Drawing Relief Cross-Section (Profile) ···························································· 102
2.1.4. Intervisibility ··························································································· 102
2.1.5. Land Forms on Contour Maps ······································································· 103
Exercise Two ·································································································· 103
2.2. Drainage on Maps ·························································································· 106
2.2.1. Watershed and Catchment Area ····································································· 106
2.2.2. Drainage Patterns ······················································································ 107

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2.2.3 River Capture and Stage of River Valley Development ······································ 109
Exercise Three ································································································ 110
2.3 The Study of Human-made Features on Maps ··························································· 111
2.3.1 Representation of Settlements on Maps ····························································· 111
2.3.2 The Study of Communication on Maps ····························································· 115
2.4 Geographical Information System (GIS) ································································· 116
2.4.1 What is GIS? ···························································································· 116
2.4.2 Turning Point on the development of GIS ·························································· 116
Exercise Four ·································································································· 117
An Overview of Physical Geography of Africa ······························································ 119
3.1 Position, Size and Shape of Africa ········································································ 119
3.1.1 Position of Africa ······················································································ 119
3.1.2 Size of Africa ··························································································· 120
3.1.3 Shape of Africa ························································································· 120
3.1.4 Regional Division of Africa··········································································· 120
Exercise Five ·································································································· 121
Exercise Six ··································································································· 123
3.2.2 The Relief Structure of Africa ········································································ 124
3.3 Climate of Africa ···························································································· 127
3.3.1 Controls of Weather and Climate in Africa ························································· 127
3.3.2 Temperature Conditions in Africa ··································································· 129
3.3.3 Rainfall Distribution in Africa ········································································ 129
Exercise Eight ································································································· 129
3.1 Climatic Regions of Africa ················································································· 130
3.3.5 Drought in Africa ······················································································ 131
Exercise Nine·································································································· 132
3.2 Drainage Systems of Africa ················································································ 133
3.3.1. Characteristics of African Rivers ···································································· 134
3.4 Lakes and Swamps of Africa ·············································································· 134
Exercise Ten ··································································································· 135

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3.5 Major Vegetation Zone of Africa·········································································· 136

3.5.2 Wild Animals of Africa ··············································································· 138
Exercise Twelve ······························································································ 139
3.6 Soils of Africa ······························································································ 140
3.6.1. Major Soil Types of Africa: ·········································································· 140
3.6.2 Problems and Conservation Measures of Soils in Africa ·········································· 141
Exercise Thirteen ····························································································· 142
4.1.2. Determinant factors of population change in Africa ·············································· 145
4.1.3. Characteristics of African Population ······························································· 146
4.1.4 Migration and Urbanization in Africa ······························································· 147
4.2 Concepts of Economic Growth and Development ······················································ 150
4.2.1 Growth versus Development ·········································································· 150
4.2.3 Characteristics of African Economy ································································· 150
4.2.4 Present Features of Africa’s Socioeconomic Development ······································· 151
4.2.5. Challenges of and Prospects Economic Development in Africa ································· 151
4.3 Natural Resources of Africa and Its Politics ····························································· 152
4.3.1 Major Resources of Africa ············································································ 152
4.3.2 Natural Resources Exploitation and Mineral Extraction Methods in Africa ···················· 155
4.3.3 Resource Utilization and Conflict Management ···················································· 155
Exercise Fourteen ····························································································· 156
PART THREE (GRADE 12) ··················································································· 160
2.2 Globe and Map ······························································································ 171
2.4.1 The Meaning and Purpose of Sketch Maps ························································· 174
Exercise Two ·································································································· 174
Exercise Three ································································································ 203
4.6 Determinants of Population Change in Ethiopia························································· 220
4.6.1 Fertility in Ethiopia ···················································································· 220
4.6.2 Mortality in Ethiopia ··················································································· 221
4.7 Impacts of Rapid Population Growth ····································································· 223
4.7.1 Deforestation···························································································· 223

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4.7.2. Pollution ································································································ 224

4.8. Population Policy of Ethiopia ············································································· 224
4.9. Urbanization in Ethiopia ··················································································· 225
4.9.1. The concept of urbanization ·········································································· 225
Exercise five ··································································································· 227
Choose the best answer from the given four alternatives ················································ 227
UNIT FIVE ·········································································································· 230
Economic Growth & Development Trend in Ethiopia ······················································ 230
5.1. An overview of growth and development in Ethiopia·················································· 230
Economic Growth & Development Trend in Ethiopia ······················································ 231
5.2 Major Features of Ethiopian Economy ··································································· 231
Agricultural sector:- ····························································································· 231
5.3 Present Features of Ethiopian Socio- Economic Development ········································ 232
5.4 Challenges & prospects of socio – economic development of Ethiopia ······························ 233
5.4.2 Prospects for Ethiopia’s socio- economic development ··········································· 233
5.5 Economic relation ··························································································· 234
5.5.1 Ethiopia’s economic relation with neighboring countries ········································· 234
5.5.2 Ethiopia’s economic relationship with other countries than its neighbors ······················ 234
5.6. Plan For Accelerated Sustainable Development To End Poverty (PASDEP) ······················· 236
Exercise Six ··································································································· 237
EXERCISE TWO ····························································································· 239
EXERCISE THREE ·························································································· 239
EXERCISE FOUR···························································································· 239
EXERCISE FIVE ····························································································· 239
EXERCISE SIX ·································································································· 2
EXERCISE SEVEN ····························································································· 2

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PART ONE (GRADE 9- 10)

UNIT ONE
Map Reading and Map Interpretation
General objectives/ learning objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the meaning of a map;
 state the basic features and uses of maps;
 categorize maps based on scales and purposes;
 distinguish the conventional signs and symbols used to represent different features on
maps;
 know some of the marginal information given on maps;
 convert linear scale to areal scale;
 calculate the scale of a map;

1.1. Definition and Concepts of Map

 A map is a simplified, diminished, plane representation of all or part of the earth’s surface
as viewed from vertically above.
 The main features of maps are:-
 A map represents all or part of the earth’s surface. For example, a map might show a
city such as Addis Ababa, the entire world, or a section of a garden.
 A map is a two-dimensional (plane) representation. For example, a map might be
printed on a piece of paper.
 Maps show the earth’s surface as if it were seen from directly above. This view is
called a bird’s-eye view.
 All maps are smaller than the area they represent.
 Maps are drawn to scale. In other words, the features shown on a map have the same
relative proportions as they do in reality.
 Maps are simplified representations.
 Most maps use generally accepted symbols to represent natural, artificial or cultural
features of the area they represent.
 They also use conventional notations to provide background information such as
themap’s title, date and scale.

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1.2. Uses of Map

 Map is geography’s most important tool.
 It is one of the most flexible tools in terms of the information it presents and the uses we
can make of it.
 It can present very simple information or highly detailed results from a complicated
geographical investigation.
 Maps are basically used for identifying locations, distance, area and direction.
Location: With the help of a map it is possible to locate a place in reference to another place. For
example, Ethiopia’s location can be expressed in terms of its neighboring countries, external land
masses and water bodies.

It is also possible to locate a place using astronomical grid references – parallels and meridians.
For example, the absolute location of Ethiopia is 3oN-15oN latitude and 33oE-48oE longitude.
Distance: It is possible to calculate the distance between two or more places on a map. This is
done by using the scale of the map.
Area: The area of a place, a country, a region, a continent, a sub-continent or the whole world
can be calculated from a map. This is done by measuring the length and the width of the given
place on the map and by converting them to ground distances with the help of the scale of the
map.
Direction: A map can enable us to identify the direction and bearing of any place on the map.
This is accomplished by referring to another place.
Other uses of maps include
 Show the distribution of physical and human phenomena on the earth’s surface:
 Show surface configuration:
 Offer visual comparisons
 Support development planning:
 Weather forecast
 promotion or advertisement
 military purpose
 Tourism(to locate tourist site)
 Housing purpose
 Although most maps have similar characteristics, they can differ from one another in many
ways.

1.3. Classification of Maps

1. Classification Based on Purpose(Focus and level of detail)
 general-purpose
 specific-purpose

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General-Purpose Maps
 is a map that shows the features of a place in a relatively general way
 It provides a wide range of information about the place it represents.
 are not topical
 they tend to contain a little of many kinds of information at a relatively low level of detail
 Topographic information of each kind in lesser detail.
 It can illustrate both physical and human-made features of the earth.
 They contain a little information of each kind about the area they represent
 Advantage:-They are able to provide different information
 Weakness:-to show limited detailed information.
Specific-Purpose Maps
 Are often called thematic maps or topical maps.
 It emphasize on a single topic
 Show a high level of detail information about their subjects.
 Many specific- purpose maps are created for specialists in particular subjects.
Example: - - Soil maps -Vegetation maps - Climate maps

2. Classification Based on Scale

 Large-scale maps
 Medium-scale maps
 Small-scale maps
Large-Scale Maps ≥ 1:50,000
 Large-scale maps present small areas in detail with great accuracy.
 Large scale maps present a relatively small area and show its features in considerable
detail.
 Scale: ≥ 1: 50,000
 Cover small areas
 Contain highly detailed information
Medium-Scale Maps 1:50,000 - 1:250,000
 Medium-scale maps cover wider areas than large scale maps, but cover smaller areas than
small-scale maps.
 They are also able to present more detailed information than small-scale maps but are less
detailed than large-scale
 Scale: between 1:50,000 and 1:250,000
 Cover medium sized areas
 Contain moderately detailed information

Small-Scale Maps ≤ 1:250,000

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 These small–scale maps cover wider areas than large and medium scale maps
 scale: ≤ 1:250,000
 Cover large areas
 Contain less-detailed information

1.4. How to Find the Scale of a Map

If the scale is not shown on the map, it is possible to calculate it from the given map through the
following two ways.

A. By using the known distance between two points on the map

This method is used if the ground distance between two points or places shown on the map is
given. Then use the following procedure to obtain the scale: This gives you the scale of the map.

i. Measure the distance b/n the two points on the map in centimeters.
ii. Divide the obtained distance on the map by the ground distance to obtain the ratio between
the two.
 For example:- If the straight-line distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele is 555 km.
calculate the scale of the map:
 Using the distance between Addis Ababa and Mekele:

i .Measure the distance b/n Addis Ababa & Mekele by using a ruler approximately 3 cm.
The given air distance between the two places is 555 km.
ii. Find the ratio between the distance on map and the actual distance.
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐩
Scale = 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝟑𝐜𝐦 𝟏𝐜𝐦
=
𝟓𝟓𝟓𝐤𝐦 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝐤𝐦
1 cm to 185 km = 1: 18,500,000
B. By using latitudes
In this method, the scale of the map can be obtained by using the values of latitudes. For
example, let us calculate the scale of the following map by using the 10o and 15o N latitude lines:
1. The degree difference between the two latitudes is 5o (15o – 10o).
2. The distance that 5o represents is 555 km (111 km × 5).
3. The distance between the two latitudes on the map is approximately 3 cm.
4. The scale of the map is, therefore:

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𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐩

Scale = 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

3cm
= 1cm to 185km, therefore the scale of map is =1: 18,500,000
555km

The Relationship Between Linear and Areal Scale

 Map scale can be linear or areal.
 Linear scale expresses the ratio of map distance to ground distance. It is the most
common scale type.
 Areal scale shows the relationship between map area and ground area.
Areal scale is the square of linear scale. For example, if a map has a linear scale of 1 cm to 5 km,
then the areal scale of the map is (1 cm)2 to (5 km)2, which means 1 cm2 to 25 km2.
Distance on the map dy
Areal Scale = (Linear Scale)2 = ( Distance on the Grounddx)2

 To calculate linear scale from areal scale, you put the areal scale into a square root. For
instance, if the areal scale of a map is 1 cm2 to 25 km2, then the linear scale of the map is the
square root of the given a real scale
√𝐌𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 √1cm2
Linear Scale = √𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 = , = 1cm to 5 km
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 25cm2

1.5. Marginal Information of Maps

 Maps are used to convey information.
 To read maps effectively, map users need information about the map. Such information is
presented in the map’s margins and is known as marginal information.
 Marginal information includes:
 Title of the map: Gives the map’s name. For example, “Soil Map “explains that the map
presents information about soil.
 Year of publication: identifies the year in which the map was published. Because this
information tells you how old the map is, you might be able to judge whether the map’s
contents are current or might be out of date.
 Author: identifies the copyright owner of the map and indicates who (or what organization)
has prepared the map.
 Place of publication and publisher: tells where the map was published and identifies the
organization that published the map.
 Scale: it indicates how many times the map is reduced from the original representation
 Legend/Key: explains the meaning of the signs and symbols used in the map.
 Type of projection: tells the kind of projection used in making the map.

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 Direction or orientation (North) arrow: Shows the north direction onthe map.
 The magnetic declination (variation): is the difference between Magnetic North and True
North.
[Link] Signs and Symbols
 Conventional signs and symbols are those signs and symbols that are used on maps
through the agreement of all map-makers of the world.
 They are used to represent the same detail on a map in all the countries of the world.
 Signs and symbols help the map reader to understand maps.
 Therefore, the map reader has to look first at the key or legend of the map.
 When you create a map, the symbols you select should satisfy the following
requirements.
 They should be uniform throughout the map.
 They should be easy to read and understand.
 The space occupation, orientation and size of the symbols should be constant.
Here are some of the symbols and conventional signs that are widely used and understood
worldwide:
 cities and towns are indicated by dots or patches of shading
 streams and bodies of water are often printed in blue;
 Political boundaries are shown by dot lines/solid lines.

1.6. Measurement in Maps (Location, Distance, Area and Direction)

1.6.1. Position or Location on Maps
The position of places on the earth’s surface and upon maps can be given in a number of
different ways. The most important are through the use of:
 Latitude and longitude (international grid references)
 National Grid References (Eastings and Northings)
A. Position by the Geographic Grid

 The International (Geographic) Grid System shows the absolute locations of places on the
surface of the earth.
 Its references are made up of two set of lines
i. Parallels or lines of latitude – define locations north and south of the equator.
They are horizontal lines of the grid. They run from east to west around the globe
parallel to the equator

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ii. Meridians or lines of longitude – define locations east and west of an imaginary
north-south map line called the Prime Meridian. They are vertical lines of the grid.
They run from the North pole to the South pole
 Using this grid we can now give the accurate position of any place on the earth’s surface.
 The parallels give the position in degrees, minutes and seconds north or south of the
equator. This is the Latitude of the place.
 The meridians, give the position of the point in degrees, minutes and seconds to the east
or west of the zero degree meridian. This is the longitude of the place.
 Parallel: an imaginary line joining all points with the same latitude.
 Meridian: An imaginary line joining all points with the same longitude.
B. National Grid Reference System
 National grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines printed on the face of a map.
The network of grid lines border squares.
 These squares may be divided into smaller and smaller squares.
 The National Grid System uses Eastings and Northings
 Eastings:-are lines that are drawn from north to south.
 Northings: - are lines that are drawn from east to west.
 Eastings and Northings in the National Grid System originate from the “False Grid
Origin” that lies at the southwestern corner of the place they cover.
 While the values of Eastings increase eastwards, the values of Northings increase
northwards.
 Eastings and Northings are measured in kilometers.
 Eastings are always given before Northings
 The grid origin of Ethiopia is located at a point where the 34°30'E meridian and the
equator cross each other.
 In Ethiopia, there are two ways of giving national grid reference. They are four-digit and
six-digit grid reference.
 The Four Digit Grid Reference
 Consist four numbers
 Usually used in small scale map
 The Six Digit Grid Reference
 Consist six numbers
 Usually used in large scale map
 The six digit grid reference is appropriate on a map drawn in a larger scale so
that a greater accuracy in position can be obtained

Proceedings

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

1. Locate the vertical grid line to the left of the given point and read the large number
2. Divide the square into ten equal divisions and pick the tenth of the point.
3. Locate the horizontal grid line below the given point and read the large number
4. Again divide the square into ten equal divisions and pick the tenth.
5. Combine easting and northing value without leaving any gap
NB. Grid reference NEVER can be used to indicate an area. The reference always stands for a
POINT that is the intersection of two lines.

1.6.2. Direction on Maps

 The science of direction goes back to human’s earliest observations of nature, especially
stars and winds.
 The farmer looked in the direction from which he or she hoped the wind would come.
 When the wind came, the farmer gratefully named it after its source, like ‘ye DegaNefas’,
‘ye Kola Nefas’ etc
 sometimes place names are associated with winds
 For example the provincial capital city of Gayent in southern Gonder is known as
‘NefasMewicha’ or Source of Wind.
 Landmarks are important aids to people who are travelling in a new environment.
 A landmark is an object that is easily seen from a distance.
 We use landmarks to help us remember where things are, and we try to remember their
appearance and locations in order to avoid getting lost.
 We might also use tools such as maps and compasses to help us find our way around.
 Direction can be express in terms of compass point and angular point
 Compass :- is an instrument that used to indicate the direction of point, place, objects etc
 Compass points:- are points found in a compass
 There are thirty-two points of the compass, but only sixteen are used to describe direction
 Cardinal points:- North, south, east and west
 Subsidiary points:- NE,SE,NW and NW
 Sub division points:- NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, SSW,WSW, WNW,NNW
 the direction of a line from one point to another can be given in terms of compass
direction

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fig 1 fig 2

B lies north-east of A A lies south-west of B.

 We may also describe wind direction in terms of compass direction.

 Note carefully that wind direction is named after the direction from which the wind
blows.
 Therefore a wind blowing from B to A in fig 2 is called a north-east wind.
 Angular point:- express the direction of places in terms of degree
 The degrees start at the north from 0°, and increase in the clockwise direction.
 0° coincides with N, and 180° coincides with S.
 You can express direction more precisely in degrees than in direction points.
 A direction indicated in degrees is called a bearing.
 The bearing of an object refers to its direction and a clockwise measurement in degrees
from the zero line (0° or N), which is the north direction.

Reflex angle NAC. Note that the bearing of C from A is not the smaller acute angle NAC, since
bearings are always measured clockwise from north.
The directions of A from B and from C, respectively, are called back bearings. A back bearing is
obtained by adding or subtracting 180° to or from a forward bearing.
Note: 1. if a forward bearing is less than 180°, add 180° to obtain the back bearing.
2. If a forward bearing is more than 180°, subtract 180° to obtain the back bearing.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

1.6.3. Measuring Distance from Maps

 We can measure and calculate three kinds of distance from a give map
i. Straight line distance :- distance as a crow flies, air distance
ii. Bending distance :- curved distance, twisting distance, winding distance
iii. Field distance :- unlike straight and bending distance, it consider ups and downs
 Field distance is the actual distance, which takes into account the effect of relief. It is the
actual distance measured on the ground FD2 = MD2 + AD2

1.6.4. Measuring Areas from Maps

We can measure and calculate two kinds of areas from a given map
i. Areas of regular shaped geographic feature
ii. Areas of irregular shaped geographic feature
Measuring Regular-Shaped Areas
 A regular shape is a geometrical shape such as a rectangle, circle, triangle or square.
 If you are measuring an area with a regular shape, use the mathematical formula for its
geometric shape.
 Then calculate the ground area by using the map’s areal scale.

Mathematical formula (Area)

 Square A = S2;where A = area, and S = side
 Rectangle A = l × w; where A = area, l = length, and w = width
 Right angle triangle A = ½ bh; where A = area, b = base, and h = height
 Circle A = πr2; where A = area, and r = radius. (π = 3.14 )
Measuring Irregular-Shaped Areas
 If the feature to be measured has an irregular shape, its area cannot be directly
calculated by using mathematical formula
 In such cases, we can use the grid square method
 In order to find the area such features, we follow the following steps:
i. Copy the boundary of the feature.
ii. Draw grid lines at a uniform interval (for example, 1 cm apart) over the feature.
iii. Count the number of grid squares within the feature
 number of full squares =
 number of ¾ squares =
 number of ½ squares =
 number of ¼ squares =
 Thus, total number of squares=
iv. Calculate the approximate area of the area

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

Exercise One
Choose the best answer from the given four alternatives
1. White colors are often adopted to show-----------------------
A. Low latitudes B. high mountains with snow cover C. sea levels D.
depression
2. Which one of the following is statement is not true about lines of longitudes
[Link] have numbered from 00__ 900 N and S C. They Are Drawn From North
to South
B. They Converge at Poles D. They are not Parallels
3. Which one of the following could be identified relatively as a medium scale map?
A. 2cm to 4km B.1: 10,000, 0000 C. 1: 50,000 D. 1: 240,000
4. Which is not true about a map?
A. A map presents things as we see from vertically above
B. All maps are larger than the area, they represent
C. A map is a diminished representation of a given place.
D. A map is drawn to scale
5. Which one of the following is not the major significance of maps?
A. Maps show the location of a place C. it indicates the direction of a place
B. Used to calculated area of a place D. It does not give visual comparisons of a place
6. A radius of a circle is 3cm; the scale is 1cm to 6km, what is the ground area of the circle
A. π36km2 B. π 18km2 C. π 324km2 D. π 9km2
7. One of the following is the characteristics of general purpose maps?
A. To show a single character C. have deep focus on their subjects
B. To show high level detail D. wide range of information
8.

9. If the statement scale of a map is 1cm to 10kms, its expression in representative fraction will
be
A.1:100,000 B. 1:1,000,000 C. 1:100,000 D. 1:10,000,000
10. A marginal information on a map that identify the copy right owner of a map is
A. Key B. Scale C. Date D. Author
11. The corresponding areal scale of the linear scale 1cm to 3km is
A. 1cm2 to 9km2 B. 1cm to 9km C. 1cm2 to 6km2 D. 1cm to 12km2

1.7. Map Enlargement and reduction

 We enlarge map by enlarging its scale

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 The size of the paper is increased as compared to the old one

 We enlarge when we need to show more details/features and
 we reduce when we need to be selective & to generalize information
 To reduce map decrease the scale of map
 To enlarge a map x-times the new map will be x-times the old map and to reduce it will
be 1/x times the old map
 The amount of increase or reduction of scale can be obtained by applying the following
formulae:

Methods of Map Enlargement and Reduction

A. Square method (free-hand)
B .Pantograph method (uses an instrument)
A. Using grid Square Method
This method of enlargement, or reduction, of scale can be used for any kind of drawing and the
result is relatively accurate if your measurements and tracings are carefully done.

B. Using the Pantograph Method

A pantograph is a mechanical device used for reproducing maps, drawings etc. at the same or
different scales. Maps that are enlarged or reduced using the pantograph are more accurate than
ones done using the square method.
A pantograph is made of four pieces of wood, metal or plastic. .

1.8. Relief on Maps

 Relief refers to the difference in altitude between the highest and lowest points in an area
or surface structure of any part of the earth.
 It relates to land features like plains, hills, plateaus, valleys, ridges, etc.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 These relief features have three dimensions (length, breadth and height)
 But a map on which they are represented has only two dimensions, (length and breadth).
Methods of Showing Relief on a Map
 There are different ways of showing relief on maps. These include:
1. Physiographic diagrams 2. Hachure [Link] coloring
4. Hill shading 5. Form lines [Link]
1. Physiographic Diagrams
 Early map makers used to represent relief features by diagrammatic pictures known as
physiographic diagrams.
 They show three-dimensional pictures of landscapes as viewed from the side or oblique
direction
 This method of showing relief is simple and easy to understand
 Limitation
 It shows the side and oblique view of the landscape
 Some geographic details of an area would be hidden from view behind the “backs” of
the pictures of hills or mountains.
 Exact heights and slopes of the land forms are not indicated.
 It lacks accuracy because it is drawn without scale
2. Hachure
 Hachures are short disconnected lines that represent slopes.
 They are drawn in the direction in which water flows.
 Originally they were used to represent mountains and valleys on simple sketch maps
 Basically, Hachures show the steepness of slopes.
 When slopes are steep, Hachures are put close together. For gentle slopes, the Hachures
are spaced wide apart
 Limitation
 Flat areas are unshaded. Therefore, plateaus and plains can be confused.
 Hachures do not indicate height and exact gradients.
 Hachures are laborious to draw and can be difficult to read and interpret
3. Layer coloring (Layer Tinting)
 It is a method of showing relief by using colors.
 The series of colors for showing different altitudes starts from sea level
 Limitation (Disadvantage)
 Color shading does not indicate gradual changes in slopes.
 The edges of the areas of different colors can suggest nonexistent physical boundaries.
 Dark colors can obscure details in the areas that they overlie.

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SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 Some colors can create false impressions in the map reader’s mind. For example, green
might suggest vegetation or a fertile area.

4. Hill shading
 Hill shading is also known as oblique illumination.
 It is a method of showing relief on a map, assuming an oblique light that illuminates
the landscape from the northwest corner of the map.
 Limitation (Disadvantage)
 It does not give absolute altitude.
 It fails to indicate clearly whether the ground is sloping upward or downward.
 It fails to indicate whether the unshaded areas are low or high-level areas. Hence,
plateaus and plains can be confused.
 Detailed map information can be obscured by shading
1. Form lines
 A form line is imaginary pecked or broken line joining points with the same approximate
height on a map.
 Usually they are drawn on topographic maps to show where survey work is incomplete or
poorly accomplished
 Limitation (Disadvantage)
 They are not drawn on a map at a fixed interval of altitude.
 Although they represent the relief of an area, they provide little or no reference to sea
level.
 In many cases they are unnumbered.
 They are usually drawn with broken lines.
2. Contour Lines or Isohypses
 Contour lines are the most common and accurate way of showing relief on modern maps.
 Contour lines are lines drawn on a map joining places of the same elevation above mean
sea level.
 They give almost true altitudes.
 They also indicate different slopes and land forms
Properties of Contour Lines
 Contour lines are imaginary lines used on a map to represent relief. Contours do not
really exist on the earth’s surface. The only contour line that exists both on the map and
in the field is the sea level.
 contour lines are drawn at a fixed height interval (this interval is known as vertical
interval or contour interval)

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 Contour lines cannot merge or cross one another on maps except at vertical cliffs,
waterfalls or over hanging cliffs
 Contour lines never branch. If you see branching lines on a map, they represent features
such as rivers, roads, boundaries, etc.
 Contour lines are always numbered in the direction towards which altitude increases
 Contour lines indicate the nature of slopes. When contour lines are far apart, they show
gentle slopes. But when contour lines are close together, they show steep slopes
 Contour lines can show different types slope
1. Even slope: -has a constant gradient from the bottom to the top.
2. Concave slope: - the contour lines are widely spaced at the base and are close
together at the top.
A concave slope has a steep gradient at the top. The gradient becomes gentler towards
the bottom
3. Convex slope: - the contour lines are close together at the base and widely spaced at
the top. The slope has a steep gradient at the bottom that becomes gentler towards the
top
4. Terraced or Stepped Slope: -the contour lines are alternatively close together and
far apart in a regular pattern. This means the gradient changes several times between
the bottom and the top of the slope
5. Escarpment:- is the steep slope of a plateau
 Scarp slope :- is the steeper slope of an escarpment
 Dip slope:-is the gentler slope of an escarpment
 Contour maps can show different relief features by using contour lines with different
shapes and spacing. For instance
 mountains or hill:- represented by closed contours with more or less circular
shapes, with values increasing towards the center and with the top indicated by a
spot height
 mountain ranges:- Closed contours with elongated shapes, with values
increasing towards the center with no specific tips indicate mountain ranges
Different Methods of Showing Altitudes on Contour Maps
 Contour lines show altitude and relief on modern maps. However, they do not show the
specific heights of individual features such as mountain peaks, hilltops, valley floors,
towers, towns, roads or railways.
 Such heights are indicated on maps, using the following methods:
1. Spot heights
They are marked on the map with a dot follow by an altitude number:
• 1940 meter

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SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 They provide accurate altitudes for individual points, such as those along a road, on a
mountain top, or between contour lines.
 Unlike contour lines, spot heights do not give a good visual impression of the general
relief.
 They exist only on maps.
1. Trigonometric points
 They exist both on maps and in the field.
 They mostly mark features such as hilltops and mountain peaks.
 On the ground, the relevant feature is permanently marked with a pillar (concrete).
 On maps, they are shown with a small triangle enclosing a dot, followed by the exact
altitude in meters
2. Benchmarks
 They indicate precise heights along highways or railways.
 They are shown on stones, bricks or bronze plates on walls of buildings and other
convenient places.
 They are useful for road construction engineers and others who wish to know the precise
altitude of a main transport network.
3. Calculating Altitude:
 When the altitude of a point on a contour map is not shown by any of the above methods,
it can be obtained by measurement and calculation, using the interpolation method.
 This can be done only if the given point is located between two contour lines

 Where: d 1 = is distance of required point from the lower contour,

d2 = is distance of required point from the upper contour,
D = is distance between the upper and lower contours,
VI = is vertical interval,
LC= is the lower contour and, HC is the higher contour
Gradients on contour map
 Gradient (GR) is the degree or rate of change of slope or elevation between two points.
 It is calculated using altitude difference (vertical distance) and map distance (horizontal
distance) between two points.
 It can be expressed in any of these three different ways:

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

Where: GR = gradient, AD = altitude difference,

MD = map distance. Usually we express gradient as a percentage. This expression is the
simplest to use, and it is relatively easy to calculate.
1.4.3 Field Distances (FD)
In any map exercise, you may need to find three different types of distances. Straight line
distance, bending distance and field distance. Here we consider field distance.

Field distance is the actual distance, which takes into account the effect of relief. It is the actual
distance measured on the ground. To obtain field distance, a map user needs to know:

 the map distance between the two points given

 the difference in altitude between the two points
 mathematically it can be expressed as:
FD2 = MD2 + AD2
The map distance b/n two points can be obtained from the map. However, the difference in
altitudes between the same two points can be obtained from the contours on the map. The
following example will illustrate this briefly.
Example:
What is the actual distance in the field between point A and point B in the map shown below?

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Solution
Procedure:
 Measure the distance on the map between the two points using a ruler. It is equal to 4 cm.
 The scale of the map = 1:25,000.
 If 1 cm on the map represents 25,000 cm on the ground, how much is 4 cm on the
ground?

Solution:

To convert the distance into kilometers

The difference in altitude between point A and point B can be obtained from the contour map.
The difference in altitude (AD) = (350 – 50) meters
= 300 meters = 0.3 kilometers
Then, FD can be calculated with the help of the Pythagorean Theorem.

Thus, the field distance = 1.04 km.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

Exercise Two
Choose the best answer for the following four alternatives
1. If a map with the scale of 1:1,200,000 is enlarged three times the scale of the newly enlarged
map will be
A. 1:400,000 B. 1:40,000 C. 1:4,000,000 D. 1:36,000
2. One of the following does not represent the characteristics of contour lines.
A. they indicate the nature of slopes C. They are always numbered
B. They intersect and branch out D. It draws at fixed interval
3. The bearing of 3150 represents____________
A. SW B.W C. NW [Link]
4. The one that exist both on maps and in the field is _______.
A. Trigonometric points C. Spot heights
B. Benchmarks D. A and B
5. In _______ slopes, the contour lines are widely spaced at the base and are close together at the
top.
A. Concave slope B. Terraced slope C. Even slope D. Convex slop
6. Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with value increased towards the center
represent:-
A. Mountain B. Depression C. Valley D. plateau
7. The most common and accurate way of showing relief on modern maps is:-
A. hill shading B. Form lines D. contour lines D. layer coloring

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

UNIT TWO
The Physical Environment of the Earth
2. Physical Environment of the World and Ethiopia
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 understand the concept of universe
 know the position of the earth in the solar system
 Explain the origin of the earth.
 Understand the characteristics of each type of rocks and their distribution in Ethiopia

2.1.1. The Earth in the Universe

 The universe is the totality of space and cosmos, in which everything is found.
 All heavenly bodies, including all stars, together with the sun, comets, meteors, planets
and their satellites are found in the very vast space called the universe.
 A galaxy is a large group of stars. The universe contains many galaxies. The Milky Way
is our galaxy. Within the Milky Way is our solar system.
 A solar system is a smaller group of heavenly bodies, which includes the sun at the
center and the nine planets and their satellites and asteroids.

The Origin and Structure of the Earth

The Origin of the Earth
 The earth's origin is related to the process of formation of the solar system.
 Some scientists believe that the solar system, of which the earth is part, formed from a
large flammable of hot whirling gases.
 The flammable was loosely packed gases, largely hydrogen and helium, and dust
particles about 4.6 billion years before the present.
 The gases and dust particles gradually drew together because of gravitational pull and
formed a thin disc. The disc, in due course, split into rings and kept spinning.
 The spinning rings at the center formed the sun, while the outer rings resulted in the
formation of the nine planets, including the earth.
 The earth is one of the nine planets that, along with the others, revolve around the sun.
 The orderly nature of our solar systems leads most researchers to conclude that the earth
and the other planets formed at the same time and from the same material as the sun.
 The solar system is the sun and the objects that are traveling around it.
 Our solar system is elliptical in shape .the sun is at the center of the solar system.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 Our solar system is always in motion.

 The earth and other planets are in continuous movement.
 Each planet is unique in terms of its size, orbit, period of revolution and rotation; number
of moons.

The planets can be grouped into two. These are:

I. The inner planets- Mercury, Venus, earth and mars. They are also known as four
rocky planets.
II. The outer planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. They are largely made up of
gases.

2.1.2. The Structure of the Earth

 It is composed of three different layers as determined by deep drilling and seismic
evidences.
I. The earth’s crust
 It is the outermost and thinnest layer.
 It is relatively cool; the crust consists of hard, strong rock.
The Crust has two different parts

A. the Oceanic crust is between 4 and 7 kilometers thick and is composed mostly of dark, dense
basalt.

B. The continental crust is about 20 to 40 kilometers, although under mountain ranges it can be
as much as 70 kilometers thick and it is composed of light-colored, less dense granite. Relative to
its size, Earth’s crust is about as thin as an apples skin about 0.01 percent in volume.

II. The Mantle

 It is almost 2900 kilometers thick and makes up 80 - 84 % of the earth’s volume.
 It is made up of a semi-molten rock called magma.
 In the upper parts of the mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft
and begins to melt.
 The chemical composition is similar throughout the mantle, the earth’s
temperature and pressure increase with depth.

III. The Core

 The core is the innermost layer of the earth.
 It is a sphere with a radius of about 3470 kilometers,
 It is composed largely of iron and nickel.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 The outer core is molten because of the high temperature at the center of
the core. Its temperature is about 6000oC.
 The pressure is more than 1 million times that of the earth’s atmosphere at
sea level.
 The extreme pressure compresses the inner core into a solid, despite the
fact that it is even hotter than the molten outer core.
 About 15 % of Earth’s volume is an iron - nickel core the size of Mars.

2.1.3. The Movement of Continents

 The Movement of Continents arises from the concept of Continental Drift theory.
 This theory was forwarded by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, polar explorer
and visionary.
 According to Wegener our world was made up of a single supercontinent, a huge
landmass, that he called Pangaea (pan = all, gaea = Earth).
 Wegener further postulated that during the Mesozoic era, about 200 million years ago,
Pangaea began to break apart into two.
A. Gondwanaland (which consisted of South America, Africa, the Arabian Peninsula,
the Indian subcontinent, Australia and Antarctica) and
B. Laurasia which included the North America and Eurasia. At a later stage, the two
broke farther apart into smaller continents, which then 'drifted' to their present positions.

2.1.4. Components of the Earths Physical Environment

The physical environment of the earth can be divided into four major parts: The lithosphere, the
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. Each of them is corresponding to rock, water, air and
life respectively.

2.1.5. Components of the Lithosphere

Rocks
Rocks are a naturally formed solid aggregate of one or more minerals. Geologists divide the
rocks into three groups based on their process of formation.
 Igneous rock
 Sedimentary rock
 Metamorphic rock
Igneous Rock
 The term igneous comes from Latin word ignis, which mean fire.
 It formed through cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Types of Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks divided in to two categories based on position of formation.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

They are Extrusive and Intrusive Igneous rock.

A) Extrusive (volcanic) rock
 They formed when lava cools and solidifies on the surface of the earth.
 They have fine grain (texture) because they cool very quickly that they have insufficient
time to form large grains.
 Crystals are too small to be seen with naked eyes.
 Basalt is a fine grained and a common outcropping volcanic rock in highland parts
of Ethiopia
 Obsidian is naturally volcanic glass containing in no crystal.
 Pumice, rhyolite, andesite scoria are also example of volcanic rock
B. Intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks:

 They formed when magma solidifies within the crust,

 The magma cools slowly, and the crystals form over hundreds of thousands to millions of
years. As
 Most plutonic rocks are coarse-grained.
 Granite is the most abundant rock in continental crusts. It is coarse-grained, and the
crystals are clearly visible. Example:- granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, peridotite
Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are made-up from Small particles of matter, sediments of
weathered rocks and shell or other remains of living things.
 Sediments transported by wind, water and ice and dropped in a place where they
collected into layers.
 Most sedimentary rocks formed when transported sediments accumulated and
then compacted or cemented together
Types of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastic sedimentary rock

 They are composed of fragments of weathered rocks known as clasts.

 Sediments transported and deposited and then cemented.
 They make up about 85 % of all the sedimentary rocks. E.g. Sandstone, siltstone, and
shale
2. Chemical Sedimentary rocks
 They formed by direct precipitation and evaporation of minerals in water.
 Precipitation occurs when a solid matter called precipitate formed during chemical
reaction.
 Evaporation is a process that forms solid matter called evaporates when water evaporates.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

E.g. Gypsum, halite (table salt), nitrate and potash

3. Bio-Clastic sedimentary rock
 They are composed of shell fragments and similar remains of living organisms.
 The fragments are clastic but they are of the biological origin.
 Limestone formed from the shells of snails. Chalk is a good example of limestone.
4. Organic sedimentary rocks
 They consist of solidified remains of plants and animals
 When plants died, they decomposed with oxygen.
 Coal is sedimentary rock made up of decomposed and compacted remains of plants.
 There are three types of coal. They are: lignite, bituminous and anthracite
1. Lignite: a soft, dark brown in color.
 It develops from peat. It has a carbon content of 35% which gives out only moderate
amount of heat.
2. Bituminous: it is a black in color, shiny, our.
 It has a carbon content of between 45% to 80%
 It gives more heat than lignite
3. Anthracite: it is very hard, shiny and clean coal containing over 90% of carbon.
It produces great heat and leaves little ash
Metamorphic Rocks
They sometimes called changed rocks.
They are produced from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, and even other metamorphic
rocks through heat and pressure inside the earth’s crust
Under the influence of heat, limestone changes to marble and sandstone changes to
meta-quartzite.
Under the influence of both heat and pressure, Mudstone and shale change to schist or
quartzite, respectively,
Distribution of Major Rocks in Ethiopia

Major rocks in Ethiopia include igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. These rocks are
found exposed at the surface in different parts of the country.
 Central part of Ethiopia is mainly covered by Igneous(volcanic) rock
 Eastern and Southeastern lowland part of Ethiopia is covered by sedimentary rocks.
 The northern, southern and western edges of the country covered by Metamorphic rocks
N.B: Among the three rock types, many parts of Ethiopia covered by igneous rock.

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Exercise Three
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which one of the following minerals or rock has naturally vegetation background?
A. sandstone B. potash C. Gypsum D. coal
2. Which part of the earth’s structures takes the smallest proportion?
A. Basalt B. mantle C. Core D. crust
3. Among the following list of rocks which one has coarse –grained texture?
A. Gypsum B. obsidian C. Granite D. Basalt
4. How the earth is formed?
A. Under so much cooling process in Precambrian era
B. At the same time and through the same processes as every other planet
C. From a solidified cloud of dust and gases, some 3.6 billion years ago
D. Out of different matter from other planets in our solar system
5. All are extrusive igneous rock except. A. Basalt B. Granite C. Obsidian D. Pumice
6. The earth surrounded by a life giving gaseous envelope refers to;
A. Biosphere B. Lithosphere C. Atmosphere D. Hydrosphere
7. The most common rock found in central part of Ethiopia is
A. Metamorphic rock B. Igneous Rock C. Sedimentary rock D. Adigrat
sandstone
8. Which of the following continent did not part of Gondwanaland?
A. Africa B. South America C. Australia D. Europe
9. Which of the following statement is true about Continental drift theory?
A. It was developed by Alfred Wegner.
B. South America and North America fit together like a pieces of jigsaw puzzle
C. Africa and Europe were the two super continents when Pangaea splits
D. The first single continent was known as Gondwanaland
10. Which of the following is true about universe?
A. Everybody knows about the boundary of universe B. Universe is small object in
size
C. The universe is limitless C. it is similar shape and size with the earth
11. among the four physical environments of the earth which of the following is occupied by
solid earth?
A. Biosphere B. Lithosphere C. Hydrosphere D. Atmosphere
12. Which one is the correct order of the three layers of the earth with increasing in temperature
and Pressure? A. Crust → Mantle → Core C. Core → Crust → Mantle
B. Crust → Core → mantle D. Mantle → Core → Crust
13. Which one of the following is correct about the position of the earth in the solar system?
A. The earth is out of the Milky Way

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B. The earth is the fourth planet from the sun

C. The earth is between Venus and Mars in the solar system
D. The earth is among the outer planets in the solar system
14. What is the major characteristic of extrusive igneous rocks that distinguish them from
intrusive igneous rocks?
A. They have small or fine particles C. Their textures are course grained
B. their solidification process is low D. they contain large crystals
15. Which one of the following is true about mantel?
A. Mantle contains molten rocks known as magma
B. Mantel is found in the inner most part of the earth
C. The temperature in mantle is lower than that of the crust
D. It is the thinnest section of all layers of the earth
16. Which one of the following is an organic type of mineral?
A. Copper B. Granite C. Coal D. Lead
17. What is the original rock that helped the creation of a metamorphic rock called Marble?
[Link] B. Sand stone C. lime stone D. shale
18. The inner most layer of the earth (core) is largely composed of:-
A. Aluminum and magnesium B. Iron and Nickel
C. Silicon and magnesium D. Aluminum and Iron
19. Among the following list of rocks, which one is type of chemical sedimentary?
A. Sand stone B. Shale C. Potash D. Coal
20. Which one of the following explains the structure of the earth?
A. Mantle is the thinnest layer of the earth C. Continental crust is composed of thin granite
B. Inner core is the origin of the molten magma D. Crust has more intense pressure than the
other layers
21. Which physical environment of the earth is associated with ground water potential of an area?
A. The atmosphere [Link] biosphere C. The hydrosphere [Link] Lithosphere

2.2. Forces that Change the Surface of the Earth

After completing this section you will be able to:
 analyze the internal and external forces that change the surface of the earth and relate
them to the resulting landforms;
 appreciate the origin, composition and the layers of the earth’s atmosphere;
 understand the association between elements and controls of climate and interpret climate
data;
 realize the concept of region and distinguish different temperature zones of the earth and
describe Ethiopia as a tropical mountainous country;

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2.2.1. Internal Forces

 Those forces that drive energy from the interior part of the earth are called internal
forces.
 Internal forces form the ups and downs on the earth’s crust by breaking and bending
(faulting and folding) it.
 Forces inside the crust cause folding, faulting (cracking), volcanism and earthquakes.
A. Folding is one of the internal processes which occur when two forces act towards each other
from opposing sides.

 Rock layers are bent into folds.

 The process by which folds are formed due to compression is known as folding.
 There are large-scale and small-scale folds.
Folding can be explained using two important parameters. Axial Plane and Limbs

Types of folding: different types of folds are created, based on the nature of the forces applied
on bedrock. If the fold is upward and convex, it is called anticline. If the fold is downward, it is
called syncline.

Fold Mountains

Fold Mountains are usually formed from sedimentary rocks and are usually found along the
edges of continents.
There are two types of Fold Mountains:
I. young fold mountains (10 to 25 million years of age)
 They are known as Alpine organic.
 Example, the Atlas mountain in Africa, the Rockies mountain in North America and the
Himalayas mountain in Asia )
II. Old fold mountains (over 200 million years of age,
 They are known as Hercynian
Example: the Cape Range, in South Africa, the Urals in Russia and the Appalachians of
the USA).
 This process of mountain building is called orogeny.
Faulting
Movements in the crust of the earth sometimes make cracks. These cracks are called faults.
Faulting can be caused by either lateral or vertical forces, which can be either tensional or
compressional. Tension causes a normal fault, and compression causes a reverse fault.
Major features formed by faulting include rift valleys and block/Horst Mountains

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Rift Valleys

A rift valley is a valley formed by faulting. When two parallel faults occur on the surface of the
earth, and when the land between the two faults sinks down, a rift valley is formed.

 The largest rift valley in the world is the East African Rift Valley.
 It extends from Syria to Mozambique, passing through the Red Sea, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Tanzania, DR Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.
 The total length of the East African Rift Valley is about 7,200 km, of which 5,600 km is
in Africa.
 The Ethiopian Rift Valley is a part of the East African Rift Valley.
 It extends from northeast to south west. Features found in the Rift Valley include active
volcanoes, lakes, hot springs and fumaroles
Block (Horst) Mountains
 It is formed when land between two parallel faults is pushed upward due to pressure from
inside the earth.
 If there are two parallel faults, the crustal block between them may either rise to produce
a Horst (block) mountain, or fall, to produce a rift valley.
Examples:
 The Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America.
 The Harz Mountains in Germany.
 The Afar block mountain in Ethiopia.
 The Ruwenzori in Africa.
Volcanism
 It is the process by which magma; gases, water vapor, ashes and other solid materials are
forced out to the surface.
 Inside the earth the temperature is very hot.
 This high temperature changes rocks into molten magma.
 When the magma emerges on to the surface, it cools and hardens. It is then called lava.
 Magma reaches the earth’s surface through two kinds of holes. They are vents and
fissures.
 Magma may force its way violently through a small hole called a vent. If lava emerges
via a vent, it builds up into a volcano (cone-shaped mound), and if it emerges via a
fissure, it builds up to form a lava plateau or lava flow.
The most important types of volcanic intrusion features
 A batholith is a very large mass of magma which accumulates in the crust. It is the
largest structure.

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 A laccolith is a mushroom shaped body of intrusive igneous rock. Smaller than a

batholith.
 A dike is formed when magma solidifies in a vertical or near-vertical crack.
 A sill is formed when magma solidifies horizontally or nearly horizontally along a
bedding plane.
Table 2.1: Types of volcanoes
Active volcano Erupts from time to time Erta’li, Fentale Dubbi and
Damiali
Dormant volcano Has not erupted for a long Tatali and Dabbahu
time but may erupt again in
the future
Extinct volcano Has not erupted within Mt. Zuquala, Ras Dashen and
historic time Batu

Importance of Volcanic Eruptions:

 Give us some ideas about the interior of the earth.
 Provide fertile soil.
 Provide hot springs (with medical value).
 Generate geothermal energy
 Help in the formation and concentration of minerals.
 Help in the creation of new land.
Earthquake

 Earthquakes are sudden movements in the earth’s crust.

 Earthquakes are frequently associated with faults.
 They take place along fault lines where the earth’s crust is weak.
 When an earthquake occurs, vibrations from the center spread out in the form of waves in
all directions.
 The point at which an earthquake originates is called the focus.
 The point on the earth’s surface immediately above the focus is called the epicenter. As
the vibrations spin out from the center, the damage they cause becomes less and less.
 The intensity of an earthquake is measured by an instrument called a seismometer, and is
recorded on a seismograph.
 The scale which gives the magnitude is called the Richter scale.
 It ranges from 0 to 9. Each number of this scale indicates a tremor that is ten times
stronger than the next lower number.
 The strongest ever recorded earthquake was the Valdivia earthquake in Chile that
occurred on May 22, 1960 (9.5 on the Richter scale).

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Effects of Earthquakes
 destruction of life and property, an earthquake causes:
 Displacement of parts of the earth’s crust vertically or laterally.
 Landslides and deep cracks in surface rocks.
 The devastation of cities, fires and diseases.
 The rise or lowering of the sea floor.
Major earthquake belts of the world
About 80% of all earthquakes occur in three regions. They are
Around the Pacific Ocean zone. The largest earthquake and volcano zone lies along the
edges of the Pacific Ocean. This zone is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Across Southern Europe and Southern Asia.
The west-coast areas of North and South America.
The two most recent earthquakes in Ethiopia measuring more than 5 on the Richter scale
occurred:
 July 14, 1960, near Lake Shalla with a magnitude of 6 on the Richter scale.
 June 2, 1961, in Karakore.

2.2.2. External Forces

Weathering
 External forces can lower the level of the land by washing it away, and this process is
called denudation.
 Denudation consists of weathering and erosion.
 Weathering includes disintegration (physical weathering), which breaks rocks into
smaller pieces and decomposition (chemical weathering), which forms new substances.

Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

 It breaks the rocks into smaller pieces.
 Its main agents (causes) are temperature changes, frost action and the action of plants
and animals.
The effects of temperature changes: The temperature variation between day and night causes
rock to expand and to contract. This process causes cracks to develop. In time, the cracked layer
peels off and falls to the ground. This process is called exfoliation

The effects of frost action: rock breaks up into pieces and these fragments accumulate around
the lower slopes of the rock. This material is called scree. Frost action is very common in the
winter season in the temperate zone and in some high mountains all year round

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The effects of plant and animal action: Plants and animals also cause weathering. For example,
seeds may fall in cracks of rocks. If water collects there, it forms suitable conditions for the seeds
to germinate.

Chemical Weathering (Decomposition)

 It is a process that forms new substances, and it is affected by the minerals in the rock.
 Its main agents are rain action, plant and animal actions.
Rain action

 As rain water passes through the atmosphere, it takes in carbon dioxide (CO2) and forms
a weak carbonic acid.
 A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering. example carbonation
H2O + CO2⇒ carbonic acid ( H2CO3) ⇒ dissolves and erodes limestone and forms
caves.
Example: Sofomer Cave along the River Weiyb in Bale.
Plants and animals action on chemical weathering
 Plants absorb minerals, and decaying vegetation produces organic acid, which causes a
further breakdown of minerals.
 Bacteria in the presence of water break down certain minerals in the soil.
Different landform features formed by chemical weathering

 A stalactite is a limestone column that hangs down from the ceiling of the cave.
 A stalagmite is a limestone column that builds upwards from the floor of the cave.
 A pillar is formed when a stalactite and a stalagmite join together.
 When rain water dissolves oxygen and reacts with iron in rocks, the rocks become
rusty.
 Pollution in towns and cities increases chemical weathering.
Erosion
 Erosion is the transporting of weathered material by various natural forces such as
moving water, wind and moving ice.
Erosion occurs when particles of rock or soil are:
 washed away by a river
 removed by waves of the sea
 crushed under a glacier
 blown away by the wind

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Erosion by Running Water

 Rivers are the most important of all natural agents

 The work of running water includes eroding, transporting and depositing eroded
material.
There are three types of running water erosion:
1. Sheet erosion: occurs when surface water moves in a wide flow.
2. Rill erosion: occurs when surface water cuts relatively small channels.
3 .Gully erosion: occurs when floods cut deep wide gorges.
The course of a river, from its source to its mouth, can be divided into 3 stages.

The Upper Course of the river and its characteristics

 Flows very fast and vertical erosion
 head ward erosion
 forms v-shaped valley
 . Waterfalls, Rapids, gorges
The middle Course of the river and its characteristics
 Lateral erosion
 Meander or bends are formed
 Transportation
 Wider and larger (forms u- shape valley)
The lower Course of the river and its characteristics
 Lower gradient
 Deposition
 Flat Flood plain
 Levees, deltas, ox-bow lakes are the main features
Erosion and Deposition by Sea Waves

 Waves are formed when wind moves over the surface of the sea.
 This causes the particles of water to move in a circular motion, which forms a wave.
 The work of the sea along the coast includes erosion, transportation and deposition.
Some of these features formed along the shoreline are
 Beach is a strip of land along the sea coast covered with various types of sediment.
 A Spit is a narrow ridge of sand. It projects into the sea but is attached to the land at one
end.
 Lagoon is an area of saltwater separated from the sea by loose sandbanks.
Wind Erosion and Deposition

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Wind erosion is common in desert and semi-desert areas. Wind erosion and deposition form
different landforms such as

Sand dune is a small hill of sand formed by the action of the wind.
Barchan is a sand hill that has a crescent-moon shape.
Loess deposit is a deposition of fertile soil in the desert by wind.

2.3. Weather and Climate

2.3.1. Earth and Atmosphere
The air that surrounds the earth is called the atmosphere. It is an envelope of transparent
colorless, tasteless and odorless gases found above the earth’s surface.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases, suspended dust particles and condensed moisture
droplets which are collectively known as aerosols.
Table 2.3: Gases of Earth’s atmosphere
Major gases Minor gases Rare gases

Nitrogen 78% Argon 0.93% Hydrogen, ozone, methane,

neon, helium, krypton , xenon,
Oxygen 20.95% Carbon dioxide carbon monoxide
0.03%

Structure of the Atmosphere

 The earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature variation.
 They are troposphere; stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere.

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Table 2.4: Atmosphere layers and their characters

Name of the layer Average height Major characteristics

Troposphere Extends from sea Contains 75% of the atmospheric mass.

level to 8/16 kms  Uniformly, temperature decreases with an
increase of altitude.
 The top boundary is known as the tropo-
pause which is characterized by high
velocity of winds
Stratosphere Extends up ward  Has constant temperature.
to 50 km  High concentration of ozone gases.
 Its upper limit is called the stratopause
Mesosphere Extends from 50  the coldest part of the atmosphere.
to 80/85 kms  upper surface is known as the mesopause.
 Temperature decreases to nearly –100oC
at the top of the mesosphere.
 Meteorites burn and disintegrate because
of friction here.
Thermosphere Extends from  Have extremely low density
 Ionospheres 80/85 kilometres  Very little heat can be absorbed, held or
 exosphere upward into space conducted.
 Temperature rises as high as 1200oC.
 The ionosphere is a layer of electrically
charged particles. These electrons and
ions are useful for communication because
they reflect radio waves.
 The exosphere begins at an altitude of
about 500 to 700 kms above the earth’s
surface and extends to interplanetary
space.

2.3.2. Meaning of Weather and Climate

Weather is the current state of the atmosphere over a short period of time. Like precipitation,
air pressure, temperature, wind, sunshine etc.
Climate is the average of all weather conditions of an area over a long period of time. (more
than 30 years climatic data).

[Link]. Major Elements of Weather and Climate

The major elements of weather & climate are temperature, rainfall, winds, air pressure,
humidity clouds...

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Temperature
 It is the amount of hotness or coldness of an object.
 The sun is the primary heat source for the earth and its atmosphere.
 The sun’s energy is called insulation or solar radiation, and this turns into heat energy at
the earth’s surface.
 Not all the energy that originates from the sun reaches the earth’s surface.
 About 19% absorbed by the atmosphere, 30% is reflected back to upper space (which means
4% reflected by the earth’s surface,20% reflected by cloud and 6% reflected by atmosphere)
 Only about 51% is absorbed by the earth’s surface.

Heat transfer between substances occurs in three different ways.

1. Radiation
 Transfer of energy from one body to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
 Electromagnetic waves usually travel through empty space.
 The sun warms the earth through radiation of electromagnetic waves.
2. Conduction
 Transfer of heat through molecular contacts within and between bodies.
 Molecules are always in motion.
 Conduction is more important in solids.
 Air and water are poor conductors of heat.
3. Convection
 Transfer of heat due to differences in density.
 Convection is the method by which heat moves through gases or liquids.
 As gas or liquid is heated, it warms, expands and rises because it becomes less dense.
When the gas or liquid cools it becomes dense and falls.
Measuring and Recording Air Temperature
 Temperature is measured by thermometer.
 There are two types of thermometers: maximum and minimum thermometers.
A. A maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer that has a constriction near the
bulb end.
 The freezing point of mercury is –38.83oC, and the boiling point is 356.73 oC
 Alcohol freezes at a temperature of negative (–130oC)
B. A minimum thermometer has alcohol as its liquid, and it sets a metal index
 . Alcohol thermometers may be used to measure temperatures from -130oC (freezing
point of alcohol) to 785oC (boiling point of alcohol).

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 The standard thermometer for environmental measurements needs only to cover the range
between -30oC to 50oC.
 Maximum and minimum thermometers are kept in a box-like shelter which is known as a
Stevenson screen.
The change between the highest and the lowest temperatures during 24 hours of a day is
known as the daily march of temperature or the diurnal range.
The change of temperature from month to month within a year is known as the annual
march of temperature.
Daily average (mean) temperature: is obtained by adding the maximum and minimum
temperatures of a day and dividing the sum by two.
Example 1: If the maximum daily temperature is 25oC, and the minimum daily
temperature is 5oC,

Daily average temperature =

Rainfall
 Rainfall is liquid precipitation.
 Any moisture that falls from the clouds towards the earth’s surface is called precipitation.
 Precipitation may occur in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet and drizzle.
 Precipitation is part of the water cycle or hydrological cycle.
The hydrological cycle : water exists in solid, liquid and gaseous state
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is converted into gases.
Transpiration is the transfer and change of water from plants to water vapor in the air.
Evapotranspiration is the combined loss of water through the process of evaporation and
transpiration.
Condensation is the process by which vapor becomes liquid.
Sublimation is the process in which ice changes into water vapor without first becoming
a liquid, and vice versa.

Types of rainfall
There are three main types of rainfall.
1 Convectional rainfall:
 At high altitudes, the water vapor cools,
condenses to form clouds and falls as rain.
 This type of rainfall is common in humid areas
where temperature is high throughout the year.

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2 Orographic (relief) Rainfalls:

 It occurs when moist air is forced to rise over mountains.
 As it rises, it cools, then condenses and falls as rain.
 Almost all orographic rainfall falls on the windward side of mountains.
3 Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfalls
 Two air masses (warm and cold) meet; they do not mix freely with each other.
 The warmer and less dense air is forced to rise over the colder and heavier air.
 The place where warm air and cold air meet is called a front. Frontal rainfall is very
common in the middle and high latitudes (60o north and south from the equator).
Measuring and Recording Rainfall
 Rainfall is measured using an instrument called Rain gauge.
 The amount of rainfall is measured in millimeters and is recorded.
Air Pressure
 The air around us has weight.
 This weight exerts pressure on the surface of the earth.
 Atmospheric pressure is not the same all over the earth, and it is not the same even in one
place all the time.
 Pressure is measured by a mercury barometer. Normal pressure, at sea level, is about 760
mm/1013 mb.
 The distribution of pressure over the earth’s surface depends on (1) the altitude of places
above sea level and, (2) most importantly, on temperature.
 Pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
 Air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with increasing altitude.
Why air pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with increasing altitude?

 High temperature makes air expand, so that it has a lower density and pressure.
 Low temperature makes the air to contract, resulting in a higher density and creating an
area of high pressure.
 The distribution of air pressure over the globe is known as the horizontal distribution of
pressure.
 Pressure distribution can be shown on a map.
 Lines connecting all places that have the same pressure are called isobars.

Global Pressure Belts:

1. Equatorial low pressure belt (Doldrums):

 Located from 5 North to 5 South.
o o

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 There is tremendous heat, and thus warm air, creating low pressure. Also, the
centrifugal force is very high at the equator, because the earth’s velocity of rotation
is high. Hence, the air masses tend to be thrown outwards, resulting in low
pressure.
 Wind speed is low, that is why this pressure belt is called the doldrums (Belt of
Calm).
2. Tropical high pressure belt (Horse Latitude):
 Located from 30 to 35 North and South.
o o

 Except for two months, temperature is usually high.

 Here the pressure is high, because pressure depends on the rotation and movement
of air (as winds from the Doldrums rise up and accumulate here. Also winds from
the sub-polar low pressure belt accumulate here).
3. Sub-polar low pressure belts:
 Located from 60oto 65o, North and South.
 Here the low pressure is created because of intense high pressure at the poles.

4. Polar Highs

 Located near the north and south poles.

The polar zones have permanent centers of high pressure known as polar highs
Wind

Wind is air in horizontal motion. Winds have speed and direction. Wind force (speed) and wind
direction are affected by

 Pressure gradient: - is the distance between isobars.

 When isobars close together, wind speed become high

 When isobars wide apart, wind speed become low.

 Frictional force: E.g. Forest, Mountain, Buildings

 Coriolis force: is the deflection of wind by the movement of the earth

Deflection of Winds Due to the Earth’s Rotation

Because of the earth’s rotation, the direction of wind blow may not be at right angles to wind
isobars, but rather at slanting angles to them. This deflection is caused by friction. The speed of
wind also affects the amount of deflection. The force which affects the direction of movements
of winds is called the “Coriolis force.’’ The deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

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Near the ground, where the winds are slowed by friction, the air blows at an acute angle toward
areas of low pressure, forming great gyres creating cyclones and anticyclones.

Cyclones are atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation about a low-
pressure center. They move inward, anticlockwise, in the Northern Hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones are commonly known as lows or low
pressure areas.
Anti-cyclones are vast areas of high pressure which have a diverging system of surface
winds. The winds in anti-cyclones blow outward in the anti-clockwise direction in the
Southern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere.
Anticyclones are commonly called highs or high pressure areas.
N.B: The instrument that measures wind speed is called Anemometer. wind direction is shown
by a wind vane. The aero vane (sky vane) is an instrument that indicates both wind speed and
direction

Types of Winds
There are three types of surface winds. They are: planetary, monsoon and Local winds
A. Planetary winds and their relationship with pressure belts:
It blows over large areas of the earth’s surface and has wide influence over the earth’s
surface.
They are closely associated with the world pressure belts.
Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
The most common planetary winds are trade winds, westerly and polar easterlies.
B. Monsoon winds:
 They are seasonal winds whose movements are controlled by pressure that differs during
different seasons.
 Monsoon winds are very common in South and South East Asia.
 The direction of monsoon winds changes between summer and winter.
C. Local winds:
 They affect only limited areas and blow for a short period of time.
 Local winds are caused by the nature of the physical features of the area. The main local
winds are:
I. Land and sea breezes
II. Mountain and valley breezes
I. Land and sea breezes:

Common along coastal areas.

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During the daytime, temperature on the land is higher than on the water/sea. Wind blows
from the sea towards the land. This is known as a sea breeze.
At night the land is colder than the sea. So low pressure develops over the sea. The wind
blows from land towards the sea. This is known as a land breeze.
II. Mountain and valley breezes:

During the day the air at the bottom of the valley becomes warmer. As a result it expands
and rises along the mountain slopes. This is known as a valley breeze
At night the wind over the slope of the mountain becomes cool. Then this cooler and
heavier mountain air slides down slopes towards the valley. This is called a mountain
breeze.
Clouds
A cloud is a dense concentration of very fine invisible water droplets, sleet or ice crystals.
Clouds are formed by the condensation of water vapour below the dew point in the atmosphere.
There are varieties of clouds, based on their height, appearance and shape.

Table 2.7: Types of clouds

Group Cloud type Description

High clouds Cirrostratus Thin, wispy, appears in sheets

> 6000 m
Cirrus Thin, wispy, filamentous or curly, mostly composed
of ice crystals.
Cirrocumulus . Small, puffy, patchy and/or with a wave-like
appearance
Middle clouds Alto cumulus Medium-sized, puffy, patchy, scattered clouds
2000 – 6000 m – often in linear bands.

Alto stratus Thin and uniform

Low clouds Stratocumulus . Broad and flat on the bottom, puffy on the top
< 2000 m Uniform, flat thick to thin layered clouds.
Stratus
Mostly composed of liquid droplets
.

Nimbostratus Uniform, dark, flat, low clouds that produce

precipitation.
Mostly composed of liquid droplets.

Vertical clouds Cumulus . Puffy and piled up

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

< 500 and > 1800 Cumulonimbus . Can cause lightning, hail, strong rains, strong winds
m and tornados

[Link]. Controls of Weather and Climate

. Many factors affect the distribution. These include latitude, altitude, and distance from the
sea, cloud cover, ocean current, planetary winds and pressure.
Latitude

 Latitude is the distance of a location from the equator.

 At the equator, the overhead sun is high and of high intensity insulation is received.
 At the poles, the overhead sun is low, so the amount of insulation is low.
 The sun is overhead at noon for six months between the equator and the Tropic of
Cancer, and it is overhead for another six months between the equator and the Tropic of
Capricorn.
Inclination of the Earth's Axis
Equinoxes and Solstices

A. An equinox is the instant of time when the sun strikes the plane of the Earth's equator. During
this passage the length of day and night are equal

Equinox appears twice a year. Let's see two major equinoxes.

i. The spring equinox: is the day when the point of verticality of sun's rays crosses the equator
northwards.

This equinox experiences in Northern Hemisphere when the sun is exactly above the
equator.

 During this period, the length of day and night are equal. Spring equinox marks the
beginning of spring season. March 21.

ii. The Autumn equinox: when the sun crosses equator giving approximately equal length b/n
day and night. It appears to happen when the visible sun moves south across the celestial equator
on 23rd of September. It marks the beginning of autumn

B. Solstice is an event when the overhead sun appears to cross northern or southern points
relative to the celestial equator resulting in unequal length of days and nights.

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i. The summer Solstice: on June 21st, the northern hemisphere has maximum slant towards the
sun experiencing longest daylight of the year. It is the astronomical first day of summer in the
Northern Hemisphere.

ii. The winter solstice: 22nd of December is the day when the maximum southward inclination is
attained in the Southern Hemisphere.

 In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest night and shortest daylight.

 In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic of
Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ ° south of the equator.

Altitude
 Air temperature decreases with increasing altitude. The normal decrease of temperature
with height is 6.4oC per 1000 m. This is known as the normal lapse rate.
 The normal lapse rate is the average rate or proportion at which temperature changes per
unit of altitudinal change.
 Example: If the altitude of the given mountain is 4070 m above sea level and the
temperature at sea level is 20oc . What will be the expected temperature at the top of the
mountain?
Solution: At normal lapse rate temperature decreases 6.4oCp / 1000 m
 Altitude of mountain = 4070 m
1000m= 6.4oc 4070m x 6.4oc = 26.048oc
4070m = ? 1000m
 Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain
20oc – 26.05 oC = - 6.05oc
Distance from the Sea
Land heats more quickly than water. But it loses its heat quicker than water. This is
because of the transparency of water reflections from water surfaces, evaporation, mixing
and currents in water. All these conditions result in greater and more rapid temperature
changes on land than in the seas. Therefore coastal regions are cooler than inland regions.
Cloud Cover
Cloud reduces the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth’s surface and the amount of
radiation reflected from the earth’s surface.
Ocean Current
 It is the horizontal movement of ocean waters caused by winds and differences in
temperature.

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 The effect of ocean currents on temperatures depends upon whether the current is cold or
warm.
 The water at the equator is warmer and less dense than that in polar areas.
 Ocean currents are the source of temperature regulation on the earth.
 Ocean currents change the temperature of a particular region.
Winds
Winds indirectly change the temperature of places near the sea according to the areas from which
they blow. There are two ways by which distribution of temperature is influenced by winds.
1. Winds carry the temperature from one place to another.
2. Winds blow the surface layers of a body of water in the direction of their flow.

Exercise Four
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. As Appalachian old fold mountain belongs to U.S.A._______________ is to Russia
A. Andes B. Urals C. Atlas D. Cape range
2. Which one of the following land features is not found in the floor of rift valley?
A. Active Volcano B. Fumaroles C. Numerous Lakes D. Deposit of Ice
5. What type of geographic feature is formed when magma cools and solidifies before reaching
the surface of the earth?
A. Crater B. Caldera C. Volcano D. Batholiths
6. A type of volcano that has no erupted within historic time is called_____________
A. Dormant Volcano B. Active Volcano C. Extinct Volcano D. All Are Correct
7. All are the importance of volcanic eruptions except----------------
A. Provide Fertile Soil C. Generate Geothermal Energy
B. Provide Hot Springs D. Destruction of Life and Property
8. The point at which earth quake originated is called_____________
A. Epicenter B. Focus C. Seismograph D. Richter scale
9. Best examples of active volcano that takes place from time to time is________________
A. Ras Dejen B. Mount Guna C. Eretail D. Zuquala
10. Which area of the world is highly affected by earth quake?
A. High Lands of Ethiopia B. Pacific Ring of Fire C. Maghreb Region D. North
Pole
11. The process of cracking of the earth’s crust is called____________
A. Volcanism B. Folding C. Faulting D. Earth Quake
12. In the process of folding down ward fold is called_______________

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A. Anticline B. Syncline C. Limb D. Axial Plane

13. The scale that gives the magnitude of earth quake is called___________
A. Seismometer B. Richter Scale C. Thermometer D. Pantograph
14. Which one of the following is differ from others?
A. Ruwenzori Mountain B. Cape range Mountain C. Atlas Mountain D. Himalaya
Mountain
15. Which of the following land form is a deposition caused by wind erosion?
A. Flood plain B. beach C. spit D. sand dune
16. The lower layer of the atmosphere is called _____.
A. Exosphere B. Ionosphere C. Stratosphere D. Troposphere
17. Which one of the following is correct about incoming solar radiation of the earth that originated from
the sun?
A. About 19% is absorbed by Atmosphere and clouds B. about 51% is reflected by clouds
C. about 20% is absorbed at the surface of the earth D. about 6% is reflected from the surface
18. Which one of the following is correct about troposphere?
A. meteorites burn and disintegrated in troposphere
B. troposphere is a layer of very high temperature
C. It contains 75% of the atmospheric mass
D. it is the layer of high concentration of ozone gas
19. A type of cloud that can be described as uniform, dark, flat and low clouds that produce
Precipitation is called:-
A. Cumulonimbus B. Cirrus C. Nimbostratus D. Cumulus
20. An instrument that used to measure air pressure is ______
A. Barometer B. Anemometer C. Rain gauge D. Thermometer
21. All of the following conditions may characterize Middle courses of a river, except:-
A. The river’s valley gets wider and larger B. the river’s volume increase
C. the river flows over a relatively gentle gradient D. The river flow very fast down
steep slope
22. Which one of the following land form is associated with erosion by sea waves?
A. Delta B. Beach C. Barchan D. loess deposit
23. Which atmospheric layer contains high zone concentration that protects life on earth from the
coming dangerous rays of the sun?
A. troposphere B. stratosphere C. thermosphere D. mesosphere
24. What are the liquids used in the maximum and minimum thermometers that make the
instrument to record air temperature respectively?
A. Water and Mercury B. Mercury and Alcohol C. Mercury and water D. Alcohol and
mercury

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25. The process of energy transmission from one body to another by means of electromagnetic
waves is
Called------ A. convection B. conduction C. Radiation D. Advection
26. The process of breaking rock layers just like peeling of an onion skin because of change of
temperature
is called:- A. Exfoliation B. erosion C. Denudation D. Degradation
27. What is the distinct feature created by the river in the lower course?
A. V-shape valley B. delta C. water fall D. Deep gorges
28. Which of the following types of rainfall is commonly occurs in humid areas where
temperature is high throughout the year?
A. Orographic rainfall B. convectional rainfall C. Cyclonic rainfall D. Frontal
rainfall
29. The formation of Sofomer cave along the river Weiyeb in Bale is an example of:-
A. mechanical weathering B. biological weathering
C. chemical weathering D. physical weathering
30. Winds that blow from the sea towards the land is known as:-
A. Land breeze B. Valley breeze C. Sea breeze D. Mountain breeze
31. The structural development of the atmosphere of the earth made of four different layers.
Which
One of the following of these layers is supposedly the coldest?
A. Thermosphere B. Stratosphere C. Mesosphere D. Troposphere
32. What is the main factor that makes global winds to deflect to the right in the Northern
hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern hemisphere?
A. The rotation of the earth from west to east on its orbit B. the location of the overhead sun
C. the revolution of the earth around the sun C. the location of global pressure belts
33. Winds in Anti-cyclones pressure areas of southern hemisphere blow:-
A. Outward in the anti- clockwise direction B. Inward in the anti- clockwise direction
C. Outward in the clockwise direction C. Inward in the clockwise direction
34. When floods produce deep and wide gorges in large river, the resulting type of erosion would
be
A. Sheet erosion B. Rill erosion C. Gully Erosion D. Sea erosion
35. Which one of the following is a common agent for both physical and chemical weathering?
A. Temperature B. Frost C. Rainwater D. Acids
36. Under what conditions are Fold Mountains formed?
A. When the earth crust are folded by tensional forces
B. When two forces pull away from each other on the surface

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C. When the solid materials of the earth gets bent upward

D. When the crust make cracks due to compressional forces
37. Among the following major types of rock, which one is formed as a result of compaction and
cementation?
A. Metamorphic rock B. Igneous rock C. Sedimentary rock D.
Volcanic rock

2.3. Natural Regions of the Earth

Definition and Concepts
A region is a part of the earth’s surface which has similar physical elements and to some extent
similar human activities. The earth provides many environments that vary in natural elements,
such as relief, climate, vegetation, soil, etc. A region can be natural or human-made, can be small
or large, and does not have a clear boundary.

2.3.1. Major Natural Regions of the Earth

Different environments result in differences in human activities, population distribution and
economic development. Mostly, natural regions are named after the dominant vegetation found
in them. But their division is based on climate.

 The earth can be divided into three major temperature zones. These are

I. Tropical (hot) zone.

II. Temperate zone.
III. Frigid (cold) zone.

[Link]. Tropical (Hot) Zone

The tropical or hot zone is the zone between the Tropic of Cancer (23½ oN) and Tropic of
Capricorn (23½oS).
It is characterized by
High temperature throughout the year.
The annual average temperature is above 20oC,
Very low annual range of temperature often not exceeding 30c.
The tropical zone is divided into four sub-regions. These are:
 the equatorial rainforest region
 the savanna grassland region
 the desert region

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 the tropical monsoon land

A. The Equatorial Rainforest Region
Location
They are found in the lowland areas within 6o north and south of the equator. The main areas in
the world include.
 The Amazon Basin
 The Congo Basin
 southern Malaysia and some Indonesian islands
Climate
 Equatorial rainforest region has uniformly high temperature and heavy rainfall
throughout the year.
 The mean annual temperature is about 27oC, and the annual range of temperature is
less than 3oC.
 Daily range is greater than the annual range of temperature.
 Mainly of a convectional type rainfall which falls every day, usually in the afternoon.
 Annual rainfall is very high, b/n 1500 mm and 2500 mm.

Natural Vegetation
 has dense, tall, broad-leafed and evergreen trees
 The ground is covered with tropical rainforest,
 Most of the trees are hardwood, such as rosewood, ebony, and mahogany, which are
valuable for making durable furniture.
There are three layers in the forest:
1. The top layer:
2. The middle layer
3. The lower layer
Trees are closely spaced and interlaced with climbing vines called lianas. There are as many as
about 3,000 species within a few square kms.
Wild Animals
 The Equatorial rainforest is inhabited by varieties of animals, such as insects, birds,
reptiles, mammals. Most mammals are arboreal.
 They are small in size and are tree climbing, example apes, monkeys, bats, squirrels, etc.
 Water body animals, such as crocodiles, alligators, hippopotamuses, fish, etc., are also
available.
Human Activities

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The human activities found in equatorial rainforests include primitive hunting and gathering,
shifting cultivation, plantation agriculture, and mining.
Plantation Agriculture: is a large scale production of one or two crops for sale. It is based on
modern techniques of production.
Plantation Agriculture is characterized by:
 Large-scale holdings, which draw most of their labor supply from the local
inhabitants.
 The production of a single crop (mono culture)
 Heavy investment in processing plant, railway, shipment facilities etc.
The most important crops are: rubber, palm oil, jute, bananas, pineapples, cocoa, sugarcane, etc.
There are a number of areas that produce commodities for export. For example, nearly half of the
world cacao production comes from Ghana.
Rubber is one of the main plantation crops in Malaysia, Indonesia and Congo.

B. Tropical Deserts
Location
 Located between 15oto 30o N & S latitudes of the equator.
 The largest hot desert is the Sahara. Desert.
 There are also other important deserts such as the Kalahari, Atacama, Colorado, Arabia,
Thar and Australian deserts.
Deserts are formed due to their Location
 in the trade-wind belts
 on the leeward side of high mountains
 in the interior of continents
 along cool ocean currents
Deserts are located on the western margins of continents, except for the Sahara Desert, which is
in North Africa and extends to the northeastern coast of the African continent.

Climate
the climate is hot throughout the year,
There is very low and unreliable rainfall (not more than 250 mm per year).
Temperature ranges from 25oC to 40oC or above during the daytime, and they can fall
even below 0oC during the night, due to the absence of clouds.
The winds are warm and dry.

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Vegetation
 Hot desert is not favorable for plant growth.
 Plants in deserts have long roots, few or no leaves, hard bark and an oily leaf surface.
 Deserts have xerophytes plants
 Xerophytes are woody and thorny plants, grasses and herbs, for example cacti.
Animal life
 Gazelle, hare, fox, snakes, lizards, etc. are commonly available in the desert region. For
the desert people camel is their best companion. It has special adaptations, which helps it
to survive the desert.
Human Activities:
The major economic activities found in the hot deserts are pastoralism, crop cultivation and
mining.
Many of the desert people practice a nomadic way of life.
They keep animals like camels, sheep, goats, cattle, etc.
Small-scale crop cultivation is possible along wadis (small streams) and in the oases;
dates, vegetables, fruits and cereals are grown.
Irrigation on a large scale is possible. The waters of the Nile, Tigris-Euphrates and Indus
have made possible the cultivation of crops in desert areas.
Mining: is an important occupation in deserts

[Link]. Temperate Zone

Location
 Located b/n 23½o, and 66½o, both north and south of the equator.
 The temperate zone is the transitional zone b/n the tropical zone and the Frigid Zone.
 It is also known as a mid-latitude region.
Climate
 It has four distinct seasons.
 They are summer, winter, autumn and spring.
 . Precipitation ranges from 750 mm to 1500 mm.
 Temperature ranges from below freezing point during the winter, to 30oC or more
during the warmest days of summer.
There are important factors that bring about frequent weather changes in the temperate
zone. These are:
 Convergence of tropical and polar air masses: This results in cyclonic storms
and fronts.

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 Angle of the sun: The sun is never overhead in the temperate zones. Therefore it
does not heat the earth very much.
 Length of day: There is a big difference in the length of day b/n summer and
winter. Days are longer in summer and shorter in winter.
Effects of continents: This is more important in the northern hemisphere, where there are very
large areas of land. In winter, the centers of the continents become very cold because they are far
away from the sea. In this season, the angle of the sun is very oblique and it does not give much
heat. During summer, the interiors of the continents become very hot. The annual range of
temperature is therefore very great.
Sub-regions: The temperate zone is a very extensive zone. It contains many regions with
different characteristics. But the two main divisions are the warm temperate and the cool
temperate regions.
The warm temperate region includes:
 The Mediterranean region areas.
 The temperate monsoon lands.
 The warm temperate grasslands of the southern hemisphere.
 The temperate deserts (in the interiors of the continents).
The cool temperate region includes:
 The temperate grasslands of the northern hemisphere.
 The cool temperate western margins.
 The cool temperate eastern margins.
 The coniferous forest belts.
A. Mediterranean Region

Location
It is located on the western coasts of the continents, particularly in the middle latitudes (30 o to
45o north and 30oto 40o south of the equator).
The Major Areas of Mediterranean-Region are:
 The surrounding area of (the shore of) Mediterranean sea
 Southwestern part of South Africa
 Central Chile
 Central California.
 Southwest and Southern Australia (Adelaide to Melbourne).
 Northern New Zealand.
Climate

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 Characterized by warm to hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.
 Summer has off shore dry winds. But winter has on shore wet westerly winds.
Natural Vegetation
 . The Maquis vegetation consists of small short trees with dense growth of
shrubs.
 The olive tree is the most common.
 Almost all kinds of citrus fruits grow in the Mediterranean region.
Human Activities
Agriculture is highly diversified and specialized in the Mediterranean region areas.
 The most important crops grown in the Mediterranean lands are grapes, figs, oranges,
apples, vegetables, olives, wheat and, in the wetter areas, rice
 Transhumance is also practiced in the area. This is the practice among pastoral farmers
of moving their herds and flocks between two regions of different climates
Mining: Only a few areas have mineral deposits-such as gold and petroleum in California and
copper in Chile. Italy is a major producer of mercury. Chrome and coal are mined in Turkey.
Manufacturing Industries: The existing industries process agricultural products. Wine making,
extraction of olive oil and fruit drying are some of the industrial activities.
B .Coniferous Forest Region/Taiga
Location
 Located b/n 55o North and 70o North latitudes.
 The coniferous forests are found only in the northern hemisphere.
The major coniferous forest areas are:
 Northern America
 Northern Norway, Sweden and Finland
 Parts of Asia, South of the Arctic Circle and north of the temperate grassland.
Climate
. Winter is long and very cold.
The mean monthly temperature is below zero.
The winter days are short, but the sky is clear.
In winter, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. As a result these lands get
only short periods of daylight.
In summer, the northern hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, so these lands get long
hours of daylight.
Summer is also a season of maximum rainfall.

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The rainfall is mainly cyclonic.

The total annual rainfall ranges between 300 mm and 750 mm.
Natural vegetation
Consists of conifer trees.
The coniferous forests have low species diversity.
Single species of trees grow together in large stands where there is suitable soil.
The trees have adapted to the harsh climate of the region.
They get and save moisture through their long roots, spongy wood and needle shaped-
leaves.
Human Activities
 The climate is not favorable for growing crops.
 The soils are not usually fertile. As a result,
 Agriculture is not an important activity in this region.
 Excellent for forestry, which is one of the most important economic activities in these
areas
Lumbering (the felling of trees) is usually done during winter because of two reasons.
 There is little water inside the trees.
 The ground becomes hard and frozen. Which makes movement easy

Mining: The region is rich in several mineral deposits. Iron ore, gold, cobalt, zinc, uranium, oil,
copper and lead are the main minerals of the region. Sweden, Canada, and the Russian
Federation have rich iron ore deposits. Siberia is well known for its coal, oil and gas deposits.

[Link] .Frigid (Cold) Zone

 Located between 66½o to 90o, both N and S of the equator.
 The boundary between the cold temperate and the Frigid Zone is marked by 10oC
isotherm of the warmest month.
 They are found in Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Siberia.
The Frigid Zone has two sub-regions. These are tundra and the polar ice caps.

A. Tundra Region
 The word tundra refers to an area where the growth of trees is prevented due to low
temperatures and short seasons that restrict growth.
 It is a transitional zone between the polar ice caps and the coniferous forest belt.
 Tundra is found only in the northern hemisphere.
 It extends along the northern Arctic shores of the continental land mass.
Climate

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 Tundra has two distinct seasons.

 The summer and winter seasons.
 During the summer season, there is long daily duration of sunshine, but the temperature is
very low.
 Only three or four months have average temperatures above the freezing point. This is
because the sun’s rays are very slant, and therefore lack heat.
 Winter is cold and long. During the daytime, the sky is dark, and stars can be seen
shining. There is twilight in the middle of the day and temperature are below 00c for eight
months
 N.B. Twilight: is the faint light which illuminate the various region of the earth
before sunrise and after sunset
 Rainfall is usually experienced at the end of summer and at the beginning of autumn.
This is because in this season temperature is above freezing point
 Most of the rainfall comes in the forms of slow
 The amount of rainfall is often below 250mm per year.

Natural Vegetation
As plants cannot grow in temperatures below 6oC, there is little or no vegetation in tundra areas.
In places where the snow is not thick, low forms of plants such as lichens, mosses and sedges
grow during the summer season. On the southern margins of the tundra lands, and in lower areas,
there are short trees and flowering plants.

Human Activities
 The tundra is a sparsely populated region.
 There are a few scattered tribes such as Eskimos (Inuit), Lapps, Finns, Aleuts and
Tunguses.
 These are primitive peoples who have adapted themselves to the cold and difficult
environment of the tundra.
 The people lead primitive ways of life and depend on hunting, fishing, and
reindeer herding.
 In North America, the Eskimos settle along the seashores in igloos (houses made
up of blocks of ice) in the cold winter. During the summer, the people move
inland and live in tents which are made of animal skins.
B. Polar Ice Cap Region

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 A polar icecap is a high latitude region of the earth that is covered with ice.
 The two polar ice caps are located near the North and South poles.
 These natural regions include Greenland and the Arctic islands and Arctic Ocean in the
northern hemisphere and the continent of Antarctica and the South Sea in the southern
hemisphere.
Climate
 Ice caps are generally characterized by negative temperatures.
 The average temperature for each month of the year is less than 0oC.
 The precipitation is very low and falls in the form of snow.
 In Greenland the total annual precipitation is about 80 to 100 mm.
 The whole of Antarctica receives an average precipitation of less than 150 mm per year.
Natural Vegetation
 Plant growth is impossible as the regions are permanently covered by ice and snow.
 The soil of the region is permanently frozen.
 In those areas, a little vegetation, like mosses, lichens, and algae may grow with the help
of the light of the very short summer.

Human Activities
 There are no people living permanently in Antarctica.
 Only scientists and hunters visit this cold continent.
 At present, the only resource of Antarctica is whale oil. But it is believed to contain rich
deposits of coal.
 The Arctic Ocean is rich in animals that can be used as sources of food and material for
clothing. The Arctic region is also important for military strategies. For example, the
USA has an air base at Thule in Greenland.

2.4. Classification of world Climate

 two systems of climate classification with their climatic regions:
1. System of the ancient Greeks – based on temperature and sunshine within latitudinal
boundaries
 based on temperature and precipitation as reflected in vegetation zones
 Classification more acceptable
 Three climatic regions / bounded by specific latitudes/
i. low-latitude tropical (or torrid) zone:-
 A winterless tropical region.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 bounded by the northern and southern limit of the sun's vertical rays (23½o N and 23½o
S)
 The noon sun is always high, day and night are of nearly equal length and Warm year-
round.
ii. A middle-latitude temperate zone:
 sandwiched between the other two zones (23½o – 66½o N), and 23½o – 66½o S)
 Distinct summer and winter seasons and exhibits characteristics of both extremes, in
terms of seasonal temperatures.
iii. High-latitude polar (or frigid) zone:
 Bounded by (1) the Arctic Circle, at 66½N-90o N, and (2) the Antarctic Circle, at 66½o S-90o
S.
 Are considered summer less, because cold all year round due to long periods of winter
darkness and a low summer sun.
 The ancient Greeks’ system is somewhat simplistic method of climatic classification because
it does not consider precipitation, and therefore it does not differentiate between wet and dry
regions.

2. The Kðppen System of Climate Classification

 Widely used classification of world climates is based on seasonal variations in the annual and
monthly averages of temperature and precipitation.
 Was devised/developed/ by the famous German scientist Waldmir Kðppen (1846 – 1940).
 Now used by climatologists throughout the world and is not a spatial or areal region.
 Faced with the lack of adequate observing stations throughout the world
 defines five principal climatic groups
i. Tropical Moist Climate ( Type A climate)
 All months average temperature above 18ºC (64ºF).
 Enough moisture to support abundant plant communities.
 all months are warm and no real winter season
ii. Dry Climates: ( Type B climate)
 Precipitation is deficient most of the year.
 Potential evaporation and transpiration exceeds precipitation.
iii. Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Mild Winters: ( Type C climate)
 Climates have warm-to-hot summers with mild winters.
 Average temperature of the coldest month is below 18o C (64o F) and above -3o C (27o
F).
iv. Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Severe Winters( Type D climate)
 Have distinct summer and winter seasons.

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 Enough moisture to support abundant plant communities.

 Average temperature of the warmest month exceeds 10o C (50o F)
 Coldest month average drops below -3o C (27o F).
v. Polar Climates: ( Type E climate)
 Extremely cold winters and summers.
 Average temperature of the warmest month is below 10o C (50o F).
 Winters are extremely cold, and even the summers are cool.
 All months are cold; there is no real summer season.
vi. Highland Climate: ( Type H climate)
At low latitudes the effect of altitude can produce tundra and polar conditions. Glaciers
on Tropical Mountain sum its attest to the cooling effects of altitude highland climates
follow the pattern of Earth’s mountain ranges.
Climate Change
 It is a long-term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods.
 Change in the average weather conditions or a change in the distribution of weather
events with respect to an average.
Causes of Climate Change
A. Natural causes
 Ocean currents
 variations in the energy budget,
 Continental drift
 Volcanic eruptions.
B. Human Causes
 Greenhouse gases and their sources Carbon dioxide, Methane , Nitrous oxide,
CFCs
 Greenhouse effect
 The industrial activities
 The decomposition of wastes
Consequences of Climate Change
 Desertification
 A rise in the sea – level and Expansion of Tropical Disease
 Global warming
 Drought
 Impacts on human health:
 Impact on water resources.
 Loss of Biodiversity/species extinct/

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Carbon dioxide is the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere

Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, and other activities have
all led to a rise in the emission of carbon dioxide.
Methane is another important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. About 1/4 of all methane
emissions are said to come from domesticated animals. These animals produce methane during
the cud - chewing process. Methane is also released from rice or paddy fields that are flooded
during the sowing and maturing periods.
A large amount of nitrous oxide emission has been attributed to fertilizer application
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of earth.

2.5. Drought in Ethiopia

 . It is a period of abnormally dry weather that is sufficiently long enough to cause
serious problems for agriculture and other activities in the affected area.
 Drought is one of the world’s major environmental hazards.
 It affects human and animal life catastrophically, and it can cause severe crop
failure.

Consequences of Drought
 Drought can have adverse consequences both on the natural environment and on the
socio-economic life of the people in drought-prone areas.
 Some of the general consequences include climate change, drying up of surface and
subsurface water sources (ponds, streams, swamps, reservoirs, lakes, etc.),

Drought-Prone Areas in Ethiopia

The three drought-probability zones of Ethiopia include:
I. High drought probability zone (zone III)
 Covered about 25% of Ethiopia in 1988.
 This zone includes the Bereha climatic zones of the largest part of the Somali and
Afar regions, part of the Tigray region, the eastern portion of the Amhara region,
and the southern part of the Oromia region.
II. Medium drought probability zone (Zone II)
 Covers part of the Somali, Oromia and Afar regions, and small portions of the
eastern Tigray and Amhara regions.
 It covers about 10% of the country.
III. Low drought probability zone (Zone I)
 Covers about 16% of Ethiopia’s area, including most of the semi-arid (Kolla)
climatic zones.

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 It includes part of the eastern highlands of Tigray and Amhara regions, the
eastern and southern parts of Harerge, a portion of the Bale, Borena and Guji
zones, and the southern portion of the south Omo zone.

Drought-Coping Mechanisms in Ethiopia

The major mitigation and adaptation measures include
 carefully planned land use to increase agricultural productivity and minimize
erosion
 encouraging farmers in the drier areas to plant crops that have low water-
dependencies
 Drilling deep water wells, installing water pumps and building simple irrigation
channels.
 rainwater harvesting collecting and storing rainwater on various scales
 recycling waste water for reuse after treatment and purifying
 building reservoirs and canals and redirecting rivers as massive attempts at
irrigation in drought-prone areas
 instituting outdoor water-use restriction - regulating the water use of sprinklers or
buckets for watering outdoor plants, for filling pools, and for water-intensive home
maintenance tasks

2.6. Ecosystem
 An ecosystem is a community of living things and their non-living environment.
 Ecology is the study of how all these things interact in order to survive.
 Ecosystems vary in size. Some are small and some are much larger like the ecosystem of
the desert of Africa, and the rainforest of Brazil that cover large areas of a country or
continent
 The non-living features of the environment are the abiotic factors, and the organisms in
the environment are the biotic factors.
 All ecosystems require energy in order to exist. This is provided by sunlight, with only
minor contributions from other sources.
 Energy from the sun reaches the earth’s surface in two forms. These are :
1. Heat energy cannot be used directly by plants and animals.
2. Light energy can be captured only by green plants during the process of
photosynthesis.

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Only about one percent of light energy falling on leaves is converted into food energy and stored
as carbohydrate molecules.
 . The living organisms in an ecosystem can be divided into three categories: producers,
consumers and decomposers. They are all important parts of the ecosystem.
1. Producers are the green plants. They make their own food by means of
photosynthesis. Green plants are the primary passage from one organism to another
along the food chain.
2. Consumers are animals, which get their energy from the producers or from
organisms that eat producers.
There are three types of consumers:
A. Herbivores (primary consumers) are animals that eat plants.
B. Carnivores (secondary consumers) are animals that eat herbivores and sometimes other
carnivores.
C. Omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals.
3. Decomposers are plants and animals that break down dead plants and animals into organic
materials that go back into the soil.

2.6.1. Factors that Affect the Distribution of Ecosystems

Two primary non-biological factors have major impacts on the kind of ecosystem that develops
in any part of the world:
 precipitation
 Temperature. In turn, elevation (altitude) affects these primary factors.

Precipitation and Temperature

Precipitation and temperature are major factors that determine the vegetation in an ecosystem, .
Temperature patterns are also important. They vary considerably in different parts of the world.
For example, tropical areas have warm, relatively unchanging temperatures throughout the year,
whereas the poles have long winters, with extremely cold temperatures, and relatively short, cool
summers. In other areas, temperature variation is between those extremes, creating different
types of cold and warm seasons.

2.6.2. Diversity of Fauna, Flora and Soil of Ecosystems

 Among many factors that shape the type of fauna, flora and soil type of an ecosystem,
climate plays a decisive role in their distribution and activities.
 The land on earth is divided into six major kinds of large ecosystems called biomes.

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SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 The six biomes are: desert, tundra, grass land, deciduous forest, taiga and tropical rain
forest.
 Each biome has its own kind of climate, soil, plants and animals.
 Each biome can be found in different parts of the world. For example a desert biome is
found in North America, Africa, South America, Asia and Australia.
Desert
 A lack of water is the primary factor that determines that an area will be a desert.
 Deserts are areas that generally average less than 25 centimeters of precipitation per year.
 They are also likely to be windy.
 Plants and animals are many species, but they typically have low numbers of individuals
 All of the animals that live in deserts are able to survive with a minimal amount of water.

Tundra
 The harsh climate of the high latitudes around the Poles prevents the growth of most
plants.
 Indeed, the very word tundra means’ a treeless plain. .
 In addition to lichens and mosses which are the basic ‘building blocks’ of the tundra
ecosystem, a range of grasses and sedges with dwarf and creeping plants are to be found.
 Other grazing animals of the tundra include the musk ox, which survives the cold by
means of extremely thick coat.
 Predators include polar bears and the arctic fox, which is largely dependent on the huge
numbers of ground - nesting birds that migrate to the tundra to breed during the short
summer.
Grass Lands
 Temperate grasslands are also known as prairies or steppes and typically savannas are
tropical grass lands
 Grass lands generally receive b/n 25 and 75 cm of precipitation per year.
 Grasses make up 60 to 90 % of the vegetation.
 Many other kinds of flowering plants are interspersed with grasses.
 Huge herbivore animals including elephants, zebras, wildebeest, gazelles and antelopes,
roam across the African plains.
 Carnivores, such as lions, cheetahs and leopards, prey on the grazing herds, along with
scavenging jackals, hyenas and vultures.

Deciduous Forests
Many trees that lose their leaves each year.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

Broad-leaved trees grow.

Each autumn the leaves turn yellow, orange and red painting the land with glorious
colors.
Then, the leaves fall to the ground which is what deciduous means and decay.
The dead leaves help make the soil rich and fertile. Trees shade leaves to conserve
water.
In deciduous forests of North America and Europe, common tree species are maples,
birch, beech, elm, oaks, and other hard woods and many small flowering plants bloom
in the spring.

Taiga, (Coniferous Forest)

 The climate is one of short, cool summers and long winters with abundant snowfall.
 Precipitation ranges between 25 and 100 cm per year.
 Conifers such as spruces, firs and larches are the most common trees in these areas
 The needle - shaped leaves are adapted to prevent water loss.
 The branches of these trees are flexible, allowing them to bend under a load of snow so
that the snow slides off the pyramid - shaped trees without greatly damaging them.
 Most birds are migratory and feed on the abundant summer insect population, which is
not available during the long, cold winter.
 Typical mammals are deer, caribou, moose, wolves, weasels, mice, snowshoe hares, and
squirrels. Tropical Rainforest
 It is located near the equator.
 The temperature is normally warm and relatively constant.
 Most areas receive in excess of 200 cm of rain per year - some receive 500 cm or more.
 Because of the warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, most plants grow rapidly;
 Soils are usually poor in nutrients
 a greater diversity of species than any others biome.
 More species are found in the tropical rainforests of the world than in the rest of the world
combined.
 Balsa, teakwood, ironwood, mahogany, ebony and other ornamental woods are common.

Exercise Five
1. The division of the earth in to tropical, temperate and frigid zone is based on:-
A. Vegetation B. altitude C. climate D. Relief
2. Which one of the following is the most extensive forest area?
A. Congo basin B. Indonesian Islands C. Amazon basin D. Southern Malaysia
3. Which one of the following statement is correct about Mediterranean region?

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A. it is found only in the northern hemisphere B. it has summer dry and winter wet
climate
C. it has been covered by dense forest D. It has long and very cold winter climate
4. Which of the following statement is true about the hot deserts of the world?
A. they have very low and unreliable rainfall
B. they are hot and humid year round
C. they are very hot day and night
D. they are found between 0oNand 15oN latitude in both hemisphere
5. In a food chain, the role of the green plant is:-
A. Consumer B. Decomposer C. Producers D. source of energy
6. Which one of the following is not the main occupation of people found in Tundra land?
A. Fishing B. Herding C. Mining D. Reindeer
7. Which one of the following is not a sub –region of the tropical (hot) Zone?
A. Hot desert B. Coniferous forest C. Savanna grasslands D. Equatorial rain
forest
8. Which of the following is not the characteristic of tropical desert vegetation?
A. They have long roots B. They have few or no leaves
C. They have hard bark D. They are of evergreen forest
9. Which of the following is a correct match between desert and its geographical location in the
world? A. Kalahari – North America B. Atacama – South America
C. Colorado – Asia D. Thar –Australia
10. Identify the incorrect correlation from the following alternatives:-
A. Xerophytes – Desert B. Maquis – coniferous
C. Elephant grass – savanna D. Eskimos – Tundra
11. Plant and animals that break down dead plants and animals in to organic materials of the soil
are:-
A. Decomposers B. Producers C. Consumers D. herbivores
12. Which natural region of the earth is not found in Ethiopia?
A. Mediterranean region B. Savanna region C. Semi desert region D. Tropical region
13. Which of the following is not characteristic of plantation agriculture?
A. a multi culture process B. A mono culture process
C. a Large scale holding D. need heavy investment
14. What is Thule?
A. it is research center of U.k B. the air base of USA of Greenland
C. house made up of blocks of ice D. place where fishing activity takes place
15. One of the following describes the equatorial areas.

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

A. high insulation B. small vegetation covers C. slanting rays D. center of high

pressure
16. Where is the most extensive equatorial rainforest located?
A. continental land masses of Northern hemisphere B. Northern part of Sweden
C. Indian sub-continent D. Amazon Basin of South America
17. In which region of the world Tundra is found?
A. Frigid zone B. Hot zone C. Temperate zone D. Tropical zone
18. Which one describes the Mediterranean region?
A. Cactus plants B. Tundra vegetation C. Maquis Vegetation D. coniferous tree
19. Which statement is correct about horse latitude?
A. Belt of coniferous forest B. Area of low pressure
C. found along the equator D. origin of trade winds
20. One of the following is the major area of the equatorial rainfall region in the world
A. the savanna grassland B. the Amazon Basin C. the tropical monsoon land D. sub-
Saharan
21. Squirrels are common wild animals of
A. polar ice cap B. tropical desert C. coniferous forest D. equatorial forest
22. Which statement is true about the coniferous forest region?
A. the vegetation is known for its low species diversity
B. the region is dominated by convectional type of rain
C. the climate is best for growing different crops
D. there is high angle of the sun throughout the year
23. Which of the following describes Mediterranean region?
A. its big rainfall season is summer B. it lies between 55o to 70o
C. it has maquis vegetation D. it is known with shifting agriculture
24. In what way is Tundra differentiated from the polar Ice Cap region
A. it is located both in the north and south poles B. its precipitation mainly falls in the form
of snow
C. it is permanently covered by ice and snow D. its one-third of months have a positive
temperature
25. Areas with low moisture and low temperature during parts of the year produce:-
A. Tundra B. tropical rainforest C. deciduous forest D. Savanna grassland
26. What makes Tropical rainforest biome different from the other biomes?
A. They have greater diversity of species than any other biomes
B. They have rich and fertile soils than any other biomes
C. Most areas receive between 25 and 75 centimeter of precipitation per year
D. They consist of plants which have small leaves that allow them to conserve water

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27. One of the following groups of landmasses was part of the Laurasia:-
A. Africa, South America and Australia B. Asia, North America and Europe
C. Asia, Africa and Antarctica D. South America, North America and
Australia
28. Ancient Greeks classified world climate based on:-
A. Temperature and Precipitation B. temperature and sunshine
C. latitude and vegetation zone D. altitude and latitude
29. Why, is the Kppen system of climate classification more widely used the ancient Greek’s
classification?
A. The Koppen system considered the distribution of water bodies
B. It is based on temperature and sunshine distribution
C. Its climate region is within latitudinal boundary
D. It considers the average temperature and precipitation
30. Peoples leaving in low – laying coastal areas are at greater risk of flooding because of:
A. Desertification and drought B. Shift of tropical zone
C. loss of biodiversity D. Rise of the sea level
31. How does continental drift, causes climate change?
A. By altering the composition of carbon dioxides
B. By emitting large volume of gases and dust particles
C. By transferring high amount of heat across the globe
D. By changing the aspect and the position of landmass
32. What is the main reason for deciduous forest to drop their leaves during autumn season?
A. To spread plant seeds B. to protect them from being eaten by
herbivores
C. To absorb water from deep underground water table D. to reduce water loss through
transpiration
33. Addis Ababa and Nekemte cities are found 2,400m and 2005m altitude with 170C and 18.30C
respectively. Difference in their temperature is due to variation in their
A. Position B. altitude C. latitude D. location
Instruction: - Answer The Following Question Based On The Climatic Data Given Below (
34-44 table 1 and from 45-53 table 2) Table 1
Station Item Months
J F M A M J J A S O N D
I Temp(oc) 12 13 15 16 19 22 25 26 24 20 17 15
RF(MM) 150 105 85 70 30 0 0 0 5 25 80 145
II Temp(oc) 26 26 26 25 24 24 25 25 25 25 26 27
RF(MM) 65 85 180 165 140 130 165 185 220 10 190 105
III Temp(oc) 14 13 26 24 30 34 38 36 33 30 20 12

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RF(MM) 0 0 0 7 5 10 15 12 4 0 0 0
IV Temp(oc) 20 18 15 14 12 10 10 14 17 18 18 20
RF(MM) 0 0 5 50 60 120 150 50 45 30 0 0

34. Which station has the lowest annual range of temperature?

A. Station I B. Station II C. Station III D. Station IV
35. Which station is relatively a large annual amount of rain fed region?
A. Station I B. Station III C. Station IV D. Station II
36. Which station show contrasting levels of annual range of temperature?
A. Station I and II B. Station III and IV C. Station II and IIID. Station I and III
37. Which are the three direst months of station I
A. January, February and march B. June, July and August
C. October, November and December D. March, April and May
38. The station which is located most likely in hot desert:-
A. Station I B. Station II C. Station III D. Station IV
39. Which station is almost certainly dominated by hard wood and ever green plants?
A. Station I B. Station II C. Station III D. Station IV
40. Which station is most likely found in the southern hemisphere?
A. Station III B. Station IV C. Station I D. Station II
41. Which station is almost certainly dominated by Xerophyte plants?
A. Station III B. Station IV C. Station I D. Station II
42. The economic activity of people found in station III is:-
A. Shifting cultivation B. Pasturalism C. plantation agriculture D. fishing
43. In which station arboreal animals such as apes, monkeys, bats and squirrels are most likely
found?
A. Station III B. Station IV C. Station I D. Station II
44. Which station is most likely to be Mediterranean climate?
A. Station I B. Station III C. Station IV D. Station II
Table 2
Months J F M A M J J A S O N D
Max 15.5 20.2 28.6 30.7 28.4 24.3 24.2 21.1 22.9 20.3 18.5 17.8
Temp(oc) Min 3.2 10 12.5 13.2 12.5 10.3 9.5 9.6 12.0 10.2 5.6 4.3
Average
RF(MM 5 20 55 80 115 205 230 235 105 75 30 4
45. How much is the annual range of temperature for the given station?
A. 12.6oc B. 16oc C. 14.51oc D. 16.4oc
46. What are the three wettest months in the area?
A. January, February and march B. June, July and August
C. October, November and December D. March, April and May

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

47. Which are the coldest months in the area?

A. October, February and march B. June, July and August
C. November and December and January D. March, April and May
48. Which are the warmest months in the area?
A. January, February and march B. June, July and August
C. October, November and December D. March, April and May
49. Which are tree driest months of the region?
A. January, February and march B. June, July and August
C October, November and December D. December, January and February
50. The total annual Rainfall of the station is: A. 1159mm B. 2159mm C. 924mm D.
1250mm
51. How much is the annual average temperature of the station?
A. 16.06oc B. 18oc C. 14.95oc D. 17.95oc
52. The agro ecological zone of the station is typical of:-
A. Dega B. Bereha C. Kolla D. Woina - Daga
53. The station is most likely located in the:-
A. South Eastern lowlands of Ethiopia B. Northeastern highlands of Ethiopia
C. central and North central Ethiopia D. south western highland of Ethiopia

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

UNIT-THREE
Human Population
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Know the concept of human population and the sources of population data;
 understand the densely, moderately and sparsely populated regions of the world;
 State the components of population change and compare the characteristics of population
structure between developed and developing countries;
 Understand the factors affecting spatial distribution of population and compute
population density
3.1 Concepts and Facts about Human Population `

Population geography emphasizes the spatial aspects of human population and the interaction
and interdependence between the human population and the physical environment.
The human population is given great emphasis and is studied by various disciplines including
population geography. The human population is studied for many reasons including the
following.
 It is very dynamic as it demonstrates significant quantitative and qualitative changes
over time and space.
 Change in the size, composition, structure and the location of human populations
 Knowing about the characteristics of the human population
. The world’s population has been experiencing continuous growth since the 15th century.
The rapid increase in the size of human population is attributed to many factors that include:
 Advancements in knowledge, agriculture, industry, medicine and social
organization.
 Human ability to control famine and disease.
 Relative lower cost of vaccine antibiotics, insecticides
 Improvements in peoples living conditions
 Increase in life expectancy in most developing countries.
3.1.1. World Population Size and Percentage, By Continent (2009)
 Asia accounts for over 60 % of the world population, with almost 4.1 billion people.
 Africa follows with 999 million people, accounting for about 14.7 % of the world’s total.
 Europe’s 738 million people make up 10.8 % of the world’s population.
 Latin America and the Caribbean, account for about 8.5%
 North America has 5 %.
 Oceania 0.5% of the world’s population
The world’s ten largest countries, in terms of population (2009)

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

Country Population (million) Percentage share

China 1,331 19.54%
India 1,171 17.20%
USA 307 4.51%
Indonesia 243 3.57%
Brazil 191 2.80%
Pakistan 181 2.66%
Bangladesh 162 2.38%
Nigeria 153 2.25%
Russia 142 2.09%
Japan 128 1.88%
Total 4,009 58.88%

Significance of Population Data

Regular and reliable population data are vital for effective socioeconomic development planning
and administration.
 It is crucial to administrators, businessmen, researchers, academicians and planners.
 It provides statistical information for making decisions
 It indicates future requirements of the population
 It helps policy makers to forecast the need of the population.

3.1.2. Source of Population Data

Sources of population data are: census, sample survey and vital registration, historical sources,
population registration etc.
I) Population Census
 It involves “the total process of collecting, analyzing, compiling and publishing
demographic, economic and social data of all persons in a country delineated territory
at a specified time.’
 In Ethiopia census is one of the important ways of collecting population data. So far,
three censuses have been taken. The 1st was in 1984, the 2nd in 1994 and the 3rd in
2007. Census in Ethiopia is conducted every 10 years.
N.B. in ancient time census was made primarily for two reasons: namely for taxation and
military conscription
The Main Features of Census
 Government sponsorship. It is the responsibility of the national government to provide
the resources.
 Individual units- the information that is obtained normally relates to individual rather
than groups.

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 Periodicity-census should be conducted specified time interval. Some countries census is

conducted every ten years. For instance Ethiopia. others are conducted every five years (
eg. UK, Japan).
 Defined territory – has specified geographical unit
 Universality – to count everyone in the country as of a fixed day often known as census
day.
 Expensiveness-census is the most expensive methods of data gathering.
 Simultaneity- should be conducted simultaneously throughout the country.
 Wider range of data- is the only form of population data source which produces a wider
range volume of data for all users.
II) Sample Survey
It collects information only from a part of the whole population.
As compared to census, sample survey is:
 Less expensive
 Capable of providing very detailed information.
 It provides data of a better quality than census
 Able to estimate margins of error, or the accuracy of the data..
III) Vital Registration
It refers to the continuous registration of such vital events as birth, deaths, marriages and
divorce.
Vital registration can be affected by several factors
 Level of literacy and awareness of the importance of population data in the
population.
 Social custom
 The rural population widely dispersed
Factors that affect the quality data
 Inadequate financing.
 Double entry (counting of a person twice).
 Neglecting or ignoring certain groups of people.
 False information about the age and the occupation of people.
 Lack of equal acceptance of the importance of vital registration by all countries.
 Inadequate awareness about the importance of population data among the general
population.

3.1.4. Components of Population Change

 A change in the overall size of a population is the result of the collective effects of
changes in fertility, mortality and migration.

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 The three factors are collectively known as population-change dynamics or determinants

or components.
 Fertility and mortality are biological factors, while migration is purely non-biological
 The population size of a particular area is the result of collective effects of birth, death
and migration (here, “migration” is the net balance of immigration and emigration).
 Immigration and birth are positive factors, which tend to increase population size,
 Emigration and death are negative factors that reduce population size.

Fertility
 Fertility is the actual occurrence of live births in a given population;
 It is the beginning of life. Specifically, fertility refers to the actual reproductive
performance of a population.

Measures of Fertility
Fertility can be determined using different methods
Crude Birth Rate (CBR),
General Fertility Rate (GFR) and
Age specific fertility rate (ASFR)
Total Fertility Rate (TFR).
A. Crude Birth Rate (CBR):is the most common and simplest index of fertility. It is simply the
number of live births observed in one year among one thousand people in a given region. It can
be expressed as a number of live births per thousand people.

Where B is the total number of live births during a year, P is mid-

year total population and k is a constant, conventionally 1000.
B. General Fertility Rate (GFR): measures the number of live births in a year per thousand
women of reproductive age. It is calculated:

Where B is the total number of live births during a year, P1 is mid-

year population of women between 15 and 49 years age and k is a constant(1000).

GFR’s drawback is that it does not account for differences in age groups.
Each age group is not equally fertile.
, the child-bearing rate is appreciably higher in the age group of 20-29 than in the 15-19
and 30-49 age groups.

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 Fertility rates differ greatly among continents, regions and countries. Generally,
fertility rate is much higher in developing countries than in the developed regions.

C. Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR): is the number of births that occur in a given year per
woman in the reproductive ages, presented in five-year age groups.
𝐵𝑥
ASBR = x 1000
𝑃𝑥

D. Total Fertility Rate (TFR):

 TFR is the average number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her
lifetime
 TFR is the sum of the age-specific birth rates (5-year age groups between 15 and 49) for
female residents of a specific geographic area during a specified time period multiplied
by 5.
Formula TFR= (ΣASBR) × 5,

Figure 3.5 shows differences regarding birth rate in developing and developed countries..

Developing Countries Developed Countries

 In developing countries, e.g.,  In developed countries, e.g., Japan, birth
Ethiopia, birth rates are high rates are low, often because people do not
because people want and need want to have many children.
large families.  They prefer small family sizes.
 Also, life expectancy is relatively  Life expectancy is relatively long due,
short due, primarily, to poverty primarily, to comparative wealth and its
and its effects. effects.
Why a high birth rate? Why a low birth rate?
“We need many children: “Family planning controls the size of our family.
 To help us work on the land and  We only wanted two children, and
to carry wood and water.  We are sure they will live long lives, free
 to care for us when we are ill or from disease. “
old and cannot work

Factors Affecting Increasing of Fertility

i. Early marriage: the age at which a person marries influences the number of children one
can have.
ii. Low Status of women: important components of status include access to (or lack of)
education, employment, family decision making, etc.
iii. Socio-cultural factors: religion, ethnicity and family structure.

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A. Religion: the teachings of some religions oppose the use of contraceptive methods.
B. Ethnicity: some communities are more biased toward males over females.
C. Family structure: Some families need their children to contribute socioeconomically
iv. Sex preference (the desire to have children of one sex over the other).
Mortality
 It is the occurrence of death.
 Mortality rates, though decreasing worldwide, are higher in the developing countries than
in the developed ones.
 This difference is caused by variations in standards of living, nutrition, medical services,
personal hygiene and environmental sanitation.

Measuring of Mortality

1) Crude death rate (CDR): is the ratio of the total registered deaths of a specified year
in a region to the total mid-year population, multiplied by 1000. It is computed as
follows:

B. Infant mortality rate (IMR): is the number of deaths of infants under the age of one year,
per 1000 live births, in a given year.

Infant mortality rate is a good indicator of the level of development of any country. In
countries with better living conditions,

Life expectancy is the number of years a newborn is expected to live.

Migration
Migration involves movement of people and thereby influences both the rate of growth and
distribution of population.
The most common measures of migration that can affect population growth of an area include:
A. Immigration Rate: it is the number of people arriving at a destination per 1000 people in a
given year.

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B. Emigration Rate: it is the number of departing people from an area of origin per 1000
people of the area of origin in a given year.

C. Net Migration Rate (NMR): shows the net effect (balance) of immigration and emigration in
an area. It can be expressed as an increase or decrease per 1000 people in the area in a given
year.

3.1.5. Measures of Population Change

In order to calculate the change in the total population size of a particular nation or place one has
to use the following formula.
i. Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): it is the difference between birth and death rates.
Hence, it is a naturally caused numerical change of a population which results from
the relationship between fertility and mortality. It is expressed as:
RNI = BR – DR

ii. Population Growth Rate (PGR): in order to find the growth rate of a population, we
consider net migration rate and rate of natural increase.
PGR = BR – DR ± NMR = RNI ± NMR

3.1.6. Population Structure

 The structure of a population is the distribution of males and females within different age
groups.
 Sex and age structures are basic characteristics and biological attributes of a population,
and they affect demographic as well as socio-economic situations.
Age structures
 Age structure can be express in terms of age group and population pyramid
 Age group: population is divided into age groups of five-year intervals (0-4, 5-9, 10-14,
etc.) for each sex. and broad age group such as
 young dependents (0-14)

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 The working age groups (economically active from 15-65 years of

age
 elderly dependents (65+)
 A population pyramid, also called age structure diagram, is a graphical illustration. It
normally forms the shape of a pyramid and shows the distribution of various age groups
of each sex in a human population.

There are three types of population pyramid

 Expansive or expanding population pyramids, which have the classic triangular
shape with wide base and narrow top, indicating a high birth rate and a high death
rate.
 The sides of stationary or stable population pyramids have a half-ellipse shape,
which is a characteristic of a high standard of living due to low birth rate
 Contractive or contracting population pyramids have a narrower base than the
reproductive age population. This indicates a decreasing population trend. The low
birth rate is indicative of a well-developed country.
Dependency Ratio (ADR) (measuring of age structure)

 People between 15 & 65 as the workers of a society.

 People under 15 and over 65 are considered dependent upon the working population.
 ADR of a population indicates how many people are dependent upon every 100 workers.

Sex Structure or Composition

 It is the number of males per 100 females, or the number of females per 100 males.
 Sex ratio is expressed in percentage or ratio form.

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3.2. Spatial Distribution of World Population

Population Distribution

Human population is spread unevenly over the earth’s surface

There are densely, moderately and sparsely populated areas in the world.
1. Densely populated regions
A) Asiatic population belt (60%)
 east Asia- Japan and china
 South Asia: India Pakistan and Bangladesh
B) Peninsular Europe (10.8%) It is the most developed cluster, in both economic and
demographic terms globally.
C) Northeastern North America (5%) mainly the USA) is highly urbanized and
industrialized.
II. Sparsely populated regions
1. Tundra:-only a very few nomadic peoples.
2. Hot-dry lands:- Shortage of water and high temperature do not encourage permanent
settlement. However, in desert areas where water is available, such as oasis and river basins, and
mining sites, there are settlements located right in the heart of hot deserts. Example: the Sahara
Desert.
3. Hot-wet lands:-due to unfavorable climate, there are few people living in these areas.
4. High relief:-These areas do not encourage large settlements
5. Areas with poor soil:-Such areas do not support agricultural practices and hence are sparsely
populated.

3.2.1 Factors of Population Distribution

Numerous factors have positively and negatively influenced population distribution. The extreme
current unevenness in population distribution is due to these factors:

 Ecological (physical) factors

 Socio-economic factors
 Political factors
 Demographic factors

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Table 3.7: Overview of the major densely and sparsely populated areas of the world

3.2.2 Population Density

 Population density refers to as the spread of population over space,
 It is measurable in various ways.
A. Crude density or Arithmetic density
B. Agricultural density or rural density
C. physiological density
A. Crude density or Arithmetic Density: is a measure of the number of inhabitants per unit
area. This type of measurement is also known as human-land ratio.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Crude density = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐤𝐦𝟐

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B .Agricultural density or rural density:

 It is the ratio of agricultural (rural) population to cultivated land.

 Agricultural population density is a more meaningful measure than crude population
density for developing countries where agriculture is the dominant economic activity.
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐑𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Agricultural density = 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐝

C. Physiological density is a measure of the number of inhabitants (total population) per unit of
arable land area in km2
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐩𝐨𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Physiological density =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐝

3.3. Migration

Definition and Types of Migration

 Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary, national or

international, to establish a new place of residence.
The two categories of migration are:
1) Internal or domestic migration, which is population movement within a country. It
includes rural to urban, urban to rural , urban to urban and rural to rural
2) International or external migration is population movement across an international
boundary.
Migration has different forms such as:
 Step migration: a migrant arrives at the last destination after a series of short-term
moves to other locations.
 Seasonal migration- returning back to their place of origin after a few months or a
season.
 refugee migration- when people move for political reasons, war, ethnic conflicts
and discrimination or religious persecution ( harassment)
 Evacuee migration is caused by natural calamities like earthquake, volcanic
eruption, flooding, drought, etc.
 Resettlement migration, when people are displaced by war, natural calamity, etc.
and are moved by government to a new location

Causes of Human Migration

 There are a number of factors that affects migration.

 Physical, economical social and political factors.
 They act as push or pull factors.
1) Pull factors are those which attract the migrant to a particular destination. Eg., good
social and welfare services, and political stability …

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2) Push factors, they impose pressures which influence or compel a person to move away.
Eg., natural disasters (drought, flood, and famine), low wages, poor employment and
political instability.

Exercise Six
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which factors of population change can have positive effect on population growth?
A. Immigration and Birth B. Emigration and Death
C. Emigration and Birth D. Immigration and Death
2. Which of the following is a non- biological component of pupation change?
A. Fertility B. mortality C. Fecundity D. Migration
3. Which of the following demographic indicators is low in Ethiopia by world’s standard?
A. Crude death rate B. Life expectancy C. Infant mortality rate D. population
growth rate

4. Which type of migration occurs when people are forced to leave their homelands due to
political reason, war and ethnic conflict?
A. Refugee migration B. Step migration C. Evacuee migration D. Seasonal
migration
5. Which of the following regions have shown very contrasting doubling time?
A. Europe and Africa B. North America and Asia
C. Asia and Africa D. North America and Oceania
6. A population pyramid mainly indicates:-
A. The distribution of population of a country by income level
B. The distribution of population of a country by age and sex
C. The size of the population of a given geographic units
D. The major growth rate of the population of a given country
7. Which of the following is the major factor behind the rapid growth of population in less
developed countries?
A. High Rate of Natural Increases B. Low infant mortality rate
C. Very long doubling time D. low fertility rate
8. A country had a Crude Birth Rate (CBR) of 45/1000 people in 2010. If its Crude Death
Rate (CDR) was 20/1000 people during the same year, what was its rate of natural
increases?
A. 2.5% B. 2.0% C. 4.5% D. 6.5%
9. Based on question number 8, what was the doubling time of a country during the given
year, if its Net migration rate was Zero?
A. 28 years B. 35 years C. 15 years D. 11 years

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10. Which of the following are the three most populous countries in the world?
A. Nigeria, Egypt and Ethiopia B. China, Japan and South Africa
C. China, India and USA D. India, Pakistan and Ethiopia
11. What is the main reason for the population of most poor countries to be Young age group
largely?
A. Late marriage B. low mortality rate C. Emigration rate D. High fertility
12. Which one of the following countries adapted a pro-natalist population policy?
A. Ethiopia & Egypt B. Israel & Netherlands
C. India & Bangladesh D. India& Pakistan
13. Which one of the following is not the main feature of census?
A. Universality B. Periodicity C. Expensiveness D. Selectivity
14. Which areas of the world are not among the densely populated?
A. Peninsular Europe B. North Eastern North America
C. Tundra region D. Asian population belt
15. Which one of the following does not affect the quality of population data?
A. Doubling time B. Inadequate finance
C. Double entry D. Ignoring certain group of people
16. Basic human events such as birth, death, marriage and divorce certificate is good
example of:-
A. Sample survey B. Population census C. Vital registration D. population
cluster
17. The population pyramid which is wider at the base and narrow at the top indicates:
A. Low fertility and low mortality B. High fertility and high mortality
C. Long life expectancy D. low fertility and high mortality

18. Which of the following areas of Ethiopia are grouped under densely populated?
A. Gedeo, Kembata, sidama B. Agnewak, Metekel , Kemashi
C. Afar, Asossa, Fik D. JImma, Afar, Metekel
19. Which of the following is a positive factor for giving areas of high population density?
A. Favorable climate B. poor employment
C. high incidence of tropical disease D. inadequate water supply
Instruction: Question 20- 27 Refer to The Demographic Data of A Hypothetical Region Given
Below.
These Question should be Attempted Only by Non- Blind Students
Midyear total population 72,000,000
Male population 35,000,000
Female population 37,000,000

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Total live birth 8,000,000

Urban population 14,400,000
Total death 5,000,000
No of infants who died below 1 year age 2,000,000
Women age 15- 49 yeas 10,000,000
Total area 2,500,000 Km2
Area of cultivated land 500,000 km2
Young population( 0-14) 32,400,000
Old population (above or equal to 65 age ) 360,000
Net migration rate 1/1000
20. Agricultural density of the country is
A. 115.2p/km2 B. 5.76p/km2 C. 28.8p/km2 D. 57.6p/km2
21. What is the age dependency ratio (ADR) of the country?
A. 93.5% B. 83.5% C. 73.5% D. 50%
22. The rate of natural increases (RNI) of the country is:-
A. 4.17% B. 41.7% C. 0.41% D. 417%
23. The infant mortality rate of (IMR) of the country is:-
A. 25/1000 B. 250/1000 C. 28/1000 D. 280/1000
24. The doubling time of the county’s population is:-
A. 22 years B. 16 years C. 170 yeas d. 32 years
25. The country most likely found in:-
A. North America B. Africa C. Europe D. Australia
26. What is the sex ratio of a country?
A. 94.6m/100F B. 105.7M/100F C. 84.6M/100F D. 102M/100
27. What is the crude density of a given country?
A. 288 p/km2 B. 23.76 p/km2 C. 28.8 p/km2 D.19.6 p/km2

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UNIT FOUR
Economic Activities, Economic System and Development

4.1. Economic Activities

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 know the five types of economic activities;
 understand the major characteristics of economic activities;
 know the concept and meaning of land use;
 Identify land use system in Ethiopia;
Introduction
 Humans have been involved in a number of activities in order to satisfy their diverse
material and spiritual needs.
 Economic activities are highly diversified in their nature and characters.
 Some are simple while others are complex. Some are primitive where as others are
advanced.
 Economic activity is the production, distribution and exchange of goods and services.

4.1.1. Classification of Economic Activities

It is grouped into five namely:
A) Primary Economic Activities (Harvest)
Primary economic activities are characterized by the following. They are:
 dependent on the natural environment;
 related to the production of foodstuffs and raw materials through the
exploitation of the resources of the earth;
 Influenced by the condition of the physical environment in one way or another.
The main types of primary activities include:
 Agriculture
 fishing
 forestry
 Mining
Agriculture

 It is the science and art of cultivation of the soil and the rearing of livestock
 It is one of the most important activities of human beings
 Agriculture, as a primary economic activity, aims at solving the basic problems of any
society.
 It provides foodstuffs for the population and raw materials for industries.
 In agricultural activity, land is one of the basic means for production.

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Forestry
 The extraction of forest products for different purposes by people is called forestry.
 Forestry is important for the production of wood, timber, gums, nuts, barks, etc.
Forest products are being used:
 for construction purposes;
 As a source of industrial raw materials;
 As a source of foodstuffs such as roots, leaves, fruits, barks, gums, stems,
flowers, etc.
Fishery
 It is concerned with the catching and harvesting of fish, other marine creatures, such as
whales, seals, pearls, lobsters, crabs, prawns, mollusks, sponges and seaweed.
 At present a number of people in some nations depend on fishing as the mainstay of their
livelihoods, for example, Norway, Iceland and Japan.
 Ethiopia has a number of lakes, reservoirs and rivers rich in fish resources. However,
fishing as an activity is at a low level of development.

Mining
 The extraction of mineral-bearing substances from the earth’s crust.
 It is closely linked to manufacturing, which is a secondary type of activity.
 Most minerals are inorganic; there are also some organic minerals, such as coal,
petroleum and natural gas. Minerals are not evenly distributed on the earth’s surface.
 Minerals are useful for people like, construction, jewelry making, and in industry come
from the mining sector.
B. Secondary Economic Activities (Value Added” Industries)
 The main types of Secondary activities include: Manufacturing Construction, Power
Production
 Manufacturing activities take place in factories.
 Manufacturing is the activity which turns raw materials into products by using labor,
energy and equipment,
 Industry is used to many types of economic activities, for example, the hotel industry,
the tourist industry, etc.
Manufacturing activities are characterized by the following features:
i. Dependency on raw materials that are obtained from the primary economic sector;
ii. Transformation of raw materials into finished and/or semi-finished goods;
iii. Most modern manufacturing industries need power, skilled manpower, huge
capital and modern technology;
iv. Most modern manufacturing industries are characterized by a high level of division
of labor;
v. The production of end products that are ready for consumption or semi-finished
goods that serve as an input for other industries.
C. Tertiary Economic Activities (Service-Sector” Industries)

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SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 The main types of Tertiary activities include:

 Trade (Retail and Wholesale Trade)
 Tourism
 Transportation and Communication
 Personal and Professional Services
 The basic characteristic of this sector is the provision of services.
Trade
 It is the process of buying, selling, or exchanging of commodities.
 The emergence of trade is related to the unequal distribution of resources that are
essential to satisfying human needs.
Transportation
 Transportation facilitates the movement of people, commodities, and mail.
 Nowadays, the types and quality of transportation have made much progress.
 This has enabled people to travel longer distances in shorter times than ever before. Also,
the flow of ideas, beliefs and innovations has become faster and wider.
Communication
 It involves the transmission of words and messages from one place to another.
The following are the major types of communications:
 Mail: This includes the distribution of letters, packages as well as money. Example:
Postal services
 Telephone: is device that transmits & receives sound, most commonly the human voice.
Telephones are a point-to-point communication system.
 Radio: It is one of the most important means of communication..
 Television: is a means of communication used to transmit messages using both images
and sounds.
 Internet and other modern communications tools: by using satellites and other
electronic equipment like the computer and telephone, new methods of communication
have been introduced to the world. Some of them include fax, e-mail and internet.

Tourism
 Tourism is a collection of activities, services and industries that delivers a travel
experience, and they include transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking
establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses,
 It is known as a ‘smokeless industry’.
 The main tourist attractions include natural and human-made features
The following are some of the reasons for tourism:
site-seeing;
conferences;
sport activities, such as skiing, mountaineering, boating, yachting, hunting,
swimming, etc;
health purposes

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Research and religious ceremonies.

Features that encourage the development of a tourist industry include:
 good weather conditions;
 beaches, scenery (scenic attractions) or physical landscape features;
 Services, such as bathing, boating, recreation, hotels, restaurants, etc.
 Accessibility (transport facilities) and interesting features (historical sites, parks,
etc) .
D. Quaternary Economic Activities (“White-collar” information services)
 It includes Information, Research and Management
 The quaternary sector may realistically be seen as an advanced form of service
activity involving:
 Specialized knowledge,
 technical skills,
 Communication ability or administrative competence.
 These activities include education, research, development, financial services and
government activities.
 It is performed in office buildings, elementary and university classrooms, hospitals and
doctors’ offices, theatres and television stations.
E. Quinary Economic Activities (High-level decision or Executive Decision Makers
 It is a sub-set of quaternary activities and is those that involve high-level decision making
and scientific research skills.
 It is also a sub-division of the tertiary sector representing the special and highly paid
skills of top business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial and
legal consultants,
 These people find their places of business in major metropolitan centres, in and near
major universities and research centers.
4.1.2. Land use
 Land use refers to the human activities which are directly related to land, making use of
its resources, or having an impact on it. it has many functions
 Land is one of our most precious assets.
 It provides food and shelter, it stores and filters water, and it is a base for urban and
industrial development. Land is, however, finite in quantity.
Land use is influenced by two types of driving forces. These are human and natural or
environmental.
It changes can move in two directions. Either negatively (land degradation or loss of production)
or positively (resulting higher value potential)
 Influences on land use include:
 Local culture and Different economic activities
 Environmental conditions
 Land policy & development programs
 Rural Land Use versus Urban Land Use

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, The following table tries to show land utilization of rural and urban area:
Rural Urban
Settlements are scattered Settlements are closely constructed.
Most areas are used for farming, Most areas are used for housing, industry,
forestry, pasture. transportation, and other businesses.

4.2. Natural Resources

Natural resources occur naturally with in environments

4.2.1. Types of Resources

1. Renewable Resources

 Can be replaced as they are used. Example, soil, forest, water, plants animals etc..
 The renewable resources are replaceable in character since they are able to reproduce
themselves.
2. Non -Renewable Resources
 Non-renewable resources cannot be replaced once they have been used.
 The most important example of non-renewable resources is the fossil fuels like, coal, oil
and natural gas and minerals.

4.2.2. Importance of Natural Resources

A. Natural Vegetation

It is the original cover of plants of a region resulting from normal conditions of climate,
soil, drainage and other natural conditions.
Direct use Indirect use

 Serves as a source of energy such  Regulates local climatic conditions.

as fuel wood, charcoal etc.  Maintains the balance of nature.
 Serves as a source of industrial  Maintains soil fertility and regulates soil
raw materials such as gums, erosion.
lumber, nuts  Serves as habitats for wild animals.
 Serves as source of construction  Provides aesthetic value (adds beauty to
materials. the natural environment
 Serves as a source of food such as
nuts, fruits, roots, leaves, barks etc.
 Serves as a source of income.
B. Wild Animals
Among the most important functions of wild animals for human beings are

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 Source of food, Source of industrial materials, Educational purpose, Maintain the balance of
nature.
C. Minerals
It is either inorganic or organic chemical elements or compounds found naturally in the crust of
the earth.

The Major Use of Minerals

 Minerals are raw materials for a variety of manufacturing establishment.
 Sources of energy. Example, coal petroleum
 Used for making fertilizers. Example, potash ,nitrates
 Used in building construction. Example marble, limestone
 Used for both aesthetic and ornamental purposes. Example, silver, diamond, gold,
platinum

D. Soil
 Soil is a natural resource consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable
thicknesses.
 It is composed of broken rocks that have been altered by chemical and environmental
process that include weathering and erosion.

The Major Use of Soil

 Soil is used for agriculture, Soil resources are critical to the environment and food
production.
4.3. Economic System and Development
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the concept and types of economic systems.
 State the concept of sustainable development and its indicators;
 Recognize the role and contribution of economic organization and realize the concept of
globalization.
 Know the world economic organizations;
 realize the contribution of world economic organizations to development;
4.3.1 Types of Economic Systems
An economic system is the means or structures in a society within which decisions about;
 what to produce,
 how to produce and

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 when to produce goods and services and

 Where to allocate them are made and implemented.
To achieve economic growth and development, different countries use different systems.
 Traditional economic system
 Free market economic system
 Command economic system
 Mixed economic system
A. Traditional Economy
Traditional economic systems are practiced in;
 extremely backward areas
 Primitive societies like hunters and gatherers.
 Traditional economic system is characterized by:
 lack of knowledge of science and technology,
 low productivity,
 a low level of exchange of goods,
 subsistence production and basic survival and barter system
 Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert practice Traditional economic system.
B. Market Economy
It is an economic system in which individuals make the main decisions regarding Economic
activities.
 Individuals are free to make economic decisions.
 Basic economic questions answered by the interplay of buyers and sellers.
 There is no pure free-market economy in the world.
 Governments interfere in inflation, employment, providing education for the society,
strengthening national defense, controlling prices of power supply and food, and
imposing taxes.
 A free-market economy cannot alleviate poverty or ensuring equitable income
distribution.
 Generally, market economy is characterized by:
 private property,
 economic freedom
 Prices are determined by the law of supply and demand.
 Decentralized decision making.
C. Command Economy
 The government makes decisions about production and consumption.
 The governments also own all factories, land, housing, etc.
 The command economic system still exists in North Korea, Cuba and China.
 It is characterized by:
 A master plan for supply and price.
 The government develops and enforces plans.
 Goods and services are distributed through government agencies.
D. Mixed Economy

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 Both government and private sectors play in making economic decisions.

 The government own and run key industries, means of transport, power, and water
supply.
 It might influence prices of agricultural products.
 There is competition between the government and the private sectors.

4.3.2. Sustainable Economic Development

Development is a process by which members of a society increase their personal & institutional capacities
to;

 Mobilize and manage resources.

 To produce sustainable improvements in their quality of life.
Development is also change by which an entire social system moves away from unsatisfactory
towards a condition of life that is materially and spiritually better.
Development in any society the following three objectives:
1. Increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life- sustaining goods.
2. Raise living standards & levels of income, employment, education & attention to cultural
and human values.
3. Expand the range of economic and social choices.
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
Sustainable development has three components:-Environment, Economy and Society.
N.B. Environmental, societal and economic considerations must be balance in the pursuit of
development and improved quality of life.
Indicators of Economic Development
Indicators of development are measures, to a certain level, of development in a given country.
 The main indicators of development in the world include:
GDP
Per-capita income
Standard of living
A. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
 The GDP is a measure of the market value of commodities.
 It is the total value of currently produced final goods and services.
 In developing countries, the GDP is low and It is dominated by primary commodities.
 In developed countries, secondary and tertiary economic activities contribute the biggest
shares to the GDP.
B. Per-Capita Income
 It is strongly related to the GDP.
 per-capita income can be calculated using the following formula:

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 The GDP, per-capita income for developed countries is very high and growing.
 This is the result of ever-increasing GDPs that are based on diversified urban industrial
and commercial economies.
 Developing countries, on the other hand, have low per-capita incomes, whose bases are
primary economy that lack diversification.
C. Standard of Living
 Living standard is perhaps the best measure of the quality of life.
 It is directly related to both the GDP and per-capita income.
Based on indicators of development, countries of the world classified and named as;
 as rich/poor,
 developed/ developing,
 north/south,
 first/second world, and
 More developed/less developed.
 Using current development status countries grouped as developed, less developed and
least Developed
 The developed countries are the world’s richest nations.
 Less developed countries include countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia. They have
traditional economic systems, largely agriculture, mining or a combination of both
 Norway, Switzerland and Sweden are the richest countries that have the highest GDP per-
capita
Income
 Burundi, Ethiopia and Guinea-Bissau are the poorest countries that have the lowest GDP per
capital income
The least developed countries of the world have;
 Low GNP per-capital income
 Low adult literacy,
 Low life expectancy
 Low urban population and
 High annual population growth rate.
On the other hand developed countries of the world have;
 high GNP per-capital income,
 high adult literacy,

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 high life expectancy,

 high urban population and
 Low annual population growth rate.
4.3.3. Economic Organizations of the World
Three key institutions serve as economic organizations of the world includes;
 World Bank,
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
 World Trade Organization (WTO).
A. World Bank
World Bank is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
It was established in 1944.
It grants loans to member nations for the purpose of reconstruction and
development.
Officially, it is called the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD).
World Bank is the largest known private development bank.
Its headquarters found in the United States in Washington, D.C.
World Bank finances projects such as;
 building roads
 Dams for power generation and industries.
 It also focused on; low-cost loans for health, Education and other basic needs of the poor
world.
B. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
 IMF was established in the same year as the World Bank (1944).
 IMF aims on encouraging; exchange stability, eliminating exchange controls, promoting
international monetary cooperation and expanding world trade.
 IMF makes loans for countries to maintain; the values of their currencies and d repay
foreign debt.
 Both the IMF and the World Bank usually impose certain conditions for loans called
structural
Adjustment programs from borrowers.
The programs are;
 free markets, including privatization (the selling of government enterprises),
 deregulation (removing rules that restrict companies) and
 Trade liberalization (opening local markets to foreign goods by removing barriers).
 Reducing taxes and cutting back on publicly provided services.
C. World Trade Organization (WTO)
The World Trade Organization is an international body that;
 Promotes and
 Enforces provision of trade laws and regulations.
 It administer and put in place new and existing free trade agreements;
 To oversee world trade practices, and

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 To settle trade disputes among member states.

The WTO was established in 1994 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
(GATT) and began its operation on January 1, 1995 in Geneva, Switzerland.
 involve services, investments and
 WTO involves in the protection of intellectual property rights such as patents and
copyrights.
 United States receives over half of its international income from patents and royalties for
use of copyrighted material.
4.3.4. Globalization
 Globalization is the process by separated parts of the world become interconnected, and
drawn to the same social space at the same historical time.
A. Advantages
 It creates new opportunities and benefits.
 The rules and principles globalization governed open up financial markets and eliminate
controls on capital flow (both in and out).
 International migrants send back money to their countries (home) known as
“remittances” that developing countries.
B. Disadvantages
 Globalization is unable to avoid interest clashes between the rich and the poor
Developing countries.
 Globalization has not brought equality among nations.
4.4. Public and Policy Related Issues in Ethiopia

4.4.1. HIV/AIDS
The human immune deficiency virus (HIV) is the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency
syndrome (AIDS).
The most common ways of contracting an HIV/AIDS infection are through;
 Unprotected sexual intercourse.
 Shared use of items such as needles, blades and other sharp objects.
 Transfusion of infected blood.
 Unsafe delivery and breast feeding.

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Vulnerability
 Women,
 young commercial sex workers,
 Orphans and children in general are the most vulnerable groups in Ethiopia.
 Women, due to economic, educational and biological factors as well as various harmful
traditional practices, such as female circumcision and body scarification, are considered more
vulnerable than men.
 Age, emotional development and financial dependence as well as poverty and lack of
awareness about the disease, are major factors of vulnerability among the youth.
4.5. Environmental policy
Environmental policies are guidelines formulated for a wise use of environmental
resources.
The main goal of these policies in the protection of the environment from natural and
human-made problems.
4.5.1. Economic Policy of Ethiopia
Types of economic policy
 Macroeconomic stabilization policy.
 Trade policy.
 Policies designed to create economic growth.
 policies related to development
 Industrial policy.
The objectives (Goals) of the New Economic Policy of Ethiopia
 Changing the role of the state in the economy
 Mobilizing external resources to the development efforts of the country.
 Involving regional administrations in economic management.
 Promoting public participation in development.
 Promoting private investment.
Exercise Seven
Choose the best answer from the given four alternatives.

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1. The movement towards economic, financial, trade and communications interaction across the
world is referred to as
A. globalization B. westernization C. civilization D. modernization
2. Which one of the following is the cheapest transport system?
A. Air B. Road C. Water D. Railway
3. Which of the following could be a typical characteristic of developing countries?
A. Mass poverty B. advanced technology C. high life expectancy D. high literacy
rate
4. Which one of the following commodities is not an export item in Ethiopia?
A. Textile product B. Coffee C. Oil seed D. Fossil fuels
5. Which one of the following combination is wrong about economic system in the world?
A. Free Market→ USA B. Mixed economy→ globally most nation
C. Command Economic system→ Ethiopia today D. Traditional economy → Ancient
society
6. Which one of the following international origin- specific by scope?
[Link] B. World bank C. COMESA D. IMF
7. Which one of the following belongs to the non-renewable resources?
A. Petroleum B. Forest C. Soil D. Water
8. Countries are classified as developed if
A. Manufacturing is the major economic activity B. The per capita industrial output is very
low C. Agriculture is least developed D. The rate of population growth is
very high
9. Which one of the following is an indicator of developed economy?
A. High life expectancy B. High death rate C. low urban population D. high birth
rate
10. An economic system in which the government makes decisions about production and
consumption is
A. Mixed economy B. Free market C. command economy D. traditional
economy
11. Which one of the following statement is an indirect use of natural vegetation?
A. Serve as source of energy such as fuel wood and charcoal
B. Serve as regulating local climate condition
C. Serve as source of construction material
D. Serve as source of industrial raw material
12. To which sector of the economic practices that trade, transport, tourism and communication
collectively belongs:
A. Primary economic activity B. Tertiary economic activity

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C. Secondary economic activity D. Quaternary economic activity

13. The cheapest and fastest mood of transport is _______ and _________ respectively
A. water and Air transport B. Air and road transport
C. water and road transport D. road and air transport
14. The dominant system of land use in lowland peripheries of Ethiopia is:-
A. mixed farming B. shifting cultivation C. plantation agriculture D. Pastoralist
15. Which of the following indicator is the best measure of economic development?
A. Per – capital income B. Gross Domestic product
C. Gross National product D. standard of living
16. Market economic system is characterized by all of the following except:-
A. Private property B. Master plan for supply and price
C. Decentralized decision making D. Economic freedom
17. Which kind of economic activity involves the production of food staff and raw materials?
A. Secondary B. Primary C. Tertiary D. Quaternary
18. Among the following which one is an example of renewable resource?
A. Mineral B. Forest C. Coal D. Natural gas
19. Among the following minerals which one is used as an agricultural input for making
fertilizer?
A. Tin B. Nitrate C. Copper D. Lead
20. Currently, which one of the following wood is an important natural resource of raw material
for furniture industry of Ethiopia?
A. Bisana B. Girar C. Wanza D. Sholla
21. Which one of the following considered as an economic impact of HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia?
A. Family breakup B. School dropout C. Loss of skilled labor D. Increased
mortality

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PART TWO (GRADE 11)

CHAPTER ONE
1.1 The Meaning of Geography
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 State the meaning of geography.
Geography does not have a single definition that is universally accepted. Nonetheless, most of
the various definitions emphasize the fact that geography is a spatial science.
Thus, Geography is the study of the Earth that describes and analyses spatial and temporal
variations of physical, biological and human phenomena, and their interconnected, the two way
interactions and dynamism over the surface of the Earth.
Therefore, geography is the study of:
 The physical world, its inhabitants, and the interaction between the two; The resultant
patterns and systems of geographical phenomena;
 Patterns and processes associated with causes;
 Relationships between humans and their environment, with emphasis on spatial
perspectives at varying scales.
1.2. The Scope of Geography
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Determine the scope of geography.
Scope refers to the extent of interest, the capacity and limits that an academic discipline treats.
Geography is said to have a greater scope than mere locations. It treats a wide range of
phenomena on the planet earth. Generally the geo-sphere is considered as geography’s scope.
The geo-sphere, itself is made up of five sub spheres, namely:
 Lithosphere – referring to the rock layer
 Troposphere- is the lower layer of the atmosphere
 Hydrosphere- referring to the various water bodies
 Biosphere- refers to the biotic components of earth

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 Anthroposphere- refers to the earth’s cultural landscape

Therefore, Geography is a holistic and interdisciplinary field of study. It is true that geography
has a very wide scope
1.2.1. Branches of Geography
Geography has different spheres of studies. These different spheres of studies are grouped into
two main branches.
 Physical geography: is the study of the distribution of natural occurring features and
their inter relationship. Physical geography has its own specialties/ subdivision.
 Climatology
 Geomorphology
 Soil geography
 Biogeography, oceanography etc…
 Human geography: is the study of the distribution of human activities, settlement
pattern and way of life in relation to the physical environment.
 Human geography specialties
 Economic geography
 Political geography
 Urban geography
 Population geography, historical geography, social &cultural geography etc…
1.3 Approaches in Geography
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Justify the merit and demerit of approaches used to study physical and human
environments.
The most frequently adopted approaches are
A. Topical (systematic) approach: studies one issue and looks at its spatial variations in all parts
of the globe.
Example: The geography of climate
B. Regional approach: studies the various characteristics of each region and their
interrelationships divide the world into regions.
Example: The geography of sub-Sahara, the geography of the Middle East.
NB. Although geographers use these two basic approaches, they are not necessarily (regional &
systematic), independent of each other. Instead, these approaches are interconnected and
overlapping.

1.4 Major School Of Thought in Geography

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
 Compare and contrast the concept of determinism with possibilism;
 Show appreciation for the significance of quantitative studies;

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 Verify the importance of applied geography in solving social and environmental

problems.
Various schools of thought have emerged with different views regarding the relationship
between humans and their environment as well as the interpretation of social problems by
human.
 Different schools of thoughts developed.
 The main schools are determinism and possibilism
 . These two dominant schools of thought that explain relationships b/n humans and their
environment.
A. Environmental Determinism
 The philosophy of environmental determinism is related to the idea that the
environment is the factor that determines peoples’ mode of living.
 It believes that human activities are controlled by the environment.
 Human beings are a passive agent on which the physical factors are active agent that
determining its attitude and process of decision making.
B. Environmental Possibilism
 Possibilists argue that human beings are masters of the environment and they can judge
their benefits.
 Proponents of this view emphasize that two-way relationships exist between humans
and the environment.
 They state that people can influence the environment to enhance their way of life.
 Possibilists agree that the environment can potentially affect people’s activities, but
they believe that we can use our knowledge and skills to regulate these effects.
 Nowadays, the school of possibilism is becoming widely accepted since it recognizes
human’s ability to change its environment using the latest or better technologies

C. The quantitative Revolution

 It marked the beginning of a new era in geography where inquiry methods began to
employ statistical techniques.
 It became popular in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
 The quantitative revolution was driven by the development of the computer and its ability
to rapidly process data.
 Quantitative geographer “went radical” applied computers, statistics and mathematical
models to the study of geographers. This movement in geography is called the
“Quantitative Revolution”.

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The quantitative revolution was a response to the crisis in the 1950’[Link] crisis was the result of
the challenges that geography faced during late 1940’s and early1950’s.
The revolution introduced a rapid change in the methodologies used in geographical research.
This change led to a shift from descriptive geography to empirical law-making geography.
Some of the techniques that became central to geography during the quantitative revolution
were:
 Descriptive statistics
 Inferential statistics
 Basic mathematical equations and models, such as gravity models
 Deterministic models e.g., Von Thünen’s and Weber’s location model
 Statistical models, using concepts of probability

D. The Emergence of Applied Geography

 Applied geography had its roots in the quantitative revolution.

 The emergence of applied geography increased the applicability of geographic
knowledge.
 Today, many geographers work as urban planners, GIS analysts, environmentalists,
cartographers, location analysts, transportation planners, developing-nations specialists,
public-transportation planners, highway planners, university-facility , etc
 Applied geography is the use of geographic analysis in private business, government,
non-profit organizations
 Applied geography solves problems and aids in decision making.

1.5 The Relationship between Geography and Other Disciplines

 Geography is an interdisciplinary subject.
 It has strong relationship with various disciplines of natural and social sciences.
 It shares a wide range of information with the social and natural sciences.
 For instance human geography is highly linked with social sciences, while physical
geography is related to the natural sciences.

Exercise One
I. Choose the best answer from the given four alternatives
1. Which approach would best suit a study of the distribution of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia?
A. Regional approach C. Systematic approach
B. The qualitative approach D. The quantitative approach

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2. The application of geographer’s knowledge and skill to solve socio-economic, ecological and
environmental related problem is called_____
A. Regional geography C. Economic geography
B. Applied geography D. Historical and cultural geography

3. The main theme of possibilism is:

A. The two-way relationship between human and nature.
B. Human beings are not capable of modifying their environments.
C. Human society is a passive agent in the man-environment relationship.
D. Human beings are always under the influence of their environment
4. Which of the following branches of geography studies how plants and animals are distributed
over the earth’s surface?
A. Oceanography B. Population geography C. Biogeography D. Climatology
5. Which of the following statement is the deterministic outlook?
A. Human is capable of modifying his environment.
B. Human beings are active agent in the human-environment relationship
C. human activities are controlled by the physical environment
D. people can influence the environment to enhance their way of life.
6. Which branch of geography deals with boundary, communication and government activities
among or b/n countries?
A. Cultural geography C. Historical geography
B. Political geography D. Economic geography
7. Which of the following statement about the philosophy of “Environmental Determinism” is
not correct?
A. It strongly influenced geographic thoughts until the early 20th century
B. It supports the view that human beings are the masters of the environment
C. Its founding ideas were laid down by Greek and Roman philosophers
D. It advocates the view that the physical environment controls human activities
8. Which one of the following statements about Geography is not correct?
A. Geography is an interdisciplinary science
B. The scope and definition of Geography has remained static
C. The spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena is the core domain of geography
D. Geography shares a wide range of information with the social and natural sciences

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UNIT TWO
Map Reading and Interpretation
After the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 understand the definition and properties of contour lines
 Realize how contour lines are used to represent relief features on maps &types of
contours
 Acquire the skills of drawing contour lines, cross-sections and determine inter-visibility
2.1. Relief Representation on Contour Map
 The term relief refers to the way that the earth’s surface is arranged.
 It shows the difference in altitude that exists between different landforms.
 It thus shows the broad features and relative heights of highlands and lowlands such as
flood plains, spurs, hills, plateaus etc
Contour lines
Activity. What are contour lines?
 How do they represent different landforms on maps?
 Contour lines are known as Isohypses
 They are imaginary lines shown on a map that connect places of equal altitude above
mean sea level.
 They provide the most accurate way of showing relief on maps.
 Contours are used to show the different landforms of the earth on two-dimensional
maps.
 They are used at a variety of scales.
 The term “contour line” is most commonly used in cartography. However, the term
“isobaths” for underwater depths on bathymetric maps and “Isohypses” for elevations
are also used.
 The process of drawing contours (Isohypses) on a map is called isopletion
In order to read and interpret the contour lines correctly, the following rules of contour lies
must be studied:
 Evenly spaced contours represent a uniform slope;
 Contours that are widely spaced indicate a gentle slope;
 Contours that are close together near the top of a hill and widely spaced at the bottom
indicate a concave slope; Contours that are widely spaced at the top of a hill and close
together at the bottom indicate a convex slope;
 Overlapping contours, i.e., contours that merge at a point, indicate a cliff

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 Closed contours with more or less circular shapes, with values decreasing towards the
center represent depressions;
 Closed contours with elongated shapes, with values increasing towards the center with no
specific tips indicate mountain ranges;
 Closed contours with more or less rectangular shapes, with values increasing towards the
center with the top being a very wide closed contour represent plateaus;
 Contours with “V” shapes, with downward bending and values increasing upward
represent spurs; and
 Contours with “V” shapes, with upward bending and values increasing upward represent
valleys.

2.1.1 Drawing Contour Lines from Spot Heights

 The collection of spatial information that is vital for contour mapping can be done
through ground survey, aerial photography or satellite imagery.
 The gathered data will be recorded on paper or stored in a computer by using spot
heights, with each spot height representing the measured altitude of the specific point.
 Contours are drawn from spot heights by using the method called interpolation.
2.1.2. Methods of depicting relief on Maps.
A. Layer Tinting: is a method of showing relief by using different colors. Each shade of color
represents a definite elevation range.
B. Form Lines: Form lines are not measured from any datum plane. As a result, they have no
standard elevation. They only give a general idea of relief represented. Form lines are
represented on a map as dashed lines and are never labeled with representative elevations.
C. Shaded Relief:
 It is a method that indicates relief by a shadow effect achieved by tone and colour that
results in the darkening of one side of terrain features, such as hills and ridges.
D. Hachures:
 They are short, broken lines that are used to show relief.
 They are sometimes used with contour lines.
 Hachures do not represent exact elevations, but are mainly used to show large, rocky
outcrop areas.
E. Contour Lines:
 They are the most common method of showing relief and elevation on a standard
topographic map. All points on a given contour line are at the same elevation.
 Cartographers use three types of contour lines while representing relief on topographic
maps.

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2.1.3. Drawing Relief Cross-Section (Profile)

 Cross-section (profile) is a line, shows the rise & fall of the surface of the ground along a
chosen line on a map.
 A cross-section helps us to acquire a better view of the nature of the slope and other relief
features drawn on the contour map. .
 In cross-section drawing, two different scales are used to draw the section. They are
horizontal scale and vertical scale.
 Horizontal scale is the normal scale of any given map, while vertical scale is the scale
which is used to show the nature and type of relief on the contour map.
 Vertical scale shows the degree of exaggeration made while the cross-section of a relief
feature is prepared from its contour map.
 The vertical exaggeration/vertical scale of the cross-section is determined by considering
the scale of the map and the nature of the terrain.
NB: the widely accepted approach to use is defined by these guidelines:
 higher vertical exaggeration for flat terrain; and
 Small or no vertical exaggeration for rugged (rough) terrain.

𝑯. 𝑺 (𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆)
𝐕𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐱𝐚𝐠𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐕. 𝐄) =
𝑽. 𝑺(𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆)

In almost all cross-sections, the horizontal scale is smaller than the vertical scale. This forms a
simple relationship b/n the contour interval and the vertical distance b/n the horizontal lines on
the graph paper.
 Using a vertical scale greater than the horizontal scale in a cross-section is called vertical
exaggeration.
 Cartographers exaggerate the vertical scale in order to clearly visualize the terrain of an
area.
 Some times less exaggeration is used in areas where the relief elevation is high. When the
relief represented is a relatively flat area or an area of low altitude, more exaggeration is
needed
Vertical exaggeration has both advantageous and disadvantageous.
Advantages
 It increases the visual effectiveness of a given relief.
 It has the potential to give a very strong impression.
Disadvantages
 It causes the slope of a hillside to look steeper than it actually is.
 It may cause some distortion (misrepresentation)

2.1.4. Intervisibility
 Inter-visibility is simply defined as the visibility of places to each other.

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 If an observer standing at a certain point can see another observer standing at another
point, then the two places are said to be intervisible.
 Any land that is not visible from a certain point or place is known as “dead ground”.
 Contour maps are important tools to determine whether two places are intervisible or not.
Factors Affecting Inter-Visibility
A. The type of slope between the two points;
B. The general relief between the two points; and
C. The amount of vegetation that covers the area.
D. Building, houses

2.1.5. Land Forms on Contour Maps

 Contour maps show different relief features by using contour lines with different
shapes and spacing.

Exercise Two
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Concave slopes are characterized by: A. Steep slope at the bottom B. uniformly gentle
slope
C. Steep slope at the top D. Uniformly steep slope E. None
2. Identify wrong alternatives about cliff.
A. It is a less developed stream course B. It is vertical or nearly vertical slope
C. Cliffs are shown on topographic maps by using contour lines that are very close together
D. It is low point on the ground or a sinkhole E. A and D are correct
3. Suppose point A located at the top and point B located at the bottom of a hill, with contours
that are drawn far apart at the top and close to each other at the bottom, then two points are said
to be:
A. Intervisible [Link] of division C. Not intervisible D. Mutually visible
4. One of the following is not true about the features of contour lines?
A. They are used to show different landforms of the earth on three dimensional maps
B. They used to indicate altitude
C. They provide the most accurate way of showing relief
D. contours are used at a variety of scales
5. Closed contours with more or less circular shapes with values decreasing towards the center
represent
A. Mountain ranges B. Depression C. Valleys D. Hills
6. All are adversely affects intervisibility of places except one
A. When the ground is perfect flat and places have equal altitude
B. The general relief between the two points

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C. The type of slope between the two points

D. The amount of vegetation that covers the area
E. The physical distance between two points
7. What is the main reason in across-section drawing process a vertical scale is greater than the
horizontal scale? A. It is not important to get clear idea of the nature of relief
B. It helps to clearly visualize the terrain of an area
C. It reduced the visual effectiveness of a given relief D. It doesn’t helpful to map
reader 8. Which of the following topographic features represent on maps by
closed contours more or less circular shapes with value decreased towards the center?
A. Mountain B. Depression C. Plateau D. Spur
9. ____________ is a method of showing a relief feature on a map by using different colors or
different intensities of the same color.
A. Form line B. Hachure C. Layer tinting D. Relief shading

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II. Item 9- 12 should be attempted by non- visual impaired students only. These questions
should be done Based on the above given map

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9. The vertical interval of the map is A. 100m B. 50m C. 150m D. 200m

10. Letter “C” represents_______ A. tributary B. Delta C. The mouth of the river D.
Confluence
11. The type of slope does the line connecting point “L” and “M” indicates
A. Convex slope B. Uniform slope C. Gentle slope D. Concave slope
12. The land feature found between point “X” and “Y” represented?
A. Ridge B. cliff C. River valley D. depression
13. The drainage pattern shown on the map is
A. Radial drainage pattern C. dendritic drainage pattern
B. Centripetal drainage pattern D. trellis drainage pattern
14. The type of slope from ‘O’ to ‘P’ is ___A. Even slope B. spur C. convex slope D.
Terraced slope
15. The type of slope from point H to K represents ___________
A. concave slope B. convex slope C. Uniform slope D. Escarpment
16. The type of slope A to B is _________ A. Ridge B. River valley C. cliff D.
depression
17. The landform represented by the letter ‘S’ is _____
A. Ridge B. cliff C. depression D. Spur

2.2. Drainage on Maps

At the end of this content, you will be able to:
 determine catchment areas from watershed on contour map;
 know about the different drainage patterns;
 understand the river capture condition

2.2.1. Watershed and Catchment Area

Drainage is simply the flow of water from any area through definite channels of rivers, streams
etc..

Drainage pattern: - refers to the general arrangement of a river and its tributaries within their
drainage basin/ catchment area.

Drainage basin/catchment area:- refers to the entire geographical space that is drained by the
major river and its tributaries. For example, the whole area that is drained by the Abay River and
all its tributaries forms the Abay River Basin in Ethiopia.

Drainage system: -is a system that is made up of all the river basins that flow in the same
direction.

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Example: all the rivers that flow in the western direction from the central highlands of
Ethiopian form the Western Ethiopia Drainage System, which is also called the Mediterranean
Sea Drainage System, based on their destination

Watershed/divide:- is higher ground which serves as a source region for streams and rivers that
flow in different directions within their own distinct basins.

There are two different categories of watershed: Major & minor watershed

 A river’s catchment area includes all the geographic space that is drained by a major river
and many other small streams that feed the major river with water
 Major river in a river basin:- is the longest of all the rivers in the basin.
 Tributaries: - are streams that supply water to the main river.
 Confluence:-is the point at which the tributaries meet with the major river
 source of the river:-is the point at which the major river in a basin starts
 mouth of the river:- is the point at which the river empties itself into an ocean, a sea or
a lake
 Levee: A levee is a ridge of sediment on either side of a river channel. This sediment is
gradually deposited as the river periodically floods and overflows its banks.
 Estuary: An estuary is the area in which the mouth of a river meets the ocean.
 Delta: A delta is a triangular deposit of soil or silt at the mouth of a river

2.2.2. Drainage Patterns

There are a number of drainage patterns that rivers form in their basins. However, the most
common ones are the following.
1. Dendritic Drainage Pattern:
 The term dendritic is derived from the Greek word “dendron” which literally means “a
tree”.
 This drainage pattern is characterized by a tree-like shape with branches.
 The smallest tributaries are the outermost twigs, and the main river channel forms the
trunk
 The lower-order streams (tributaries) join the main (higher-order) streams at acute angles
(less than 90o angles), forming Y-shaped junctions.
 Dendritic patterns are usually formed in areas of homogeneous rock which comprises
horizontal strata rock masses.
 In this drainage pattern, geological processes such as folding or faulting do not create
structures that would affect the development of the river system.
 It is the most common drainage pattern of all the patterns.

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 In sequent stream – these are tributaries that flow towards the main valley
joining the main river (consequent stream) obliquely
 Oblique tributaries – these are minor tributary streams having a sloping
direction, that join the in sequent stream obliquely
2. Trellis Drainage Pattern:
 Trellis drainage patterns develop in areas where harder and softer rocks alternate.
 The pattern of this drainage pattern is greatly affected by tectonic forces (folding and
faulting).
 The branches of the river system usually join one another at nearly right angles.
 The branches are given different names, depending on their origin and direction of
flow.
These are:
a) First-order streams (obsequent): are the tributaries of the subsequent streams
that flow in the opposite direction to the consequent stream (main).
b) The consequent stream: the principal river which flows down the slope is called
a consequent river.
c) The subsequent streams: (main tributaries of the consequent streams)are the
tributaries which cut out valleys and which do not flow down the main slope.
d) Secondary consequent streams(resequent): are the tributaries of the subsequent
streams that flow in the same direction to the consequent
3. Radial Drainage Pattern:
 Radial drainage patterns occur where rivers flow in all directions away from a raised
feature.
 The raised feature may be a volcano or a mass of rock that is more resistant to erosion
than the surrounding rock and therefore stands higher than its surrounding.
4. Centripetal Drainage Pattern:
 Centripetal drainage patterns are found in areas where rivers flow from surrounding high
ground toward a central basin, which is often occupied by a lake.
 The rivers flow into one common center
5. Rectangular Drainage Pattern:
 Rectangular drainage patterns usually form in areas that have numerous cracks that form
a grid pattern.
 This pattern is common over certain types of rock, such as granite, in which cracks called
joints develop to form a grid.
 Stream channels tend to follow these joint systems.

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2.2.3 River Capture and Stage of River Valley Development

A. River Capture
 In a river capture, a river of one basin will run over the drainage basin of another river.
 The river that flows over the basin of the other river is called the pirate stream, and the
other river, whose basin is overrun by the pirate stream, is known as the victim stream.
 There are certain situations that cause the formation of river captures. The conditions
include the following. When:
 The rock on the side of the victim river is softer.
 Heavy rainfall falls on the pirate’s river side of the watershed.
 The pirate river has a steeper course and erodes its course as a result.
 The watershed consists of very low ground and the watershed itself becomes
indefinite.
 In a river capture, the following features are commonly observed.
1. Elbow of capture: is a point where one strong river cuts into the course of
another weak river during river capture.
2. Misfit or underfit stream: is a stream which is deprived of its headwaters and
becomes too small for the valley it belongs to.
3. Wind gap: is the area between the elbow of capture and the misfit stream where
the water stops flowing and river gravels are deposited.

B. Stages of River valley Development

A river has three distinct Stages. These are:

i. The upper or mountain course;
ii .The middle or valley course; and
iii. The lower or plain course
i.. The Upper Course
It is the headwater zone in the mountains or hills where sediment is supplied from hillsides and
transported down steep channels with narrow flood plains.
The characteristics of a river at its youth stage:
 The development of deep narrow valley with V-shapes;
 The development of vertical erosion valleys with narrow and steep gradients;
 The presence of fast-flowing rivers; waterfalls, rapids.
 The development of pot-holes (deep hole or cave)
 The formation of interlocking(interconnecting or join) spurs;
ii. The Middle Course
At this stage, the river is characterized by the following features.
 The river flows over a relatively gentle gradient and the river flows slowly.

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 The river’s volume increases gradually as it is joined by the tributaries that feed water to
the river;
 The river’s valley gets wider and deeper.
 altering the valley’s shape from a V-shape nearly to a U-shape, and
 Braided streams may develop if large sheets of material are deposited on the level plain,
splitting the river into several channels.
iii. The Lower Course.

The following are the main characteristics of the lower course

 The river flows in a U-shaped valley with a flat river bed,

 The river carries a heavy load of fine sediment of which some is deposited on its bed;
 The river flows with a number of twists and bends,
 The development of oxbow lakes as meanders gradually develop discontinues;

Exercise Three
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which one of the following statements is describes dendritic drainage pattern
A. It is formed in areas of homogeneous rock
B. It is greatly affected by folding or faulting
C. develops in areas where harder and softer rocks interchange.
D. The rivers flow into one common center
2. A drainage basin/catchment area refers to:
A. the entire geographical space
B. the general arrangement of a river and its tributaries
C. The dividing line b/n neighboring drainage basins
D. the flow of water through well defined channel
3. One of the following is not the main characteristics the lower stages of river valley
development?
A. The development of oxbow lakes C. The development of deep narrow valley
B. The river flows with a number of twists D. Sediment deposited on the side of river bed
4. Which of the following statement is not true about the situation that causes the formation of
river captures?
A. The pirate river has a steeper course and erodes its course
B. Heavy rain falls on the pirate’s river side of the watershed
C. The rock on the side of the victim river is softer
D. The watershed consists of very higher ground

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5. Sources of rivers are a higher ground that is often covered by hard rock which cannot easily be
eroded. If an area has plenty rainfall, what type of drainage pattern, do you think, can develop in
the area?
A. Trellis drainage pattern C. Centripetal drainage pattern
B. Dendritic drainage pattern D. Radial drainage pattern
6. Which of the following often separates adjacent drainage basins?
A. Their tributaries B. A ridge C. Confluences D. Deltas
7. ___is a type of drainage pattern where rivers flow from surrounding high grounds towards a
central basin
A. Triangular drainage pattern C. Circular drainage pattern
B. Rectangular drainage pattern D. Centripetal drainage pattern

2.3 The Study of Human-made Features on Maps

At the end of the section, you will be able to:
 Understand the various patterns of settlement on maps;
 interpret the shape of settlements , explain the types of settlements;
Activity
 What is a settlement? How is a settlement formed?
 A settlement is a place where people live close together.
 Settlements differ in their size, complexity and stage of development.
 Some settlements are extremely large with diversified socio-economic conditions; others
are very small and less diversified.
 Settlements range from a little collection of single buildings to megalopolises.
 Settlements can be urban or rural

2.3.1 Representation of Settlements on Maps

 Maps are important tools for showing settlements.
 To represent settlements and their features, cartographers use different techniques
including colors and different signs and symbols.

I. Signs and Symbols Used on Settlement Maps

 Most topographic maps contain abundant information about human-made features.
II. The Shape of Settlements
Settlements have different shapes due to many factors. Some of the factors are the site &
situation of the settlement.
 Site means where the settlement has been developed.
 Situation refers to the “where” of the settlement in relation to the surrounding area.
Settlements are classified into three major groups based on their shapes. These are:

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a. Dispersed settlement
b. Nucleated settlement
c. Linear settlement
A. Dispersed (scattered) settlements:
 It established by one family or a few family residences scattered about in isolated places.
 They are separated from one another by physical barriers.
 There is little opportunity for social gatherings.
 Typically found in the tropical rainforests and scrub lands in Africa and Australia. It is
mostly found in rural areas.
B. Nucleated (clustered) settlements:
 It consists of hamlets, villages and small periodic-market towns where buildings are
developed around a certain central point.
 The pattern of the settlement is compact, concentrated & can be distinguished by certain
well-developed features. Ethiopian examples of nucleated settlements are Addis Ababa,
Bahir Dar, Harar, Gondar, Bishoftu etc
C. Linear (Ribbon) Settlements: refers to a kind of settlement which has an elongated pattern.
 This type of pattern is usually a road oriented settlement pattern. Most of the towns that
are found along the main highway lines from Addis Ababa to Gondar, Mekele, Asosa,
Harar, and Jimma are good examples of linear settlement in Ethiopia.
 Some linear settlements are situated on an elongated relief feature such as a ridge. The
town of Ghimbi in Welega is a good example of a settlement that develops along a ridge
III. Types of Settlements
Based on where settlements are developed, they can be grouped into two types. Rural and urban
settlement
A. Rural settlement and their characteristics
 Develop in agricultural areas.
 Population is sparsely populated
 no planned streets , no defined shape & narrow and irregular roads are found
 Their economy is primarily agricultural.
 They have very low divisions of labor.
B. Urban settlements and their characteristics
 Develop in non-agricultural areas.
 They have planned streets and defined shapes of settlement
 They have groups of buildings on vast built-up area
 They have a high division of labor and densely populated
 Infrastructures, such as transport and communication facilities, schools, and hospitals,
and modern houses, etc. are well-developed.

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IV. Factors Influencing the Location of Settlement Sites

 Fertile alluvial plain:
 A fertile alluvial plain drained by rivers is ideal for raising food crops and maintaining a
potable water supply.
. Eg. Wereta in the intensively cultivated Fogera basin drained by the Rib and Gumara
Rivers.
 Coastal lowlands: where narrow coastal plains are bounded on the landward side by
mountains, agriculture, transport and settlement all have to be carried out on the lower
land.
 Water supply:
 The site of a settlement should be near a good water supply but far enough to avoid
flooding & water breed insect.
 Springs, streams, and storage dams should be remote from flooding and water germs.
 Such settlement sites include ports, confluences, bridge points, and spring lines at the
base of escarpment river banks. For example, Khartoum is a confluence city and Djibouti
is a port town.
 A natural focus of routes: These are the nodal towns. By the very nature of their
geographical location, many towns assume importance as centers of road, rail or water
communication. An example of such nodal town in Ethiopia is Kombolcha.

 Communications networks are important factors in settlement sites.

 Proximity to transportation networks effortlessness movement for speedy marketing of

agricultural products. Good examples in Ethiopia are Mojo, Awash, Shashmene, Wereta,
and Woldya.

 Mineral wealth:

 Valuable minerals attract investors and investment to work in the mines. Such conditions
create favorable opportunities for settlements to develop. For example, Johannesburg’s,
Cairo.

 Sites for Generating hydro–electric power:

 Waterfalls are important for generating hydro–electricity. Where such a site occurs, the
availability of cheap power attracts industrial establishments. Example Buffalo to the
south of the Niagara Falls in the US, and Bahir Dar and Fincha in Ethiopia

 Defensive Sites: a defensive site is a place that is difficult to attack. Some towns in
Ethiopia were established on a hilltop or hillsides for defense and patrolling purposes. For

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instance, the Yirgalem, Chencha (Gamo–Gofa), Asela, etc. villages on the Bouci plateaus
were established in isolated spots at the bases of rocky ridges and covered by dense
forest.

V. Function of Settlement

1. Market towns: are towns whose major function is as centre of exchange of goods and
service. They are distribution centers for local products, for example, Nedjo (Welega),
Kola Diba (N/ Gondar), Ginchi (near Ambo), Agaro (in Jimma), Tepi (in Kaffa),Durbete (
west Gojam), etc. Kumasi (Ghana).

2. Industrial towns are engaged in processing raw materials into finished goods. These towns
have some advantages as industrial sites such as:
 Proximity to power, Minerals, Raw materials, labor or markets
Example: Akaki, Dukam, Adama, Dire Dawa, Bahir Dar, Gondar, Mekele,
3 Commercial towns:
 The major functions of these types of towns are just serving as centers of commerce and
finance, where trade is the primary concern.
 There are financial institutions such as banking, insurance. Example London, New York
, Addis Ababa is the financial centre of Ethiopia
4. Mining towns:
 Mining oriented towns may be located in very unusual places, but adequate mineral
resources.
 Some towns shrink and become ghost towns (spirit) due to the exhaustion of minerals
5. Holiday resorts, hill and health resorts:
 These towns with various kinds of resorts are located in favorable geographical
surroundings.
 They include coastal resorts for batting and yatching. For example, Mombasa (Kenya),
port Sudan (Sudan), Pretoria (South Africa).
 Hill resorts for mountain climbing and for the cool mountain air. Example, Semien
Mountain.
 Health resorts for those whole need specialist’s treatment. Example, Soderie (Oromia),
Wondo Ghent (Wanzaye (south Gondar).
6. Administrative towns: are the head quarters of the government and they are capital cities or
centers of local administration. Some are continental capitals (Addis Ababa) and international
capitals (Geneva, New York)
7. Cultural and educational towns:
 Are found world renowned universities. For example, Oxford and Cambridge in England
and Laiden in the Netherlands:

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8. Ecclesiastical (church or religious) cities

 Are perform special functions such as historical and religious centers and are frequently
visited by pilgrims from all corners of the world.
Example: Jerusalem (Judaism, Christianity), Mecca (Islam), Varanasi (Hinduism),
Vatican and Lalibela, Axum and Kulubi (Orthodox Christianity), Nejash (Islam) in
Ethiopia.
2.3.2 The Study of Communication on Maps
Transport Network
A. Foot paths (Trails): are usually found in the open countryside and in hills or mountains.
B. Roads:
 Roads ranging from mule tracks to modern highways are the most universal form of
transport.
 Roads are classified by their width and surface quality:
 Some of them are: tarmac (asphalt) roads or first-class roads (highways), metallic
(graded surfaced) roads, and cart tracks (dry-weather roads).
C. Railways have contributed to the development of industrial sites, city growth.
 Compared with road transport, rail travel avoids congestion causes less pollution,
is cheaper and quicker over relatively long distances, and is safer and more
comfortable.
 a railway line is controlled by relief.
 Railway lines find river gaps and passes and maintain a level course by cutting
bridges, via ducts and embankments
D. Cart tracks: most of the cart tracks shown on topographic map are, at least in the dry season,
used by four-wheel drive vehicles.
E. Waterways (Navigation):
 Water transport is the slowest but cheapest form of bulk transport.
 waterways are divided into two major groups:
A. Inland waterways B. Sea routes.
F. Air Transport
 Air transport is a recent mode of transport, speedy means of transport
 This new form of transport has great advantages, because it is affected very little by
different land forms or ground conditions.
 It can reach the remotest, the farthest and the most inaccessible places on earth.
 Aerodromes and air ports are points where single or several tarmac runways
equipped with navigation aids exist.
G. Other means of communication: These include communications, radio/TV stations and
microwave and tower stations which are shown by their own symbols and names.
Factors Affecting the Development of Transport Network
 Transport facilities are prime(key) necessity for two purposes:
 To serve economic activities
 To make strategic control of a country possible.

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1. Relief: One of the major obstacles for transport development is relief (terrain).
2. Watershed road route: sometimes road routes follow watersheds just to avoid crossing
numerous rivers which require expensive bridges.
3. River valley roads route: Usually the gradients of river valleys have been smoothed by
erosive action of rivers. This makes road construction easier and less costly.
4. Water bodies: are another hurdle to road and rail construction. Rivers can be crossed either
by bridges or ferries.

2.4 Geographical Information System (GIS)

2.4.1 What is GIS?
 Geographic Science of place & space, which describes the Earth
 Information
Knowledge, description, facts
 Systems
Capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage and present
1. Basics of Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A Geographic Information System can be defined as:
"A system of computer hardware, software and procedures designed to support the capture,
management, analysis, modeling and display of geographically referenced data for decision
making and solving complex planning and management problems. It is a way in which to begin
to represent and model the real world."
 A geographic information system is a computer-based system that provides four sets of
capabilities to handle geo-referenced data:
1) Input, 2) Data Management 3) Manipulation and Analysis, 4) Output.
Components of GIS: People, Data, computer hardware, computer software and Analysis

2.4.2 Turning Point on the development of GIS

 The first GIS called the Canada Geographic Information System was built in the 1960s
by the Canadian government to analyze data collected by the Canada Land Inventory.
 Similar systems were built by other governments and university laboratories following
the developments in Canada.
 The increased accessibility of computers in the 1970s as a result of technological
improvements and lower costs of computers heralded the beginning of wide application
of GIS.

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 In the 1980s GIS sales increased tremendously as governments and businesses found
more uses of the systems.
 Now, GIS has come to be one of the most important systems
Some of the applications of GIS are stated as follows: GIS are important for
 Urban planning concerned with the development of master plans. GIS is used to monitor
patterns of urban growth, planning applications.
 Traffic Control: GIS is used to regulate and monitor traffic flows in streets and
overcrowded highways
 Education: GIS is used in schools of all levels.
 Scientific Research: GIS-conducted research can assess the quality of medicines that are
imported from abroad to determine whether they fulfill international standards.
 Social Programs: GIS methods are used to generate data on unemployment rate increases
in relation to economic development in a given country.
 Tourism: GIS provides information about services and facilities of tourist sites
 Public Health: GIS has been used to identify health problems caused by lack of sanitary
practices.
 Resource Management: Resource management problems prevail in many regions. In one
coffee growing region, GIS was used to map, analyze and manage a complex weather
condition.
 Wildlife Management: GIS is also used in wildlife management applications.

Exercise Four
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following is wrongly paired?
A. Ecclesiastical cities --------- Jerusalm Mecca
B. Health resort --------- Semien mountain ( Ras Dejen)
C. Administrative cities ------------- Addis Ababa, New York
D. market towns ---------------------- Koladiba,
E. Industrial town --------------------- Dire Dawa
2. Based on their settlement sites Khartoum and Djibouti are ________ and ________ town/city
respectively
A. confluence and port town C. Port and confluence town
B. Resort and educational town D. Historical and confluence town
3. Viaducts and long continuous embankment are often used during construction of long distance roads to

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avoid:-
A. Very steep sided area B. mountainous area C. Densely forested area D. swamps and marshy
area
4. Among the following one is the main characteristics of urban settlements?
A. They have very low divisions of labor C. Has a narrow and irregular road
B. They have a high division of labor D. They are sparsely populated
5. What type of transport network is commonly used in areas where construction of graded
surfaced road is extremely expensive?
A. Air transport B. Cart tracks C. Railways D. Trials

6. In Ethiopian context, there are a number of towns developed along the main highway line from
Addis Ababa to Gondar. Such towns can be an example of______________
A. Dispersed settlement B. cluster settlement C. Linear settlement D. Scatter
settlement 7. Which one of the following towns mostly serving as centers of commerce
and finance, where trade is the primary concern?
A. Commercial town B. Administrative towns C. Cultural towns D. Industrial towns

8. Identify the wrong combination

A. Water transport-------------The slowest mode of transport
B. Air transport -------------- The most recent and fastest mode of transport
C. Road transport ------------- Reaches the remotest and the most inaccessible places on earth
D. Railway transport----------avoids congestion causes less pollution
9. Which one of the following is not an applications area of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS)?
[Link] is used Planning and monitoring of natural resource management
B. GIS is used analyzing the root causes of ethnic conflicts in Ethiopia and the Horn
C. GIS is used for the development master planning
D. GIS is used for planning access to educational facilities
10. Which one of the following is considered as the turning point in the development of GIS?
A. The advancement of computer technology
B. The interaction of GIS in many disciplines
C. The advancement of quantitative geography
D. The increasing demand of GIS from different users

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UNIT THREE
An Overview of Physical Geography of Africa
3.1 Position, Size and Shape of Africa

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 demonstrate the relative and absolute location of Africa using world map;
 compare the size of Africa with other continents;
 know the regional division of Africa;
 show the geographical location of each region
 Analyze the socio-economic and geo-political similarities of each region.

3.1.1 Position of Africa

Africa’s location can be expressed in two ways, namely, absolutely and relatively.
Absolute location
Africa lies between 37o 21'N to34o 52'S latitudes and 17o 33'W to 51o 28'E longitudes.
The four extreme points of the continent are the following.
 Extreme North - Cape Bon (Tunisia) -37o21'N
 Extreme South - Cape Agulhas (RSA) - 34o52'S
 Extreme East - Cape Guardafui (Somalia) - 51o28'E
 Extreme West - Cape Verde (Senegal) - 17o33'W
Africa’s north-south and east-west extents are almost equal:
 North-south – approximately 8000 kilometers
 East-west – approximately 7,600 kilometers
The equator crosses Africa almost at its north-south center. The north south extents above and
below it are almost equal, although the northern area is greater than the southern one. The land
area north of the equator is about twice that of the south.
N.B. Africa is the only continent crossed by all of the following: the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
of Capricorn, the Equator and the Prime Meridian.
Relative Location of Africa
 The expression of Africa’s position in relation to:
 the major landmasses and water bodies that are close to it
 It can be described as follows. Africa is found to the:
- South of Europe - West of the Indian Ocean ,
- East of the Atlantic Ocean - Southwest of Asia
- North of the Southern Ocean - South of the Mediterranean Sea
 Africa gets closest to:
 Europe across the Strait of Gibraltar which is about 22 kms wide between
Morocco and Spain

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 Asia across the Strait of Bab-el Mandab, which is about 40 kms wide.
 Asia across a narrow stretch of land called Isthmus of Suez

3.1.2 Size of Africa

 Africa is the second largest continent in the world, next to Asia.
 The continent’s total area is about 30,335,000 km2 (constitutes 20.2%).
 The continent is about two-thirds of the size of Asia and 3.36 times larger than Europe.
Africa’s large area gives the continent several advantages,
 Used for settlements, agriculture, and other economic activities.
 Huge resource potentials in terms of resources like soil, water, minerals, flora and fauna
etc
Disadvantages
 It makes geographical connectivity difficult among the people of the region &
other world
 Problems related to integration among peoples of the continent and others outside,
 Making both integrated development and international trade a challenge.

3.1.3 Shape of Africa

 Shape is the geographical form of an area.
 It is the external geographical appearance of a place.
 It has great impact on the socioeconomic integration and flow of goods and services
 The shapes of places can be described in different ways
 These are: moderately compact, elongated, fragmented, perforated, and the like.
 A moderately compact shape is close to that of a circle (Uruguay, Poland, Ethiopia,
Africa)
 An elongated shape is a shape with one side longer than the other(Chile, Norway)
 A fragmented shape is made up of multiple disconnected areas (Philippines,
Indonesia, Pakistan)
 Protrude shape (Eritrea, Afghanistan, DRC, Namibia)
 Perforated shape (RSA, Lesotho, San Marion, Vatican city with Italy)
 Africa has a relatively compact shape. This means that the continent’s longest east-
west and north-south distances are almost the same.

3.1.4 Regional Division of Africa

The mainland of Africa has five major regions.

They are defined in terms of socio-economic and cultural similarities. The regions are:

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1. Eastern Africa [Link] Africa 3. Northern Africa

4. Southern Africa 5. Western Africa
 Northern Africa is the largest in terms of its territorial size followed by Central and
Eastern Africa
 In terms of population size, Eastern Africa is the most populous followed by Western and
Northern Africa.
 Eastern Africa has the largest population density 49.5 people per km2 followed by
Western Africa and northern Africa
 Central Africa has the continent’s lowest population density, 18.4 people per km2

Exercise Five
I. Chose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following connects Africa with Europe?
A. Strait of Gibraltar B. Bab-el Madeb C. Suez Canal D. the Gulf of Aden
2. Which sub-region of Africa has the most diverse economy?
A. Central Africa B. Southern Africa C. Northern Africa D. Western Africa
3. The region of Africa which has the highest and the lowest population size are ____ and ___ respectively
A. East Africa and South Africa C. East Africa and Central Africa
B. South Africa and North Africa D. North Africa and central Africa
4. The Southern extreme point of Africa is located at____________
A. Cape Verde B. Cape Bon C. Cape Agulhas D. Cape Guardafui
5. Which region in Africa accounts for the major mining and manufacturing industries of the continent?
A. Southern Africa B. Eastern Africa C. Central Africa D. Western Africa
6. Which regional division of Africa is the most populous region?
A. Eastern Africa B. Western Africa C. Southern Africa D. Central Africa
7. The largest region of Africa in terms of Size is:-
A. Northern Africa B. Western Africa C. Central Africa D. Eastern Africa

3.2 Geological History and Relief Structure of Africa

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3.2.1. Geological History of Africa

The present relief structure of Africa is the result of long, complex and continuous processes that
have taken place for several millennia.
 The continent of Africa was part of the old supper continent that we call Pangaea
 In the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era, some 200 million years ago Pangaea broke
into two, forming Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
 Laurasia was the northern continent, and Gondwanaland was the southern.
 Africa was part of Gondwanaland.
 As time passed, each of these continents was further broken down, forming the seven
present-day continent
 In this process of change, the planet experienced several geologic events that resulted in
the formation of the world’s present surface structure.
1. Precambrian Era
 Covers about 4.5 billion - 600 million years before the present
 This era is the oldest and largest division of the geological time scale
 It covers almost 5/6th of the geological history of the planet
 Due to its remoteness in time and lack of fossil evidences, little is known about
this era.
Major geological processes in this era are
 Orogenesis (a series of mountain-forming processes)
 Metamorphism. Formation of the Basement Complex rock
2. Paleozoic Era (600 - 250 million years before the present)
 This era witnessed no major rock formation processes As a result; it is a gap,
relative to rock formation in Africa.
 However, several other important events took place during this era.
 Series of denudation and peneplanation
- Denudation is the lowering of the earth’s surface
- Peneplanation refers to the formation of almost level surfaces as a result of
lowering in altitude.
 Heavy erosion: the denudation and peneplanation processes were facilitated by the
heavy erosion that affected many places in Africa
 Formation of coal during the Carboniferous period.
3. Mesozoic Era
 It is aged about 250-70 million years before the present
 The Mesozoic era is the third-largest and third-oldest era in the geological history of the
earth.
 For Africa, the era was a time of alternate sinking and rising of the land.

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 The era is divided into three periods. 1. Triassic 2. Jurassic [Link].

1. Triassic - there was sinking of the land in the eastern part of the continent.
- transgression of the sea
- Adigrat sand stone was formed
2. Jurassic period- The land remained under the sea during the Jurassic period.
- More transgression of sea water took place
- Hintalo lime stone was formed
3. Cretaceous - Rising (uplifting) of the land began in the Cretaceous.
- Regression of sea water took place
- Upper sand stone was formed
 The flooding of the Sahara region, by water that advanced from Tathys (a sea that
separated Laurasia from Gondwanaland)
 The subsequent accumulation of sediments.
4. Cenozoic Era: Covers about 70 million – present
 This era is the most recent and the shortest era in the geological history of the earth
 As a result, the era is sometimes called the living era.
 There are two periods in this era.
1. Tertiary 2. Quaternary periods
1. The Tertiary Period (70m- 2m years)
 .The Mediterranean Sea, the Great Rift Valley, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden were
formed.
 Formation of many of the volcanic mountains plateaus and young fold mountains.
II. Quaternary Period (2m- present)
 Climatic change that resulted in the cooling and later warming of the earth’s climate.
 The cooling of the climate resulted in the pluvial rains in tropical Africa, which caused
heavy erosion in many parts of the continent.
 Later, warming of the climate resulted in heavy evaporation and drying up of many water
surfaces.
N.B: the Cenozoic Era is responsible for the formation of the present surface
configuration of the African continent.

Exercise Six
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which geological event took place in Africa during the Paleozoic era?
A. formation of coal B. sea transgression C. Extensive lava flows D. Mountain
building
2. Which of the following geological era responsible for the formation of the present surface
configuration of the African continent?

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A. Precambrian era B. Paleozoic era C. Mesozoic era D.

Cenozoic era
3. Among the following, which event took place in Ethiopia during the Cenozoic era?
A. The formation of rift valley C. The formation of sedimentary rock
B. The formation of crystalline basement rock D. Denudation & peneplanation
4. Which one of the following era is correctly paired with the geological event?
A. Cenozoic era_______ Adigrat sandstone C. Mesozoic era_____ Trappean
lava series
B. Paleozoic era_______ Disappearance of dinosaurs D. Precambrian______ Amoeba
and jellyfish
5. All of the following geological events took place in Africa during Cenozoic era except:-
A. Formation of Mediterranean Sea B. Formation of Great East African Rift valley
C. Formation of coal D. Formation of many volcanic mountains
6. Africa gets closest to Europe at the
A. Strait of Bab-el Mandab B. Isthmus of Suez C. strait of Gibraltar D. Cape Bon

3.2.2 The Relief Structure of Africa

The continent's relief consists of 71% plateaus, 25% plains and 4% mountains. So that much of
Africa is plateau. Africa is the only continent that is predominantly covered by plateau lands, and
that has only a Small proportion of plains.
The relief of Africa ranges from 5,895 m above sea level (at Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania) to 132
m below sea level (at the Qattara Depression in Egypt). This makes the maximum relief of
Africa to be 6027 m.
[Link]. Plateaus
 It is areas above 300 m a.s.l. altitude are considered to be plateaus.
 Africa's average altitude, 700 m, is a dividing line for plateau types.
 There are two types of plateaus high plateau and low plateau.
I. High plateaus:
 Above 700 m, and their general elevation is above 2000 m.
 They are found in southern and eastern Africa.
 The East African plateau, the Bihe (Bie') plateau, the Southwest African highlands and
the Madagascar highlands are included in this group.
 The Kalahari in the west and the Great Karoo in the south are the two major basins in this
plateau.

II. Low Plateaus:

 Lie b/n 300 and 700 m above sea level.
 Found in The northern and western parts of Africa
[Link]. Mountains
 It is a high land with steep slopes and a peak.

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 Africa’s landform is dominated by two major types of mountains.

A. volcanic B. fold mountains
A. Volcanic mountains:
 Were formed as a result of the great volcanic activities.
 They constitute the highest points (peaks) of the continent, with many of them being above
4,000 m.
 Many of the volcanic mountains of the continent are concentrated in Eastern Africa.

B. Fold Mountains:
 Are found in the northern and southern extremes of Africa.
 They are of two types: young and old.
i. .The young fold mountains are located in northwestern Africa, particularly in the
Maghreb region, a region that covers areas in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. They are
called the Atlas Mountains.
These mountains are contemporary to the Alps of Europe and the Himalayas of Asia, and they
were formed during the Alpine orogenesis during the Cenozoic era.
ii. The old fold mountains are found in South Africa.
 Were formed during the Hercynian orogeny in the Mesozoic era.
 They are contemporary to the Australian Alps. They are called the Cape Ranges.
[Link]. Plains
 Plains are areas of low relief with more or less flat surface configurations.
 Lie below 300 m a.s.l. are generally considered plains.
 Plains are confined to the coastal areas of eastern, northeastern, southeastern and western
Africa.
 It account for about 25% of Africa's relief.
 They are very small in size, hot dry, poorly vegetated and sparsely inhabited.
[Link]. The Great East African Rift Valley
 It is part of the world’s Great Rift Valley system, which stretches from Syria, in the
Middle East, to Mozambique, a distance of about 7,200 km.

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 It was formed in the Tertiary period as a result of faulting processes.

 It extends a distance of about 5600 km in Africa, touching 15 countries in the continent.
 The Rift Valley has four trenches (branches). These are:
 Ethio-Eritrea-Djibouti-Northern Somalia Branch
 Western Branch
 Eastern (Gregory) Branch
 Malawi Rift Valley
A. Ethio -Eritrea-Djibouti-Northern Somalia Branch
 Runs through the four countries of the Horn of Africa.
 It is the northern most part of the African Rift Valley, extending north from Lake
Turkana in Kenya. It branches out into three trenches at the Afar Triangle, forming the
Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
 It has many lakes, including like Lakes Hawassa, Langano, Shalla, Abijata, and Ziway.

B. Western Branch
 Runs from Uganda in the north, southwards through the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi to
Tanzania.
 Hosts the continent's highest block (horst) mountain, Mount Ruwenzori, and also lakes
such as Lake Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika.
C. Eastern (Gregory) Branch
 It runs from Lake Turkana in northern Kenya, crossing Tanzania to the east of Lake
Victoria.
 Lakes such as Turkana, Naivasha, Norton, Manyari and Eyasi are located in it.
D. Malawi Rift Valley
 It exists where the Western and Eastern Branches converge.
 It runs through Tanzania and Mozambique, and ends at port Biera of Mozambique. Lakes
Malawi, Rukuwa and Chilwa are among the major lakes.
Africa's largest lake, Lake Victoria (83,000 km2) is found trapped b/n the western and eastern
trenches of the Rift Valley.
The major characteristics of the East African Rift Valley:
 It is bounded by steep escarpments (edges);
 It has numerous active and dormant volcanoes;
 It is often affected by earth tremors like earthquakes, volcanism and landslides, making
the Rift Valley very unstable;
 has a hot and dry climate in its many parts, making the place difficult for human;

Exercise Seven
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. One of the following does not characterize the East African rift valley?
A. Being affected by earth tremors like earth quakes and land slide
B. Being bounded by steep escarpment
C. Absence of structural basin occupying its floor

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D. Existence of active and dormant volcanoes

2. Which of the following combination is correctly paired?
A. Kilimanjaro – Kenya B. Meru – Tanzania C. Elgon – Cameroon D. Ruwenzori
- Rwanda
3. Which of the swamps below is found in the Nile river basin?
A. Timbuktu swamps B. Okovango swamps C. Sudd swamps D. Chad swamps
4. In which region of Africa has both the highest and the lowest elevations of the continent
found?
A. Eastern Africa B. Western Africa C. Southern Africa D. Central Africa
5. The greatest proportion of the African landmass is made up of:-
A. Plateau B. Mountain and hill C. plain D. Valley
6. One of the following is odd
A. Kilimanjaro Mountain B. Ras Dejen Mountain [Link] Mountain [Link]
Mountain
7. Which one of the following is not a type of young fold mountain?
A. Atlas mountain B. European Alps Mountain C. Himalaya mountain D. Cape Range

3.3 Climate of Africa

At the end of this section, you will be able to:

 review the elements of weather and climate
 know the major climatic controls of Africa
 describe the seasonal temperature conditions of Africa
What is weather and climate?
 Weather is the current state of the atmosphere like temperature,, humidity, wind speed
and direction, cloudiness and precipitation.
 Climate refers the state of the atmosphere over long time periods.
3.3.1 Controls of Weather and Climate in Africa
Latitude, altitude, distances from the sea, mountain barriers, and ocean currents and major
planetary
Winds and pressure belts are called climate controls because they regulate the conditions of the
elements to produce different weather and climatic conditions.
A. Latitude
 Latitudes are the distance from the equator.
 A place’s latitudinal location affects the amount of incoming solar radiation.
 Much of Africa (nearly 2/3rd) lies within the tropical latitudes. Hence, the continent
receives high sun angles throughout the year. Due to its latitudes,

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B. Altitude
 Plateaus and mountains have great impacts on the continent’s climate.
 The plateaus and high mountains reduce maritime influence.
 The Atlas Mountains of North Africa and the Cape Ranges of South Africa experience
the coldest temperatures in the continent. Because the air is very thin and when air rises,
it cools.
C. Distance from the Sea
 Water bodies that are adjacent to land masses have great impacts on the temperature and
rainfall conditions of those places.
 Many parts of interior Africa experience continental climates with insignificance
maritime influence.
D. Ocean Currents
 Oceanic water moves in two dimensions, vertically and horizontally.
 The horizontal movement of oceanic water is called ocean current
 Based on their origin, ocean currents are of two types. These are warm and cold.
i. Warm ocean currents have high temperatures and high moisture content.
 They have warming effect.
 They also tend to bring moisture to the coastal areas.
ii. Cold ocean currents have cool temperatures and low moisture content.
 They have cooling effects on the areas that they blow over.
 They also bring no rain to adjacent areas, making places over which they blow very dry
and desert.
 Three major ocean currents affect the African continent.
 The Canary Cold Current, the Benguela Cold Current and the Mozambique Warm
Current.
 The first two make the northwestern and southwestern parts of Africa both cool and dry.
On the other hand, the Mozambique warm ocean current makes Southeastern Africa
warm and wet.
E. Major Planetary Winds and Atmospheric Pressure
 The southeast trades and northeast trades dominate the climate of tropical Africa.
 The westerly winds from the sub polar high-pressure belts of the world reach the southern
and northern tips of the continent.
 The Guinea monsoon winds (equatorial westerlies) also have significant impacts on the
climate of equatorial Africa.

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3.3.2 Temperature Conditions in Africa

 Spatially, lowlands (coastal areas) and the desert and semi desert areas of Africa have the
highest temperatures.
 The Sahara, the largest desert in the world, has the highest temperature.
 The Kalahari Desert in the south has relatively cooler temperatures as a result of the cold
Bengula Ocean current.
 The Ethiopian and East African highlands have lower temperature condition.
 The Atlas of Morocco and Cape Ranges of South Africa have the lowest temperature.
 The distribution of temperature in Africa also has seasonal variation.

3.3.3 Rainfall Distribution in Africa

 The distribution of rainfall in Africa is controlled by the Inter Tropical Convergence

Zone (ITCZ.
 Ethiopian highlands and eastern Madagascar get their heavy rainfall.
 In January, the sun is overhead near the Tropic of Capricorn, pulling the northeast trade
winds southward over Africa. These winds are continental in origin, carrying limited or
no moisture.
 Southern Africa, however, gets its maximum rainfall from the southeast trades of the
Indian Ocean. The Congo Basin gets rainfall from the moist winds of the Atlantic Ocean.
To better understand the points so far discussed, study the following points.
 The Guinea monsoon(equatorial westerly) winds from the Atlantic Ocean bring rainfall
to the north of Africa up to the southern fringes of the Sahara in July;
 Moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the southeast monsoon winds from the Indian
Ocean bring rainfall to Southern Africa in January;
 The westerly winds bring rainfall to the Maghreb region of North Africa and the Cape
Province of South Africa in their respective winter seasons. Summer is not the wettest
season in these places;
 Summer is a season of heavy rainfall in all parts of Africa, except in the Sahara desert
and the Mediterranean-climate regions;
 Winter is dry in all parts of Africa, except for the equatorial and Mediterranean climate
regions.

Exercise Eight
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which of the following factors best explains why the South Western coastal areas of Africa are generally
cool and dry?
A. effect of the Benguela current C. effect of the Canary current

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B. their proximity to the Atlantic Ocean D. effect of North east Trade wind

2. One of the following is the major winds that bring summer rainfall to most African countries?
A. Guinea monsoon C. South East Asia dry winds
B. North east trade winds D. westerly winds
3. Africa is mentioned as the hottest of all other continents mainly due to:-
A. Lack of rainfall in all parts the region C. greater elevation in all parts the
region
B. Much of Africa lies within tropical latitude D. Larger area and elongated shape
4. Which one of the following factor is mostly affecting the climate of East Africa?
A. Distance from the sea B. Latitude C. Altitude D. Ocean currents and Winds
5. Rain bearing for autumn and spring rainfall in Ethiopia originates from
A. Guinea monsoon B. South Easterlies C. westerly winds D. North east trade
winds
6. Which of the types of wind listed below is significantly dominates the climate of the northern
and southern tips of Africa (the Maghreb region)
A. Guinea monsoon winds B. westerly winds C. South East trade winds D. North east
trade winds
7. Which of the given months constitutes winter season in the Northern hemisphere?
A. March, April and May C. September, October and November
B. December, January and February D. June, July and August

3.1 Climatic Regions of Africa

1. Equatorial Climatic
 Found between 6o or7o north and south latitude.
 Dominated by western and central Africa.
 Overhead sun throughout the year.
 High mean annual and mean monthly temperature.
 Low annual range of temperature.
 High rainfall temperature throughout the year.
 Convectional type of rainfall.
2. Tropical Continental (Savanna) Climate
 Found between 5o and 15o north and south latitude.
 Zone of transition between equatorial and desert climatic region.
 Mostly found in Madagascar.
 Hot summer and cool winter temperature condition.
3. Tropical Desert and Semi-desert Climate
 Found bordering tropical savanna climate.
 High temperature and insufficient rainfall.

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 Temperature fluctuates.
4. Tropical Maritime (Monsoon) Climate
 Found only in southern hemisphere (south east coast).
 Extend between Durban in South Africa to Dar-es-salam in Tanzania.
 High rainfall throughout the year (as a result of Mozambique Worm Ocean current).
5. Warm temperate continental climate.
 Found in South Africa Republic.
 Temperature and rainfall is influenced by the altitude of the region (On shore
winds) that originates from Indian Ocean.
 High rainfall and cool temperature due to high altitude.
 Smallest climatic zone compared to others.
6. High land (Mountain) Climate
o Mostly found in high altitude of Africa such as:
- Higher part of South Africa (Drakensberg mountain)
- Atlas, Kilimanjaro, and mount Kenya
- Ethiopian and east African high lands
o Permanently snow covered areas.
o Orographic type of rainfall (rainfall increase with rise in altitude)
7. Mediterranean Climate
Found in southern and northern tips of Africa:
Eg: Maghreb region in the north, from Morocco to northern Libya and
Cape Province of South Africa
Summer is not rainy season.
- It is hot, dry, bright and sunny season.
Winter is a rainy, mild and wet season.
- Unique climatic character from others.

3.3.5 Drought in Africa

 Drought is a condition of unusually dry weather within a geographic region.
Expected rainfall does not occur during drought.
 Disastrous droughts occur mostly at latitudes of about 15°-20°, in areas bordering
the permanently arid regions of the world.
 The continent Africa is one of the most drought-affected areas in the world.
Repeated drought is common in many areas.
Major causes of drought in Africa
 Unwise use of natural resources,
 deforestation, overgrazing and over cropping,
 Expansion of farm lands and settlements, and the resultant environmental
degradation.
The impact of drought in Africa
 environmental degradation

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 habitat destruction
 Shortage of water and famine (shortage of food).
 The huge displacement of people and the high rural-urban migration
 some species of plants and animals may become extinct
Drought prone areas in Africa
 Sub-Saharan (Sahel) region stretching from Senegal and Mauritania in the west to
the Horn of Africa.
 Eastern African countries ,such as Kenya and Tanzania
Exercise Nine
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Equatorial climatic regions are found between

A. 50 and 150 north and south latitude B. 60 or 70 north and south latitude

C. 200 and 250 north and south latitude D. 100 and 150 north and south latitude

2. Which one is a unique climatic characteristic, from the other climatic regions of Africa?

A. Equatorial B. Tropical Maritime C. Mediterranean D. Savanna

3. What is the dominant type of rainfall in equatorial region of Africa?
A. Convectional B. Frontal C. Orographic D. Cyclonic
4. Of all the climatic regions of Africa, the one with the highest rainfall variability is:
A. Equatorial climatic region C. Warm temperate continental climate
B. Mediterranean climatic region D. Desert climatic region
5. Which of the following is the most significant factor that influences the climate of Ethiopia?
A. vegetation covers C. Warm Mozambique Ocean current
B. Altitude D. Cold Ocean current
6. Which of the following is a transitional zone between the wettest and driest region of Africa?
A. Tropical desert and semi-desert climate C. The warm temperate continental climate
B. Tropical maritime climate D. The tropical continental climate
7. Which region in Africa is extremely affected by drought?
A. Equatorial region C. South eastern highland region
B. Sahel region D. Western coastal region
8. Which of the following is true about mountain climate in Africa?
A. It has high annual range of temperature C. Its rain fall decreases with the rise in
altitude
B. It mainly receives orographic type of rain fall D. It is similar to desert climate
9. One of the following areas of Africa is well-known for its constantly wet and hot climate?
A. Nile basin B. Congo basin C. Mediterranean D. Sahel region

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10. One of the following is not correct about the tropical desert and semi-desert climatic region?
A. Low annual range of temperature
B. A short rainy season of up to three months
C. High daily average temperature
D. variable, unreliable and insufficient precipitation which hinders plant growth
11. Which areas of Africa experience inadequate rainfall to grow crops?
A. The equatorial climate C. The tropical maritime
B. The Mediterranean region D. The Sahel region
12. Which one of the following is not true about equatorial rainforest?
A. Broad leaved ever green trees C. Vegetation type is xerophytes
B. The home of arboreal animals D. Species of trees are hard wood

13. What make Africa the hottest continent in the world?

A. Distance from the sea B. Ocean current C. Latitude D. Altitude

3.2 Drainage Systems of Africa

 Nine major rivers drain in the continent of Africa: These are Nile Congo, Niger, Volta,
Limpopo, Orange, Gambia, Senegal and Zambezi.
Based on their flow direction (destination), there are 4 major types of drainage system
1. Atlantic Ocean Drainage System
 Major rivers, that drain west ward and south ward, flow in to Atlantic Ocean.
 It is the largest drainage system in terms of catchment area, annual discharge and
drainage density.
Eg: Zaire (Congo), Niger, Volta, Gambia, Senegal and Orange
Zaire (Congo) :
- Largest river in Africa
- Second largest river in the world
- Second longest river in Africa
Senegal:-Has two major dams; Manantali dam and Maka-diama dam
Niger: Third longest river in Africa
- Drains to Guinea, Mali, Niger, Benin and Nigeria
Volta: Has Africa’s largest artificial lake; Lake Volta.
- Lake Volta has three major parts (black Volta, white Volta and red Volta)
2. Indian Ocean Drainage System
 Second largest drainage system
 Major rivers that flow east wards in to Indian Ocean are: Zambezi, Wabi shebelle
and Juba.

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3. Mediterranean Sea Drainage System

 Nile river flow north ward through Sudan and Egypt flow in to Mediterranean
Sea
 Only Nile river flow in to Mediterranean Sea.
 Nile is the longest river in the world and has two major tributaries:
- White Nile : originates from lake Victoria in Uganda
- Converge to Sudan at Khartoum
- Blue Nile: Emerges from lake Tana in Ethiopia near Bahir Dar
 Other Nile tributaries are Sobat and Atbara.
4. Closed (Inland) Drainage System
This system has multiple flow direction.
It covers 32% of the total area of the continent
Eg: - Lake Chad – largest inland basin
- Awash and Ghibe (Omo river in Ethiopia)
- Okavango swamp in Botswana
- Sudd basin in Sudan
- Danakin basin in Ethiopia and Eritrea

3.3.1. Characteristics of African Rivers

 Steep long profile: Africa’s rivers have steep courses as a result of relief.
 Water fall and rapids: As a result of Africa’s plateau lands, it creates to cataracts.
 Seasonal fluctuation: Seasonal rainfall distribution (variation in wet and dry season)
Eg: Nile and Niger shows seasonal fluctuation, but Zaire (Congo) does not show
significant volume variation.
 Deltaic mouth and Mangrove swamps: Low pressure force along their lower courses, as a
result formation of deltas and mangrove swamps.
Eg: Nile, Niger and Zambezi rivers have extensive deltas and swamps at their mouth.
 Exotic nature: African rivers travel across from cool to hot climate condition, as a result
they lose much of water through evaporation and sea page before they reach final
destination.

3.4 Lakes and Swamps of Africa

Based on their formation Lakes of Africa are divided in to two types:-

1. Natural lakes:-are formed by tectonic, volcanic and denudation processes
Natural lakes divided in to two rift valley and non rift valley lakes
Rift Valley lakes :- include Lake Turkana, Tanganyika, Meru, Edward, Kivu,
Malawi, Albert, Hawassa, Langano, Ziway, Abiyata and Langano

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-Tanganyika is the deepest rift valley lake in Africa

Non-Rift valley lakes :- include Lake Tana, Chad and Victoria
-Victoria –is the largest lake in the world.
-Tana-is shallowest lake in Africa.
2. Artificial lakes:- are formed by dam constructed across the rivers for various purpose
-Major artificial lakes in Africa are
* High Aswan dam- Nasser Lake that is constructed from Nile River in Egypt
*Koka dam- Koka Lake –constructed from Awash River in Ethiopia
*Akosombo dam- Volta Lake – from Volta River in Ghana
*Kaindji dam- Kaindji Lake- from Niger River in Nigeria
*Kariba dam- Kariba Lake- from Zambezi river in Zambia and Zimbabwe
Swamps of Africa
Swamps:- are formed by seasonal flooding along the course of major rivers
-Major swamps of Africa are
- Sudd swamp- it is formed along the Nile River in Sudan
- Kamulando swamp- in Congo basin
- Okovango swamp -in Botswana
- Batorse and Kafue-in Zambezi River
- Timbuktu swamp- in Mali along Niger River

Exercise Ten
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Which one of the following is the largest drainage system both in terms of annual discharge
and catchment area?
A. Indian Ocean drainage system C. Mediterranean Sea drainage system
B. Atlantic Ocean drainage system D. Closed (Inland) drainage system
2. One of the following Rivers is geopolitically the most significant in Africa?
A. The Congo River C. The Nile River
B. The Volta river D. Awash river E. All
3. The Aswan high Dam is the Nile River as the Akosombo Dam is to:
A. Niger River B. Congo River C. Volta River D. Zambezi River
4. One of the following is the largest lake in Africa interims of its size?
A. Turkana B. Tanganyika C. Victoria D. Tana
5. The Awash and the Abbay rivers basins are separated from one another by the Showan
Plateau. In this case the Showan Plateau is:
A. Drainage pattern B. Watershed C. Drainage basin D. Drainage system
6. What type of vegetation develops over the highlands of Ethiopia?

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A. Mangrove vegetation B. Tropical rain forest C. Afro-Alpine Vegetation D. Semi-

desert vegetation
7. The White Nile River originates from which country?
A. Ethiopia B. Tanzania C. Uganda D. Rwanda
8. Which of the following is not correct about the main feature of the African rivers?
A. Most of the rivers have steep slope and waterfalls
B. They have Seasonal fluctuation
C. Many rivers are suitable for navigation
D. They have high hydroelectric power potential
9. What is the foundation of the hydro politics of the Nile River?
A. The degree of which the Nile River is utilized for different purpose in the upper and lower
steam countries
B. The drought frequency, duration and intensity expected to occur in the Nile basin countries
C. The amount of budget to the basin countries are contributing to manage the physical
environment of the Nile basin
D. The amount of water that the upper and lower stream countries are contributing to the Nile
River

3.5 Major Vegetation Zone of Africa

There are five different vegetation zones in Africa

1. Tropical rain forest vegetation

*Mostly found in equatorial climate

Example:- Western Africa
- Eastern Madagascar
- Central Africa (Congo basin)
*Equatorial broad leaf evergreen forests
*Most trees like hard wood –Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood, Iron wood
*Diversity species
2. Tropical grass land (Savanna vegetation)
 Found between equatorial forests and desert area north and south of the equator.
 Savannas are plant association composed of both grasses and trees.
 Africa’s savanna can be classified in to three.
 Park land: many trees and grasses
 High (True) savanna: develop between the wetter and drier savanna
- More grasses than park savanna, scattered trees

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 Thorn (Drier) savanna: found in desert margins (semi-arid areas of the Sahel
region), short grasses, scattered thorny trees, thorn bushes and low scrub
3. Desert and semi-desert vegetation
 Found in Sahara desert, Namib Desert and Sahel region.
 Low rainfall and driest climatic condition
Types of vegetation in Desert and semi-desert area
 Cactus,
 Thorn bush,
 Course grasses,
 Xerophytes (drought resistance by long root, water table, spongy leaves, store
water needle shaped leaves) to reduce water loose through transpiration.
4. Afro alpine vegetation
 Found in tropical high lands of Africa, Ethiopia and Eastern Africa high lands
 Alpine- cold resistance plant
Eg. Tid, Bambo forest, Asta, Gibera and mountain grass land
5. Mediterranean vegetation
Found in north western and south western part of Africa.
Ever green and deciduous trees
Eg: Corkoak, Maquis, Wild olive are most common

Factors Affecting the Natural Vegetation of Africa

 Deforestation,
 overgrazing,
 burning forest (wildfire),
 the expansion of settlements and farmlands are among the major
problems
Possible Conservation Measures
Reforestation: is planting trees in areas where the original forest cover has been removed
Afforestation: is planting trees in areas where there was no original forest cover.
Agroforestry: is forestry combined with farming.
Social forestry: refers to planting trees in urban areas in association with human settlements.
Exercise Eleven
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. One of the following is the most common trees of the Mediterranean vegetation in Africa?
A. Cork oak, maquis, B. Tid, mountain grassland
C. Cactus, thorn bushes and coarse grasses D. Mahogany, ebony, ironwood
2. Tropical rainforest vegetation zones develop in areas with equatorial climate, in which parts
of Africa are mostly common, the type of Afro-Alpine or Afro – Montane vegetation?

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A. North western and south western parts of Africa C. Ethiopian and East African
highlands
B. Northern and Southern tip point of Africa D. Mostly common in Namib and Sahel
region of Africa
3. Among the following type of plants one is cold resistant plant?
A. Cactus B. Alpine vegetation C. Xerophytes D. Long root and spongy leaves
plants
4. Which of the following types of vegetation largely occurs on lakes, deltaic mouths and flood
plains of the major rivers of Africa?
A. Mangrove vegetation C. Savanna grass and trees
B. equatorial rain forest D. Mediterranean vegetation
5. Which of the following regions of Africa is the richest in biodiversity?
A. Southern Africa B. Central Africa C. Eastern Africa D. western Africa
6. The equatorial rain forest of Africa is characterized by:
A. Broad-leafed evergreen trees C. Corkoak, Wild olive are most common
B. Thorn bush D. Xerophytes (drought resistance plants)
7.____ is a vegetation type which grows in the tropical climate region when summer is wet &
winter is dry. A. Afro-montane forest B. Savanna vegetation C. Tropical rain forest D.
Desert& semi-desert vegetation
8. Planting trees in urban areas in association with human settlements refers to:
A. Agro forestry B. Afforestation C. Social forestry D. Reforestation
9. What make the northern part of Senegal and the southern part of Mauritania similar?
A. Earth quake B. Recurrent drought C. Volcanism D. Air
pollution
3.5.2 Wild Animals of Africa
Africa becomes very rich in all kinds of wild animals. The major ones are categorized based on
their respective habitat such as in:
A. Equatorial rainforest- consists of
 Arboreal (tree climbing) animals. Example monkey, apes, baboon and gorillas as
well as birds.
 Aquatic animals. Example Hippopotamus and crocodile
B. Savanna land:
 Carnivores animals example Lion, Cheetah, Leopard
 Herbivore animals example: Antelope, Zebra, giraffe
C. Desert and semi- desert area animal: E.g. Desert fox, hares gazelles wild ass and
different reptiles
The major uses of wild animals of Africa include:
 Sources of animal protein.
 helps to maintain the balance of nature by feeding on each other and plants;
 source of income through tourism

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 provide scientific and educational opportunities

 Provide industrial raw materials
 add aesthetic value to the environment
Factors Affecting Wild Animals
Wild animals in Africa are facing different challenges. The following are the most serious ones.
 Illegal hunting (poaching): poaching, or illegal hunting, is a common practice. So it
threatens some species like the African elephant and black rhinoceros.
 Human Encroachment: is the result of the increased need of human populations for
farm and grazing land, settlement areas, fuel wood and /the like. Such increased needs
result in:
 Deforestation
 Overgrazing
 Desertification
 shifting cultivation
 Drought
Possible Conservation Measures
 . Conserving natural vegetation that serves as habitats and sources of food for wild
animals can ultimately help with their conservation.
 Establishing national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries
 Controlling illegal hunting: it can be done by developing strict legislation whereby illegal
hunters are punished or penalized for their illegal acts.
 Raising the people’s awareness: by educating the people about the uses of wild animals
 Changing the economic condition of the people through good and applicable policies and
programs
Exercise Twelve
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Of the major problems of wild animals in Africa one is:
A. Afforestation B. Illegal hunting C Reforestation D. social forestry
2. _______ is the result of the increased need of human population for farm, grazing and
settlement areas.
A. Poaching B. Illegal hunting C. Human encroachment D. Desertification
3. Which one of the following strategies will not help to conserve wild life resources?
A. The protection of natural vegetation C. Controlling illegal hunting
B. Establishment of national parks and game reserves D. Expansion of crop cultivation
4. Which one of the following wild animal of Africa is highly hunted for socio-economic
reasons?
A. Gorilla B. Elephant C. Zebra D. Gelada Baboon

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3.6 Soils of Africa

3.6.1. Major Soil Types of Africa:
Based on FAO- UNESCO classification, African soils are grouped as;
1. Pedalfer: Largest soil group in Africa
- High iron and aluminum content
This soil type includes:
 Ferrasols: found around equatorial forest and savanna lands
- Red and yellow color
- High concentration of iron, clay and aluminum
 Nitosols: found in humid climatic region
- Reach in humus content
- Most crop production soil
 Acrisols: found in hill areas, wet tropical and monsoon climates
- Weathered, acidic and shallow soil
- Un productive soil
 Lixisols: found in savanna and semi-arid area
- Reddish and yellowish color
 Plinthosols: found in plain areas and savanna region
- Soft and laterite soil
 Luvisols: found in Mediterranean climate
- High mineral and fertile soil
 Planosols: common in waterlogged area
- Used for grazing
 Fluvisols: develop seasonal flood plains and valleys
- Found in Nile and Zambezi river delta and lake Chad
- Brown color
- Young and fertile
- Suitable for irrigation
2. Pedocals: Includes
 Vertisols: black basaltic soil
- High in moisture storage
- Clay soil (sticky during rainy season and crack during dry season)
- Naturally fertile (have greatest potential for agriculture)
 Calcisols: Found in Sahara and Namib desert
- Poor in humus and high minerals
- Used for grazing
 Solonchaks-found inland river basin, Lakes, depressions and coastal area.
 Saline soil
3. Hydromorphic soil – include
 Gleysols- like Solonchaks found in depression, lowland in Niger delta, Congo
basin and interior part of Angola

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- Used for production of rice, sugar cane, yam and vegetable

4. Azonal soils
 Arenosols- humid and semi-arid zone of South Africa.
-Used for dry farming and grazing
 Regosols- found in arid area
Used for pastoralist grazing
 Leptosols- found in the upland of northern Africa Eastern Africa, south and
Central Africa
-Young, shallow and stony soils
-High susceptible to erosion and drought
3.6.2 Problems and Conservation Measures of Soils in Africa
Problems of Soils in Africa
Soil erosion and environmental degradation are among the major problems concerning soils in
Africa. Their major causes include:
 traditional farming practices,
 overgrazing, deforestation,
 Over-exploitation of vegetation for domestic uses, such problems result in the
deterioration of the quality and productivity of the soil.
Comparatively, soil erosion is more series in:
 The Sahel region of western Africa, the Sahara and Namib deserts of Africa due to wind
erosion.
 The savanna and the tropical rainforests, where water is the major agent of erosion.
 The tropical highlands of Africa, such as Ethiopian & east African highlands
Conservation Measures
Major soil conservation measures that could be taken to increase soil fertility in
Africa includes the following.
 Terracing:
 Check dams
 Green manure
 Agro forestry:
 Strip cultivation and Crop rotation
 Mulching
 Afforestation
 Contour plowing
 Fallowing
 Reforestation
 Windbreaks and shelter-belt plantations

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Exercise Thirteen
I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. Method of soil conservation that involves the construction of fence-like structures along
hillsides to reduce erosion is:
A. Contour plowing B. Mulching C. Terracing D. Strip cropping
2. The type of soil which is rich in humus contents and develops in humid climatic regions of
Africa is
A. Nitosols B. Acrisols C. Lixisols D. Ferrasols
3. Which one is destructive to soil?
A. Organic fertilizer C. Crop rotation
B. strip cultivation D. Overgrazing
4. One of the following soils of Africa becomes very sticky during wet seasons and crack
severely during dry seasons thereby making farming a very laborious activity
A. Vertisoles B. Calcisols C. Fluvisols D. Solonchaks
5. Which of the following soil groups of Africa exhibits characteristics that are similar to those
of Vertisols during dry and wet seasons?
A. Acrisols B. Fluvisols C. Nitosols D. Luvisols
6. What is the soil conservation measure that involves resting of arable land for a limited period
of time called _______
A. Check dams B. Intercropping C. Fallowing D. Mulching

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UNIT FOUR

Population, Economy and Natural Resource of Africa

4.1. Population Size, Growth and Distribution

A. Size: - Africa is the world’s second most populous next to Asia

- According to 2009 UN World population data sheet:
- total population of Africa, 1 billion (14.7%)
- Asia 4117m (60%)
- Europe 738m (10.8%)
- South America 580m (8.5%)
- North America 341m (5%)
- Oceania 36m (0.5%), it is the least populous continent.
B. Growth
Africa – one of the world’s fastest growing population
- Rapid change in its population size
- High rate of population growth and short period of doubling time in Africa
(29years)
 The 1000 A.D.(50m.) population of Africa had taken more than 650 years to double
itself. Since the 1950’s the continent’s population began to grow faster and it took only
about 25 years to double itself.
 According to the 2009 world population data sheet, the continent had a rate of natural
increase of 2.4%. The general growth rate was 2.3%.
 The continent has the world’s shortest doubling time of about 29 years.

N.B. Rate of Natural Increase (RNI) is the difference b/n Birth Rate and Death Rate expressed in
percentage. General Growth Rate is the difference b/n RNI and Net-migration Rate expressed in
percentage.
The doubling time of a population is calculated by dividing70 by the growth rate of the
population

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C. Distribution: - Africa’s population distribution is uneven; because of human and physical

factors; as a result there is high and low population density. Some parts of the continent,
particularly the vast Sahara, have few permanent residents. While others most densely populated
areas For example:-Nile valley of Egypt, Atlantic coastal area, Ruanda, Burundi, South Africa
province of Kwazulu Natal most densely populated area.
The population density of African each region is: -
 Eastern Africa 49 people/km2
 West Africa 48 people/km2
 Sub - Saharan Africa 34 people/km2-
 North Africa 24 people/km2
 South Africa 22people/km2
 Central Africa19 people/km2
On country level, the most populous countries are Nigeria, Egypt, Ethiopia, DRC & RSA.( 2009 UN
population data ) These countries all together account for about 43% of the continent’s total population.

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4.1.2. Determinant factors of population change in Africa

 There are three components to determine population change. These are birth rate
(fertility), death rate (mortality) and migration.

A. Fertility Patterns in Africa

It refers to occurrence of birth in the human population. It is a natural positive factor that tends to
increase the human population size. Africa’s fertility rate is the highest in the world. Birth rates
are high in Africa because:
 less access to contraceptives;
 backwardness and poverty stricken;
 low status of women
 many children are needed to work on the land;
 children are considered as symbol of virility;
 low educational background; and
 Religions encourage large families.
Although fertility is high in Africa, it still varies from country to country or region to region.
Currently African countries having birth rates below 30/1000 .Example: Mauritius 14/1000,
Tunisia 17/1000, & Reunion 18/1000.
Other African countries comprise rates ranging from 31/1000 in Swaziland to 50/1000 in Guinea
Bissau & Nigeria.
The difference b/n birth rate and death rate is conceived as a difference influenced by natural
change. The natural change for Africa can, therefore, be computed as:
36/1000 – 12/1000 or (36/1000 (birth rate) – 12/1000 (death rate))
𝟐𝟒
𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟒% is the natural increase for Africa
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

B. Mortality Patterns in Africa

 It refers to the occurrence of death.

 Africa’s mortality rate is the highest in the world.
 The continent had a crude death rate of 12 deaths per 1000 population.
 Death rate ranges from 7/1000 in N/rn Africa to 15/1000 in S/rn Africa.
 The continent still has the world’s largest rate of 74 deaths per 1000 live births (infants).
 Infant mortality rates also vary from region to region:
Central Africa has the highest rate of 95/1000 followed by Western Africa 80/1000 and
Eastern Africa 76/1000 live births.
The lowest Infant Mortality rate is in Northern Africa which only 38/1000.
Africa’s high death rate is attributed to the following major factors:

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 Low standard of living

 Low access to health facilities
 Poor sanitary practices & Poor nutrition,
 Civil war and political instability
 Wide spread of famine caused by recurrent drought & High incidence of disease and
infections
Africa’s death rate is declining since World War II due to development in medical technology,
and sanitary practices, and the discovery of medicines and vaccines for tropical diseases.
However, the continent’s crude death rate remains being the highest in the world.

C. Migration

It is a socio-cultural component of population change. It has both negative and positive impacts
based on its net effect. It is the movement of people from their home place to another one..

4.1.3. Characteristics of African Population

The structure of African population falls under two categories which are biological and cultural
characteristics.
 Biological characteristics include race, ethnicity, sex and age.
 The cultural characteristics are education, health, nutrition, religion, occupation
Biological Characteristics
*Age structure in Africa
Median age: - is the age dividing the population of a country in to two equal parts with
one half of the people above that age and the other half below it. Africa’s median age is
lower than other developed countries in the world. Example:-African median age is 18
years & European median age is also 37 years.

If the median age is high, the population is to be adult and old age group, high economic
development Low dependency ratio and if the median age low, the population is to be young and
low old age group& Low economic development, High dependency ratio.
Population pyramids are used to portray the proportion of males and females in different age
groups.
This can be shown in the dependency ratio expressed as:
Economically dependent Children (0 – 14) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 elderly (65+) 𝑋 100
economically active Working age (15 – 64)
 The age dependency ratio, of Africa by its major region, central Africa has the highest
ADR of 92.31% followed by western and eastern Africa each of which having (88.68%)

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and northern and southern Africa having 61.29% each. The overall ADR of Africa was
78.57% and that of sub Saharan Africa was 85.19% in 2009.
The following are among the major characteristics of the African Population
 High fertility and mortality rates;
 Generally young population;
 Triangular population pyramid
 High age dependency ratio and youth dependency ratio and low old dependency
ratio;
 Low life expectancy; and High population growth rate.
Sex Structure: refers to the proportion of males to females in the overall population of a
given area. Sex ratio is expressed in terms of the number of males for every 100 females.

𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑒𝑥𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑋 100
𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 Sex ratio has impact on other demographic elements such as marriage rate, occupational
structure, growth, etc.
 Sub-Saharan Africa sex ratio is below the world’s average which is less than 98%. This
means there are 98 males / 100 females, which is equitably balanced.
 Most Sub-Saharan African countries, however, have sex ratio of far less than 100. That is
to say, there are greater numbers of women than men. Such an event is associated with a
huge loss of men population due to war and migration.
 In some countries of the region, though, male births consistently exceed female births
due to combined biological and social reasons. Eg. Equatorial Guinea, Uganda, Gambia
and Kenya, due to the prevalence of a large number of immigrants. The fact that these
countries exceptionally comprise high sex ratio for reasons of immigration indicates that
migration is age and sex selective.

4.1.4 Migration and Urbanization in Africa

Migration

A .Internal migration (Domestic migration)

B. International migration

A. Internal Migration: are two types, namely,

I. Permanent migration people’s movement from their original place of residence to another
where they establish a new residence on a permanent basis.

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II. Temporary migration: the movement of people whereby they leave their original residence
for another for a short period of time,
Internal migration takes the following forms:
 Rural-urban , Rural-rural, Urban-rural and Urban-urban
 Factors of Migration push and pull factors. Push factors are unfavorable condition at
origins and pull factors are attractive at destinations.
B. International Migration

Brain-drain is the movement of highly educated people such as, researchers, medical doctors, etc
from their country to countries abroad (overseas) where working conditions & payments are
thought to be better.
1. Intra-continental migration: this is movement of people within the same continent, in the
present case, within African countries. This kind of migration is usually done by laborers and is
known as labor migration.
The places involved in plantation agriculture and the mining sector that attract a large number of
people from different parts of Africa include the:
 Cacao belt of Ghana and Western Nigeria.
 Citrus and Vine plantation of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco.
 Tobacco plantation of Zimbabwe and Zambia.
 Sisal, Coffee and tea regions of Kenya and Tanzania
 Copper belts of Shaba (DRC) and Zambia.
 Gold and diamond mines of the Republic of South Africa.
2. Inter-continental migration
 It takes place b/n Africa and other continents.
 It happens in various forms and has long history
 Arab migrants from middle east to Africa during the 7th and 8th centauries we call them
Berbers inhabited in N. Africa &comprise 25% of the total population of Africa.
 The most important movements were accompanied by Slave Trade whereby Africans were
enslaved and taken to the America’s and Middle East. This form of emigration persisted for
about 300 years

Table 4.12: Advantages and disadvantages of migration to the losing and receiving countries
Advantages Disadvantages
Losing Country
 Reduces pressure on jobs & resources  Loses people in working age group
 Loses people of child bearing  Loses people most likely to have some
age causing decline in birth rate education and skills
 Mainly males leave causing a division in
Families

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Advantages Disadvantages
Receiving Country
 Over comes labour shortage  Low quality over crowded housing lacking in basic
 Prepared to do dirty unskilled jobs amenities
 Prepared to work long hours for low  Ethnic groups tend not to integrate
salaries  Racial tension
 Cultural advantages and links  Limited skilled/educated group
 Some highly skilled migrants  Lack of opportunities to practice their own religion,
culture, etc. & Language difficulties

Urbanization

Urbanization refers to an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities.
Comparatively,
 Africa is the least urbanized of all the continents in the world (only 38% of the
continent’s population that lives in urban areas).
 Africa has the highest rate of urbanization, which is about 5.4% per year due to the
prevalence of very high rate of rural-urban migration and high fertility in the urban
areas.
 The extent of urbanization shows great regional variation in Africa
 Rapid urbanization is causing several challenges in Africa,

Urban Growth and Major Urban Centers in Africa

Africa will have estimated eleven mega-cities (i.e. cities having 5 m. inhabitants) &about 3000
cities with populations of more than 20,000 by the year 2020.

Current Urban Challenges

The adverse effects of urbanization in Africa are absence of employment opportunity, unreliable
food security, shortage of water, scarcity of shelter and inefficient waste disposal, etc.
Urbanization is increasing in both developed and developing countries. Cities in most developing
countries are encircled by a number of problems such as;
 Poverty, poor sanitation
 Environmental degradation
 Urban slum, social evils like crime, prostitution and the like.
 Unemployment, inadequate provision of social services, inadequate transport and
communication.

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4.2 Concepts of Economic Growth and Development

4.2.1 Growth versus Development

Economic growth is usually quantitative.

 It is used to describe the increase in the total amount of production and wealth of a given
economy.
 It is a measure of the value of output of goods and services within a certain period of
time.
Economic development
 Both quantitative and qualitative aspects.
 It is a measure of the welfare of human beings in a certain state.
 It involves increment in production, service provision and improvements in the overall
living conditions of the population.
Economic development is characterized by the following:
 High resource consumption
 Huge production goods and services.
 High degree of division of Labor:
 Significant changes in the technical and institutional arrangements
 Growth in GDP.
Major Indicators of Development
I. Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total value of goods and services produced within
a country, usually in a year.
 GNP is also used to measure a nation’s wealth. It refers to the total annual flow of goods
and services in the economy of a nation in monetary value. It includes income from
within and outside of the state.
2. Per capita income: is the average amount of money that an individual is expected to have as a
result of the state’s GNP.
 It is computed by dividing the GNP of a country by the total number of its people.
3. Standard of living: is the best measurement of the quality of life of people in a given
society.
 It is directly related to both GDP and per capita income..

4.2.3 Characteristics of African Economy

Major characteristics of the economy of Africa

 Largely dependent on the agricultural sector.
 Less level of industrialization.

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 Manufacturing industries are few in number and are confined to few urban centers.
 Most of the manufacturing industries are cottage types; the majority of the modern
manufacturing industries are light industries that focus on the production of consumer
goods and Heavy industries that could produce machineries, automobiles etc..are
nonexistent in the continent, except a few.
 Intercontinental, intra-regional and intra-continental trade is at low level.
 Commerce between African countries and regions is neutralized by similarity of
products, lack of common currency,
 Africa’s international trade is dominated by the exportation of raw materials and
importation of manufactured goods to and from the developed nations.
 The various economic sectors of the continent run short of capital, skilled human power
and efficient technology.
 As a result of low GDP and meager (insufficient) per capita income, the majority of the
people live in poverty.

4.2.4 Present Features of Africa’s Socioeconomic Development

The majority of the states are characterized by very low socioeconomic conditions (except Egypt
& RSA).
In general the main features of Africa’s existing socio economic crisis include:
 Weak agricultural growth and declining food provision & Declining
industrial out put
 Poor export performance
 Poor health and education status
 Political instability
 Growing external debt
 Lack of capital, lack of skilled human power
 Widely spread Corruption from top government officials to lower level
office holders.
The amount of accumulated external debt owed by Sub-Saharan African countries has risen
from less than $6 billion in 1970, to $80 billion in 1985, to $230 billion in 1999.

4.2.5. Challenges of and Prospects Economic Development in Africa

 Challenges
The continent’s economy has been suffering from serious challenges since earliest times.
 Lack of capital, skilled human power and Modern technology
 political instability, civil war, lack of good governance and widely spread corruption,
 Environmental degradation and problem of insecurity.

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 The imbalance b/n population growth and economic development.

 Resource competition and the increased need for means of subsistence is becoming a
cause of inter-state and intra-state conflicts.
 Prospects
The African Union (AU), the AU is meant to promote peace, unity and cooperation in the
continent.
 It is to resolve conflicts b/n nations and to pacify hostilities.
 To coordinate political, economic, cultural, scientific, and defense policies among
member states.
 The AU, the ADB, the African Court of Justice, the Pan African Parliament & the
Security Council are working on the promotion of peace, security, inter connectedness&
development.
 Other regional and sub-regional organizations are striving hard to improve socio-
economic conditions in Africa. Examples
 CEN-SAD: Community of Sahel-Saharan States
 COMESA: Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
 EAC: East African Community
 ECC AS: Economic Community of Central African States
 ECOWAS: Economic Community of West African States
 IGAD: Intergovernmental Authority on Development
 SADC: Southern African Development Community
 UMA: Arab Maghreb Union
Other international organizations are also having impact on Africa’s future development.
Example UN, ECA, UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO, ILO and FAO’ among others, are significantly
important.

4.3 Natural Resources of Africa and Its Politics

4.3.1 Major Resources of Africa

Mineral Resources of Africa

 Northern Africa is rich in petroleum resources. West and Central Africa are also major
regions with huge petroleum reserves. Metallic minerals and other gem stones are
abundant in Southern Africa.
 Africa has 90% of the world’s cobalt and platinum, 50% of the world’s gold, 98% of the
world’s chromium, 70% of the world’s tantalite, 64% of the world’s manganese and one-
third of the world’s uranium.

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 The DRC alone has 70% of the world’s coltan (ore of Tantalum) and more than30% of
the world’s diamond reserve.
 Guinea is the world’s largest exporter of bauxite (ore of aluminum).
 Libya, Algeria and Nigeria are among Africa’s leading producers of crude petroleum.
 Algeria has a huge reserve of natural gas, as well.
 N/ Africa is rich in phosphate deposits and production,
 Morocco being the world’s leader in its phosphate output.
 Coal, iron ore, uranium, platinum, lead, zinc, and cobalt are also available in N/rn Africa,
though to a lesser extent.
 Significant amount of oil reserve is also found in Western and Central Africa.
 Nigeria being Africa’s top petroleum producer. .
 Southern Africa is one of the world’s richest sources of gold, diamond, and several other
rare metals. It is a leading producer of gold and uncut (raw) diamonds.
 Zimbabwe is also an important producer of gold.
 Minerals account for about half of the export earnings of 12 African countries.
 Nearly 90% of the exports in Angola, Nigeria, Algeria, Libya, and Zambia come from
minerals.

Africa plays a significant role in the world’s mineral economy. It produces about:
A. Three-quarters of the world’s cobalt;
B. Half of the global supply of platinum, chromium, and diamonds;
C. one-third of all gold, manganese, and uranium;
D. one-fifth of all bauxite; and one-tenth of the world’s petroleum
Table 4.17: Major minerals produced in Africa and the leading producers of the continent
Mineral Africa’s Global share Leading producers in Africa
Diamonds 77% Zaire, Botswana, RSA,
Gold 55% RSA, Ghana, Zimbabwe
Copper, 20% Zambia, DRC, Zimbabwe, RSA
Bauxite 19 % Guinea, Ghana & Sierra Leone
Iron ore 4% Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, RSA, Zimbabwe &Swaziland
Chromites 41% RSA and Zimbabwe
Manganese 27% RSA, Gabon
Petroleum 10% Nigeria, Libya, Algeria, Egypt and Angola
Tin 13% DRC(Katanga area) and Nigeria
Cobalt 76% DRC and Zambia
Coal 6% RSA , Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Zaire, Zambia, Mozambique , Malawi &
Tanzania
Agricultural Resources
 Agriculture is the backbone of many African countries.

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 The continent is rich in terms of certain tropical crops such as coffee, cocoa, tea,
sugarcane, rubber etc.

Water and Associated Resources

 The rivers and lakes have tremendous potential in terms of fishing, hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation, and mineral extraction.
 Major grounds for marine fish such as tuna, sardines, and hake are found some distance
off from West African coasts stretching from Morocco to Senegal, and Angola to
Namibia.
 The Nile, Niger, Congo, and Senegal rivers and Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Malawi, and
Chad are also major sources of freshwater fish.
 Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, Ghana, and Nigeria were the top African countries in total
fish catch in 1999. Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Senegal, and Libya exported the
most fish in the same period.
 Morocco is also leading in fish processing industries, producing more canned fish, fish
oil, and fish meal than any other African country.
 Africa’s many large rivers provide the continent with a vast hydro electric power
potential,
 Irrigation is another potential to be exploited from Africa’s rivers and lakes. For instance,
the Nile River supports the lives of millions of people in Sudan and Egypt by providing
irrigable water to these countries.

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 The shores and beds of lakes and banks of rivers are of substantial source of [Link]
sand, gravel, Gold and other precious metals. For example, many people in Ethiopia
extract gold from the Baro River in the Gambella Regional State.

4.3.2 Natural Resources Exploitation and Mineral Extraction Methods in Africa

 Africa has tremendous potential of natural resources. In Africa, natural resources are
under exploited due to:
 Lack of good governance,
 Prevalent of corruption, maladministration and lack of citizens’
 Lacks of capital, skilled human power and technology.
 The mining sector is also affected by these problems.
 Mineral extraction in many African countries is traditional and less productive.
Traditional techniques of mining on Africa include:

Placer Mining is the extraction of mineral deposits from excavations of sand, gravel, clay, or
silt.
Minerals mined in this way include gold, platinum, tin, and diamonds. Placer mining is most
common among societies living near river valleys.
Strip Mining is uncovering and removing coal, metal, or a mineral that is near the surface of the
ground.
Quarrying is open excavation, from which any useful stone is extracted for building and
engineering purposes.

4.3.3 Resource Utilization and Conflict Management

The huge mineral potential of the continent is untouched. In Africa the resource is becoming
more of a cause of conflict than of a socio-economic development.
 Africa is the only continent that is well characterized by political unrest, conflicts, civil
war and related humanitarian crisis including huge displacement of people.
 The major source of conflict in many resource exploitation areas of Africa is related to
inappropriate use and allocation of resources..
 The Civil wars in Southern Sudan, Liberia, DRC, Angola, and Rwanda are fought
because of inappropriate resource utilization and allocation.
 In the post–cold-war era, revenues from natural resources have replaced superpower
funding as the fuel of war. Between 1990 and 2002, the world saw at least 17 such
conflicts in which wealth from natural resource were a primary factor.

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 Diamonds in Angola and Sierra Leone, timber and diamonds in Liberia, and copper, gold,
cobalt and timber in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have all been at the centre of
civil conflict.
 In the case of the DRC, such a cause of conflict has been accompanied by attacks
supported by neighboring states.

Exercise Fourteen
I. Choose the best answer for the following question from the given alternatives.

1. Which one of the following is statement is incorrect about mineral resources of Africa
A. Africa has untouched huge mineral resource
B. Nigeria being Africa’s top petroleum producer
C. Northern Africa is rich in petroleum resources
D. In Africa mineral resource utilization is fair and equitable distribution
2. One of the following economic development indicators is the best measurement of the quality
of life of people in a given society?
A. Standard of living B. Per capita income C. GDP D. GNP
3. Which one of the following is correctly paired?
A. Economic growth qualitative change
B. Developed countries have high per capita income
C. Economic development low production goods and services
D. developing countries wealth is comparatively evenly distributed
4. Africa has the highest rate of urbanization, which is about 5.4% per year. What is the basic
reason behind this issue?
A. The prevalence of very high rate of urban-rural migration and high Mortality in the urban
areas.
B. High rate of urban-urban migration and high fertility in the urban areas.
C. very high rate of rural-rural migration and low fertility in the urban areas.
D. very high rate of rural-urban migration and high fertility in the urban areas.
E. All of the above
5. Which One of the following sub-regional organizations promotes economic cooperation and
development to eastern and southern Africa?
A. IGAD [Link] [Link] D. COMESA [Link]
6. Identify the resources that are associated with water resources in Africa?
A. Minerals of different types like gold C. Sand and gravel
B. Fish & other aquatic animals D. Generating hydroelectric power E. All of the
above
7. The most and least urbanized regions of Africa are _________ and ______ respectively?

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A. Central & Northern Africa C. Eastern &Southern Africa

B. Southern Africa &Northern D. Southern & Eastern Africa
8. Economic development is characterized by
A. High degree division of Labor
B. low resource consumption
C. less Significant changes in the technical and institutional arrangements
D. Low GDP and per capita income
9. Agriculture is the backbone of many African countries due to:
A. The majority of the population engaged in agricultural activities
B. The sector is more advanced and mechanized in most African countries
C. The sector has large contribution for GDP
D. Most countries have huge production in agriculture
E. A and C are correct
10. Which one of the following is the adverse effect of rapid urbanization in Africa?
A. adequate provision of social services
B. Presence of employment opportunity
C. scarcity of shelter and inefficient waste disposal
D. Reliable food security and excess of water
11. According to 2009 UN World population data sheet, the continent Africa has still the
world’s largest rate of both deaths and infants mortality rates, because
A. High access to health facilities
B. Low standard of living and political instability
C. The discovery of medicines and vaccines for tropical diseases
D. Good sanitary practices
12. One of the following factors has the least impact on population distribution of Africa?
A. Climate B. Soil C. religion D. Conflict & war
13. Which one of the following is true about the developing country’s median age?
A. The population is to be adult and high old age group
B. Low economic development and High dependency ratio
C. The population is to be old and Low dependency ratio
D. High economic development & Low dependency ratio
14. All of the following are the major cause of high fertility index in Africa, except
A. less access to family planning program C. low educational status
B. High status of women D. Religious beliefs
15. Which one of the following statement is not true about African population?
A. Africa’s population is predominantly young B. Africa has high old age
dependency ratio

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C. Africa has the highest population growth rate in the world D. Africa has the lowest life
expectancy
16. Which of the countries of Africa are leading producer of Cocoa crops?
A. Uganda, Tanzania, DRC C. Ghana, coteD’Ivoire, Nigeria, Liberia
B. Ethiopia, Kenya, Burkina Faso D. Ethiopia, Tanzania, Libya
17. Migration from Ethiopia to USA is _______
A. Intra-continental migration C. Inter-regional migration
B. Inter-Continental migration D. Intra- regional migration
18. Which country of Africa is leading in fish processing industries, producing more canned fish,
fish oil and fish meal.
A. Morocco B. Algeria C. Sudan D. Cameroon
19. What characterizes countries of low standard of living?
A. High life expectancy B. Low fertility rate C. Standard housing D. Low per capita
income
20. Which one of the following characterizes the African economy?
A. Its inter and intra-regional trade is low
B. Secondary economic sector is the back bone of the continent’s economy
C. Tertiary economic sector has a major share in its GDP.
D. Countries of the continent have common currency
21. In which areas of Africa is placer mining commonly practiced?
A. Near river valley C. In areas of rock layered surfaces
B. At the top of the mountain D. In areas where there is densely vegetation
22. What is the main cause of civil war and conflicts in Africa here and there in different times?
A. Scarcity of mineral resources C. The Prevalence of tropical disease
B. Prevalence of rapid urbanization in the continent D. Unfair utilization and allocation of
resources
23. Which one best characterizes the African population?
A. High immigrants from other continents C. High life expectancy
B. Categorized as young age group D. High Median age
24. In which region of Africa is the highest infant mortality rate found?
A. Western Africa B. Central Africa C. Eastern Africa D. Northern Africa
25. What is the main reason for the low sex ratio in Sub- Saharan African countries?
A. There is a huge loss of men population due to war and migration.
B. The drought condition of the region
C. Female births exceed male births in the region
D. The region is characterized by a large number of female
26. A country had a crude Birth Rate of 36 per thousand people in 2015. It its Crude Death was
12 per thousand people during the same year, what was its rate of natural increase?
A. 2.4% B. 1.2% C. 3.6% D. 4.8%
27. The population of which of the following groups of wild animals of Africa is on the brink of
extinction due to hunting by poachers?

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A. Elephants & rhinoceroses B. Hyenas & foxes C. Baboons & monkeys D. Zebras &
gazelles
28. Which of the following is the smallest settlement? A. Hamlet B. Town C. Village D. City
29. Which of the following regions of Africa experiences a more diversified economy?
A. Southern Africa B. Central Africa C. Eastern Africa D. Northern Africa
30. Which one of the following country is the Africa’s leading producer of coffee production?
A. B. C. D.
31. Which of the following river is known for having the largest water fall in Africa?
A. The Zambezi River C. The Nile River
B. The Congo River D. The Volta River
32. What is the major factor that makes the Nile River Valley of Egypt one of the most densely
populated area of the world?
A. Dense vegetation cover B. Good road network C. Favorable climate D. Fertile
alluvial soil
33. If a mineralogist from Algeria to Ethiopia to explore potash deposit in the Afar region, what
is the type of movement called _________
A. Intra-continental migration B. Out migration C. Emigration D. Inter- continental
migration
34. What is the main reason that makes intra- continental trade is low in Africa?
A. The diverse nature of the economy C. Absence of common currency
B. Lack of political willingness D. Limited access to the sea transport
35. In which of the following countries the condition of Gold to its economic development the
highest in Africa?
A. Republic of South Africa B. Democratic republic of Congo C. Nigeria D.
Botswana
36. What kind of mining technique is mainly used to extract coal and metal near the surface of
the ground?
A. Open pit mining B. Quarry C. placer mining D. strip mining
37 why is a peaceful conflict management in mineral resource exploitation areas in Africa
recommended?
A. to satisfy the financial needs of the ruling party
B. To foster (promote) socio economic development
C. To increase mineral resource exploitation
D. To limit mineral export to western world

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PART THREE (GRADE 12)

UNIT ONE
Basic Research Methodologies in Geography
1.1. Definition and concepts
 The term research was derived from the old French root word “ cerchier” which means to
search or seek.
 The pre fix re- means again therefore research means to find out/ search out something.
 Research is the search for knowledge though objectives and systematic methods of
finding solutions to a problem.
 It is the discovery of the truth

1.2. The Significance of Research

Research as a science for studying geography has the following significance.

 Identifies the causes of problems, and the degree or extent of these problems.
Example: The occurrences of hunger, flood, epidemics, etc.
 Adds to the body of knowledge about the problem by providing new information and
knowledge.
 Enables us to visualize or understand the gap between the real world and the formulated
theory.
 Provides a basis for additional investigations that validate the research findings or that
advance the study of the problem by acquiring more data.
 Widens/enlarges one’s own or a group’s or society's reading and thinking scope.
 Strengthens our capacity for critical observation and enforces our power of prediction.
 Enables us to make rational decisions.
 Serves as an aid to formulating policy.

1.3 Approaches of Research (Qualitative and Quantitative)

 Two basic approaches to research. These are the quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach

A. Quantitative Approach
 It trying to verify a given geographical theory. It translates the concepts of the theory into
variables that can be measured with statistical techniques.
 The advantage of this approach is that the quantitative technique employed by one
researcher can be used by another researcher for different objectives or for further
developing the same information. Very simple examples of this approach are given
below:
Eg; the decrease in land-lease prices as one travels from the center of a city to its suburbs;

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The quantitative approach can be subdivided:

i. inferential quantitative approach: the target-study uses an existing data base and infers
characteristics or relationships from it.

ii. Experimental quantitative approach: the research work manipulates variables to see their
effects on other variables. This approach requires considerable control over the research
environment in order to manipulate the determining variables. As described above, distance is
the manipulated variable that affects lease price, population and temperature.

iii..Simulation (model) approach: this approach involves constructing an artificial environment

(model) to represent the actual environment we are studying..
The quantitative approach and hypotheses regarding an existing theory are established and
tested. Also, mathematical analysis is frequently used.

B. Qualitative Approach
 data are used to explain a new theory.
 No previously existing theory or hypothesis is tested by way of this approach.
 Quantitative techniques are not employed.
 Therefore, the study cannot be repeated by other researchers.
Common techniques for gathering data in the qualitative approach are:
i. Group interview
ii. Questionnaire
iii. personal observation
Some examples of subjects that could be studied with the qualitative approach to research are:
 Differences between urban and rural populations of Ethiopia.

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In geography

The following three terms are related to one another, but vary in scope.
 research, research method, and research methodology
 A research project is an inquiry into a problem. The researcher’s motivation might be
curiosity or a specific objective.
 A research method or technique is a skill that uses different steps or elements to solve the
identified problem and arrive at a possible solution.
The main methods are:
 The collection and organization of data necessary or related to the problem.
 The use of statistical parameters to treat and interpret the organized data.
 The evaluation of the accuracy of the result obtained.
The concept of research methodology is much broader than the former two concepts. It is a
science that studies how research is done scientifically.

Basic Elements of Research

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1. Identifying or Formulating the Research Problem

Investigating the causes of a problem is an important factor for identifying it solutions. In some
cases, a problem has multiple causes that you must identify.

2. Defining the significance of the study for solving the problem

The significance of a research project differs from its objectives. Its significance is its
importance at a local, regional, national or global level.
To be significant, a study must benefit a society or community by:
 providing new discoveries
 improving existing situations
 demanding new decisions
 enriching or refuting already existing theories

3. Studying the Problem Area

When we study the problem area that a research project addresses, we create a detailed bird's
eye-view for ourselves and others who will access the research.
4. Defining the Objectives of the Study
 General and specific objectives are set.
 The general objectives provide short statements of the goal, while the specific objectives
provide detailed inter-connected statements.
5. Defining the Scope and Delimitation of the Study
 Research requires time, financing and skilled manpower or professionals.
 These factors are not always available at required levels. Shortages of these resources
limit the spatial dimension that the research can cover. It also limits the quality of the
research work.
6. Reviewing the Literature
Reviewing the literature means identifying, reading and analyzing documentation related to the
research you plan to perform. For example,
 books
 academic journals
 conference proceedings
 government reports
 Published and unpublished documents related to the problem for quantitative research,
the literature review can help you identify the variables and their relationships.

7. Developing or Formulating a Working Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a preliminary assumption or tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts,
taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing a theory.

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 Establishing a working hypothesis is crucial for research in all disciplines including

geography. The information you gain from your literature review will help you to
formulate an appropriate hypothesis.
A working hypothesis can be formulated based on the ideas you gather from:
 conducting discussions with experts,
 inferring from the work of others on similar studies,
 Personal investigations of conducting original field interviews with interested parties and
individuals.

8. Preparing the Research Design

The research design is the conceptual framework within which the research could be conducted.
The preparation of an appropriate research design for a particular problem involves the following
considerations.
i .The means of obtaining the information
ii .The competence of the researcher
iii .The time available for the research
iv. The money available for the research

9. Defining the Sample Design

Choosing the population sample is called sampling. The resulting study is called a “sample
study”.
Designing the main techniques for sampling, there are two main sampling techniques: non-
probability and probability.

i. Non-Probability Sampling
 Sometimes known as deliberate or purposive sampling.
 The items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher.
 The basis of such samplings is personal decision.
 There is always a danger of bias in such sampling.
ii. Probability sampling (also known as 'random sampling')
 Often called chance or lottery sampling.
 Under this approach to sampling, every item of the population has an equal chance of
being included (lottery method).
 Only chance determines whether an item is selected or not. Once an item is selected for
the sample, it cannot appear again.

10. Collecting and Organizing the Data

There are two types of data collection: primary and secondary.

i. Primary Data Collection: This type of data collection is original in character.

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The research produces the data, rather than relying on existing data. There are several ways of
collecting primary data. The important ones are based on

 Personal observations.
 Interviews.
 Questionnaires:
 Discussion with groups of people.

ii. Secondary Data Collection: This type of data collection investigates data that has already
been collected, organized and arranged by someone else. Secondary data may be either published
or unpublished:
Published data includes:
 publications by governments
 publications by NGOs
 journals
 magazines and newspapers
 Reports by universities, scholars, etc.
 Historical records, etc.
Unpublished data includes:
 diaries
 letters
 Unpublished biographies, etc.

11. Analysis of the Data

Data analysis is an essential aspect of the scientific study of problems and discovering their
solutions. This step involves the use of statistical techniques to measure relationships of the
geographic variables defined in the hypothesis.
Different statistical techniques are employed in analyzing collected data.
At this class level, you can use:. Simple ratios and percentages, Pie charts and compound
graphs
Processing research data with statistical techniques results in new discoveries or findings,
followed by interpretations. Then, based on the findings, recommendations are made.

12. Preparing the Research Report, Based on the Findings

The research report is a major component of the study. Until the report is written or presented, no
one can use the research results. The report must be clear and accurate.

13. Compiling the Bibliography /References

 Compiling a bibliography is the final step of your research project.

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 A bibliography is a list of written materials relevant to the research study you have
performed.
 It includes all books, documents, etc that you referred to as you prepared for and
conducted your project
Action Research

Action research is an ongoing research process by which a particular real problem is identified,
information/data are gathered, practical solutions are tested, conclusions and recommendations
are reached and finally improvements are made.
The following are basic features of action research.
It is based on reality.
It enables researchers to put ideas into action.
There is rapid feedback.
It aims at improving situations, not at producing new knowledge.
It encourages reflections and further developments.

Steps of Action Research

 Selecting the problem

 objectives of the study
 Making reviewing the literature
 developing a working hypothesis
 Determining the Sample Size
 collecting and organizing the data
 analyzing the data by using different techniques
 generalizing and interpreting the data
 preparing the research report, based on the findings
 compiling the bibliography/references

Exercise one
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Which one of the following statement is not true about the qualitative research approach?
A. The research generates results either in non-numerical form or are not subjected to
statistical analysis
B. hypothesis is not tested by qualitative approach
C. In qualitative approach, the previous study work cannot be repeated by other researchers
D. The qualitative approach is verifying the prior theory &mathematical analysis is
frequently used
2. Which quantitative research work manipulates variables to see their effects on other variables?
A. Inferential quantitative approach C. Simulation quantitative approach
B. Experimental quantitative approach D. model quantitative approach

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3. All are the major characteristics of fundamental research methodology in geography,

except__________
A. adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge
B. Finding immediate solution to certain problems
C. providing new discoveries
D. There is no immediate solution to social or environmental problems
4. Which one of the following statement is correct about non-probability sampling technique?
A. The sample are selected randomly
B. Every respondent have an equal chance to be selected
C. There is always a danger of bias in sampling process
D. it is lottery method in sampling technique
5. A means of identifying, reading and analyzing documentation related to the research topic
you plan to perform is referred to as____________
A. formulating the research problem C. Reviewing the literature
B. Defining the scope of the study D. developing the working hypothesis
6. The purpose of research is
A. to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures
B. to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet
C. to improving the current teaching learning situation in the classroom
D. All are true but not C E. All except B
7. In conducting Geographic research which one of the following should comes first?
A. Setting objectives B. Hypothesis C. reviewing literature D. research problem
identification
8. Which of the following is true about primary data collection?
A. it is original in character C. the researcher produces the data, rather relying on
existing data
B. The data already been collected and organized by others D. All are correct but not B
9. The final stage of your research project is
A. Compiling the bibliography or reference C. Collecting and organizing the data
B. Preparing the research report D. analysis of the data
10. A preliminary assumption to a research problem is referred to as_______________
A. Research design C. defining the objective of the study
B. defining the sample design D. Developing a working hypothesis
11. The main aim of action or applied research is:
A. at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an organization
B. mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory
C. Producing new knowledge D. All are correct except A

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12. One can claim that a geographical research project is complete when the
A. report is presented C. collected data is analyzed
B. working hypothesis is made D. sampling design is finished
13. What is the most important consideration in selecting/identifying a research problem?
A. The problem selected should be overdone
B. The problem must be clear, simple and acceptable
C. The problem should not be a debatable issue
D. All are true but not A
14. If the entire population under your study is heterogeneous societies, in this case your sample
should be
A. Small sample size is sufficient C. both small and large sample size are
important
B. large sample size is necessary D. none of the above
15. _________ involves the use of statistical and mathematical techniques to measure relationships of
the geographical variables. A. Data analysis B. preparing research design
C. Formulating working hypothesis D. Data collecting and
organizing
16. When is quantitative research approach applied in geography?
A. In a content analysis and narration of event
B. In describing the culture of the society
C. In verifying a particular geographical theory
D. In analyzing a data from key informant interviews
17. What makes geographic research different from research in other disciplines?
A. It assesses demand and supply of production function
B. It greatly emphasizes the cultural value and norms
C. It mainly emphasizes the temporal variation of things
D. It mainly focuses on the spatial distribution of phenomena
18. At what stage of action research is the research design proposed?
A. Before defining the objective of the study
B. After formulating research the problem
C. Before reviewing the literature
D. After collecting the required data
19. Assume you are conducting an action research entitled “lateness of students for morning
classes‟. What will be the first step to conduct this action research?
A. Defining the sample size B. Collecting the required data
C. Stating the objective of the study D. making the review of literature
20. The technique and the procedure used to undertake a research is termed as:
A. Research approach C. Research methodology
B. Research methods D. Research project
21. One of the following methods is not commonly used to collect qualitative data

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A. Group interview B. personal observation C. Survey questionnaire D. focus group

discussion
22. Which statement below describes research?
A. It is a modern way of recording historical phenomena B. It is a way of exploring
geographical areas
C. It scientific procedure of investigating problems D. It is the systematic Way of
investigating new
23. Which of the reason stated below encourage scientists to conduct research?
A. To add new things to the existing body of knowledge
B. To providing job opportunity for different
C. To make the study area the best of living place
D. To suggest solution to every problem
24. What type of research approach do you recommend to study the relationship between rainfall
and elevation in Ethiopia?
A. Quantitative approach B. Questionnaire C. personal observation D.
qualitative approach
25. Which of the following the research objectives is the best addressed by geographers?
A. Examining the effect of underemployment on political stability
B. Assessing the relationship between education level and crime rate
C. Analyzing the gap between demand and supply
D. Investigate the effect of human settlement on vegetation resource

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UNIT TWO

Map Use and Map Work

2.1 The Study of Topographic Maps

2.1.1 Meaning and Uses of Topographic Maps

Meaning of Topographic Maps

 It is often known as topo sheets.

 Unlike other distribution maps, topographic maps portray one or more natural and
cultural features of an area.
 In short, topographic maps are maps that show both human made and natural features.
 They can be used for various disciplines to make inferences.

Nature of Topographic Maps

A topographic map is:

 A map that portrays rivers, streams, drainage, vegetation, roads, buildings, land uses, etc.
 A detailed map that shows multiple natural and anthropogenic features;
 A large scale map drawn to show a relatively small area; therefore, called a scenery map,
too;
 A map that uses definite symbols, known as conventional symbols. Due to the detailed
information displayed on topographic maps, they are classified as general-purpose or
reference maps.

2.1.3 The Study of Distribution Maps

Based on their purposes maps are can be categorized

A. Reference or general-purpose maps
B. Special-purpose or thematic maps
C. Charts

A. Reference or General Purpose Maps

 It portrays different features at the same time.

 They are made at a larger scale covering smaller areas to show details.

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B. Thematic or Special-Purpose Maps

 These are distribution maps that emphasize the distribution of a single geographical
element
Example: Climatic map of Africa (Annual rainfall distribution).

Thematic maps are classified into two subgroups.

1 .Qualitative maps 2. Quantitative maps

1. Qualitative Distribution Maps
 Qualitative distribution maps show non-quantitative attributes.
 They are reclassified into these subgroups:
i. Chorochromatic maps ii. Choroschematic maps
i. Chorochromatic Maps: Show the spatial distribution of geographic elements, using color tint,
shading, dots or line symbols, without attaching any numerical alues.
ii. Choroschematic Maps: Are qualitative maps that use pictures and letters. The pictures often
symbolized are pictures of the real element. They are relatively simple to understand
2. Quantitative Distribution Maps
Such maps display spatial distributions of geographical elements, representing quantitative
values. The most commonly used distribution maps are:
 Dot maps: In dot quantitative maps, each dot represents a given quantity or value.
 Choroplethic maps: Sometimes they are called shaded maps. They display quantifiable
features. Choroplethic maps are often used to show the distribution of average values such
as population density, cropping intensity, etc
 Isoplethic maps: Isopleths are lines of equal value or magnitude. The lines pass through
points at which the value of a particular phenomenon is equal. Hence, isoplethic maps are
quantitative distribution maps that use lines that pass through points of equal value. They
are most commonly used for representing climatic elements, transportation costs, etc.
Example:
 Isotherm maps are ones that show equal temperature points.
 Isobarmaps are those that show equal pressure distribution.
 Isodapane maps are those that show equal transportation-cost distribution.
 Isohyet maps are those that show equal rainfall distribution.
 Isoneph maps are those that show equal cloud cover distribution.

Graphs and Diagrammatic Maps: These are often, used to show economic data, population
data and other quantifiable distributions.

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Graphs: The simplest and most widely used graphs are line graphs and bar graphs. They are
used to show the relationship between two geographic variables in time and space series. Both
line graphs and bar graphs can use a single or double format. The format depends on the items to
be shown.
Diagrammatic maps: These differ from graph maps, in those diagrammatic maps are more
explanatory than graph maps since they are two-dimensional or areal. These maps employ
figures such as squares, circles, spheres, etc. The sizes of the figures are proportional to the
values they stand for.

Proportional Circles and Proportional Arrows

 Proportional circles and proportional arrows are one of the various diagrammatic
techniques for showing economic data, population size, etc
 They can be used for comparative studies of different geographical aspects.
 Similarly, proportional arrows of varying thickness can be used to show different
magnitudes or flows.

2.2 Globe and Map

Maps and globes are very important tools that geographers use in order to show geographic
features
Properties of a Globe

 Globes are the most appropriate models for representing the surface of the earth because
they are spherical.
 The scale on the surface of a globe is identical over its entire surface.
 All meridians and parallels on a globe intersect at right angles.
 All meridians converge at the poles.
 All parallels are parallel to the equator and to each other.
 Parallels decrease in length as they approach the poles.

Advantages of a Map over a Globe

Maps are used more frequently than globes, particularly in the classroom and in fieldwork.
 Globes are expensive to reproduce and update, but maps are not.
 Globes are not easy to fold and handle, but maps are.
 Globes must be rotated to show the entire surface of the earth, and they are not
convenient for showing locations and distributions over very large areas. With a map,
you can immediately see the whole of any area shown on it.
 Most globes are less than one meter in diameter and therefore are too small to provide
detailed information
 Globes are not visually convenient, but maps are. Therefore, maps are usually preferred
over globes in geography

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2.3 MAP PROJECTION

2.3.1 Meaning and Significance of Map Projection

Meaning of map projection:

Map projection is a technique that cartographers use to transfer information from a globe to a flat
surface in order to create a map. Cartographers developed map projection as they tried to solve
the problems that globes presented. The end result of their efforts was to produce an alternative
tool – the map.

2.3.2 Properties of Map Projection

 No type of map projection is free of distortion. Because cartographers must make choices
when they decide to pick a projection, they begin by asking themselves questions like the
ones just below:
 Therefore, transferring the graphics on the surface of a globe to a flat surface always
results in distortion in the graphics. Distortions in one or more of the following properties
always occur.
 area
 shape
 distance
 direction (angle
 If you maintain the accuracy of one of these features, some or all of the others will be
distorted. Therefore, there is no projection type that provides an absolutely perfect
representation of the earth on a flat surface.
 A surface, such as that of the earth, that cannot be converted into a flat surface without
distortion is called an undevelopable surface.
Here are some commonly used types of projections. Each maintains accuracy in one of the
features by sacrificing accuracy in others.
 Homolographic projections maintain accuracy of true area
 Orthomorphic projections maintain accuracy of true shape
 Azimuthal projections maintain accuracy of direction.

2.3.3 Geometrical Map Projection

Some of them have sub-categories.
1. Cylindrical
2. .Conic (cone)
3. Planar (plane) – also known as azimuthal

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1. Cylindrical projections are best suited for the projection of tropical regions since deformities
increase pole wards.
Characteristics of Cylindrical Projection
 Parallels and meridians in such a projection are straight lines intersecting at right angles.
 The lines tangent to the developable surface is true to scale.
 All parallels are equal in length to the equator.
 Distortions increase pole wards from the equator.

2. Conic Projection:

This is obtained by covering the globe with a cone-shaped developable surface. The cone is
placed tangent to the globe along one, two or more parallels, with the apex of the cone located
above a pole.

Characteristics of Conic Projection

In such a projection:
 Parallels make arcs of concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole. The parallel tangent to the cone is
true to scale. It is known as the standard parallel (sp).
 Distortions increase as parallels move away from the standard parallel.
 Conic projection cannot be used to show worldwide distributions. Maps created with
conic projections are mostly restricted to maps of mid-latitude regions so that the area
being investigated does not extend very far to the north or to the south. Hence, it can be
argued that if two standard parallels could be selected, an area that includes more of the
north-south directions could be represented.
 Linear features, such as transcontinental railways and forests, for example, coniferous
forest regions, can be depicted accurately.
3. Zenithal Projections:

It refers to overhead position, which is perpendicular. This projection is also known as

Azimuthal projection. True distances and directions in such projection are retained by placing a
developable surface at one of the poles see

Characteristics of Zenithal /Azimuthally Projections

In such projections:
 Parallels are concentric circles.
 Meridians are straight lines radiating from the poles.
 Planar projections produce circular maps.
 Planar projections are very much suited to maps of polar landmasses (high latitude
regions).

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2.4.1 The Meaning and Purpose of Sketch Maps

A sketch map is a freehand drawing that attempts to simulate real features. It is an important tool
We use a sketch map for its following characteristics:
o It can be drawn quickly.
o It is a guideline.
o It is easily recognizable.
o It provides skills for roughly showing or recording landscapes.
We do not use a sketch map if its following drawbacks become significantly disadvantageous
to our goals:
It does not have scale.
It is crude.
It can be both misleading and clumsy

Exercise Two
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Which of the following maps are often used to show the distribution of average values such as
population density or cropping intensity?
A. Dot maps B. diagrammatic maps C. Choroplethic Maps [Link] maps
2. Which one of the following is a false statement?
A. All types of map projections are free of distortions.
B. Linear features are accurately depicted in a conic map projection
C. Parallels make concentric circles in zenithal map projection
D. Distortion increases pole wards from the equator in a cylindrical map projection
3. one of the following is differs from others?
A. topographic maps of Ethiopia C. population maps of Ethiopia
B. soil map of Africa D. climatic map of Africa
4. Why do you think that maps are more advantageous than a globe?
A. maps are not visually convenient, but globes are
B. Globes are not expensive to produce, but maps are not easy to update
C. Globes are difficult to fold and handle but maps are simply handle and foldable
D. Globes to show the entire surface of the earth at once but maps are not
5. All are the particular properties of a globe, except _________________
A. Latitudes are parallel to the equator and to each other
B. parallels increases in length as they approach the poles
C. it is absolute model of the earth or truly representative of the earth
D. All meridians converge at the poles
6. Which type of distribution maps are Shows the spatial distribution of geographic elements,
using color tint, shading or dots without attaching any numerical values is called_________

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A. Chorochromatic Maps B. Choroschematic maps C. Choropleth maps D.

Dot maps
7. Which one of the following is not correct about the nature of topographic maps?
A. It provides detailed information
B. They portray various geographical features at the same time
C. They are made at large scale
D. they are made at small scale and covering larger area
8. Identify the wrong combination about Isoplethic maps?
A. Isotherm maps show equal rainfall distribution
B. Isobar maps show equal pressure distribution.
C. Isodapane maps show equal transportation-cost distribution.
D. Isoneph maps show equal cloud cover distribution
9. A type of map with detailed two dimensional representations of natural and human made
features is
A. Thematic map B. topographic map C. Cadastral Map D. Choropleth map
10. In ________projection, distance and direction are retained?
A. cylindrical B. Zenithal C. conic D. equal-area
11. Map making involves distortion of all of the following except;
A. Shape B. Border C. Distance D. Direction
12. Which of the following distribution map uses lines to connect points of the equal value2013?
A. Choropleth maps B. Chorochromatic maps C. diagrammatic map D.
isopleth maps
13. What characterize zenithal map projection?
A. Best suited for the projection of tropical regions
B. Distortions increase from the equator towards pole
C. Meridians are concentric circles
D. True distance and direction are reserved
14. Which one describes the difference between map and globe?
A. Globes are easy to fold whereas maps are not
B. A globe is two dimensional whereas a map is three dimensional not
C. Globes are visually convenient whereas maps are
D. A map are more used than globe in geography
15. Which of the following maps can best show population distribution in specific area?
A. Topographic map B. thematic map C. cadastral map D. navigation
Map
16. What is the other name for maps that emphasize the distribution of a single geographic
element or character?

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A. reference or general purpose maps B. Thematic or special purpose maps

C. Charts D. topographic maps
17. The process of plotting or locating boundary lines on the map aerial photography by
cartographer is known as _______
A. Boundary allocation B. boundary delimitation C. boundary definition D. Boundary
demarcation

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UNIT THREE

Physical Geography of Ethiopia and the Horn

3. 1. Physical Geography of Ethiopia and the Horn

Introduction

The physiographic features Ethiopia and the Horn play significant roles in the social, economic
and political values of the inhabiting people.
Recent paleontological findings indicate that the Horn of Africa, especially Ethiopia is the birth
place of hominids.
Lucy
 Amharic name, “Dinknesh”
 Discovered November 24, 1974 at Hadar, Afar.
 Lived 3.2 million years ago.
 Discovered by Johanson and his team members.
Selam
 Discovered by Dr. Zeresenay Alemseged.
 Lived 3.3 million years ago
 A three-year-old girl.
 discovered September, 2006
Ardi
 The name “Ardi” is a short form of Ardipithecus ramid.
 Lived 4.4 million years ago.
 The oldest known fossil of a human ancestor.
 Discovered November 5, 1994 by Yohannes H/Selassie.

3.1. Location of the Horn of Africa and Sizes of Member Countries

3.1.1. Concept of Location and Location of the Horn

It is a region of eastern Africa, which is home to the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and
Somalia, whose cultures have been linked throughout their long history.
The term location is expressed in the form of:
1. Absolute location 2 .Relative location
1. Absolute Location of the Horn

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It is expressed as a geographical extent, in terms of latitudes and longitudes. The absolute

location of the Horn of Africa is bounded within:
 180N – 10S latitudes
 330E – 51024'E longitudes. Because of this aspect of their location, countries of the Horn
have tropical characters and lie in the GMT+3 time zones.

2. Relative Location of the Horn

It refers to the position of a place in relation to the location of other geographic features. Relative
location can be expressed in terms of vicinal (nearness) and geological (strategic or natural)
terms.
It can be described as a region or sub region bounded by: (vicinal or nearness)
 the Indian Ocean in the southeast,
 the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in the northeast,
 Sudan, in the north and west, and
 Kenya in the south.
 The geological approach considers a broad aerial extent. When we describe the
geological location of the Horn countries we list the Middle East, Southwest Asia, the
Mediterranean, adjacent countries etc.

3.1.2. Sizes of Countries of the Horn

The countries of the Horn vary in size. This variation has both merits and demerits for individual
countries.
Comparatively speaking (in terms of size)
 Ethiopia is the biggest (1,106,000km2)
 Djibouti is the smallest (23,200km2)
 Eritrea (118,000km2) and Somalia (637,661) are less than Ethiopia by almost ten times
and twice respectively.
3.2. Location, Size and Shape of Ethiopia

3.2.1. Location of Ethiopia

Relative Location of Ethiopia

Relative location can be expressed in vicinal and geological terms.

I Relative (Vicinal) Location of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is a landlocked country that is surrounded by five neighboring countries.
 Each country shares different lengths of Ethiopia’s borderlines.

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 The total length of Ethiopia’s boundary line is 5260 km.

 Sudan shares the longest length of boundary line (1750km), followed by Somalia
(1600km).
 The Republic of Djibouti shares the smallest boundary line length (310km).

II Strategic (Global, Geological) Relative Location of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is found:
 to the southwest of the Asian continent,
 to the south of Europe,
 to the northwest of the Indian Ocean,
 In the Nile Basin, and
 In northeastern Africa.

Absolute (Astronomical) Location of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia is located b/n 30 N – 150N latitudes and 330E– 480E longitudes. The
geographical center of Ethiopia lie at 90N and 400 30’ E , somewhere in the Awash valley
As a result, Ethiopia’s extreme points lie at
 Badime in the north (Tigray 150 N)
 Moyalle in the south (Borena 30 N)
 Akobo in the west (Gambella 330E) and
 The tip of Ogaden in the east (Ogaden 480 E).

3.2.2. Size of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the 10th largest country in Africa, with a total area of 1,106,000 km2. It contains about
0.7 % of the world’s land area and about 3.6 % of Africa’s land mass.
Ethiopia is the largest country in the Horn. This status in size, in combination with its status of
having a large population, confers many advantages to Ethiopia in the Horn area.
Advantages & disadvantages of Ethiopia’s large size
Advantages of Ethiopia's large size
 have diverse agro ecological zones
 Variety of natural resources
 Own extensive arable land
 Have larger population size
 Home for diverse cultures
 Greater depth in defense external invasion
Disadvantages of Ethiopia's large size
 Demands greater capital to construct infrastructural facilities

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 Requires large army to protect its territory

 Difficult for effective administration
 Difficult for socio-economic integration
3.2.3. Shape of Ethiopia
Countries of the world have different kinds of shape. Some have nearly Compact shape,
elongated, Fragmented, Perforated, Protrude shape.
These shapes have implications on defense, administration and economic integration within a
country.
I. Compact shape countries: The distance from the geographic centre of the state to any of
the borders does not vary greatly. It is easier for defense, socioeconomic and cultural
integration.
II. Fragmented shape is made up of multiple disconnected areas.
III. Elongated shape is a shape with long and relatively narrow like Chile.
IV. Perforated shape countries: A country that completely surrounds another country like
the RSA.
V. Protrude shape countries: have one portion that is much more elongated than the rest of
the country like Myanmar and Eritrea.
Ethiopia’s shape is of the compact type. There are various ways of measuring shape of countries.
These measures are known as the indices of compactness.
The Common measures of compactness
1. Area-Boundary ratio. The higher the A/B ratio, the greater the degree of compactness
Eg. Ethiopia's A/B ratio = Area/Boundary length
A/B ratio= 1,106,000km2 = 210: 1
5260km
2. Boundary - Circumference Ratio (B/C) is the ratio b/n the boundary length of a country and
the Circumference of a circle having the same area of the country. The nearer the ratio to 1 the
more compact the country is.
3. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the smallest possible inscribing circle: Area-Area
(A/A‟) ratio.
3.2. Geological Structure and Relief of the Horn of Africa

3.2.1. Geological History of the Horn of Africa

The geological history of the Horn shows us that four major geological eras have elapsed. Each
era is divided into periods, and each period is subdivided into epochs.
Each geological era is distinguished from the others, based on grounds of the following three
characteristics:

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 the relative positions of the continents

 the character of the prevailing climate
 the predominant life form
Summary of Major Geological Events in the Horn
A. The Precambrian Era (from 4.5 B. to 600 M. years ago)
 The Precambrian Era is the oldest and longest geological era, covering about 5/6 of the
earth’s geological time. The following geological events occurred in the Horn during this
era.
 frequent orogenic movements
 intensive volcanic activities denudation during the later periods
 formation of folded mountain ranges in a NNE – SSW direction
Today, in a few areas of Ethiopia, outcrops of old crystalline basement complex rocks are found
on the surface, due to continuous denudation.
Example:
 In central and northern Tigray.
 In Mettekel, Assossa, Illubabor and the Abbay.
 In central Sidama, southern Omo, southern Bale and Borena.
 In central, western and northern Eritrea.
B. The Paleozoic Era (from 600 m.– 250 M. years ago)
 The main geological events of the Paleozoic era were denudation and peneplanation.
 No significant structural formation took place.
 The massive denudational activity resulted in the formation of inselbergs in some parts of
Ethiopia & the Horn.
C. Mesozoic Era (from 250 m. – 70 M. years ago) an Era of Reptiles
The Mesozoic era is the third-largest and third-oldest era in the geological history of the earth.
For Ethiopia and the Horn, the era was a time of alternate sinking and rising of the land.
The era is divided into three periods.
1. Triassic 2. Jurassic [Link]
1. Triassic - there was sinking of the land in the south eastern part of Ethiopia and the Horn
transgression of the sea. In this period Adigrat sand stone was formed
2. Jurassic period- The land remained under the sea during the Jurassic period. More
transgression of sea water took place
- In this period Hintalo lime stone was formed
3. Cretaceous - Rising (uplifting) of the land began in the Cretaceous.
- Regression of sea water took place
- In this period Upper sand stone was formed
 . Upper Sandstone is the youngest sedimentary rock, and therefore overlies the rest.

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Biological Events of the Mesozoic Era

 Known by Huge reptiles, such as dinosaurs, were dominant. significant
biological events occurred:
D. The Cenozoic Era (from 70 Million to Recent Years)
 Covers about 70 million – present
 This era is the most recent and the shortest era in the geological history of the earth
 As a result, the era is sometimes called the living era.
 There are two periods in this era.
2. Tertiary 2. Quaternary periods
2. The Tertiary period (70m- 2m years)
Geologic Events of the Tertiary Period - (70 million - 2 million years ago)
In Ethiopia and the Horn it formed huge blocks of dome over the greater part of the region. As
the uplifting continued through time, great cracks opened in the crust and resulted in the pouring
out of extensive basaltic lava (known as the Trappean lava series). The lava resulted in the
formation of:
 The Eritrean Highlands
 The Northwestern Highlands
 The Southeastern Highlands
 The Somali plateaus
As the cracking continued during the period, it formed the Great East African Rift Valley
System of which the Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part.
2. Geologic Events of the Quaternary Period (2 million - recent years)
In the Quaternary Period, these structures were formed in Ethiopia and the Horn:
 The Afar Horst that extends into Djibouti
 The active volcano of Ertalle in Afar
 The dormant volcanic mountain of Fentalle in Eastern Oromia
 The extensive lava field of Methara.
Climatic Events in the Cenozoic Era
 A significant change of climate took place in the Horn and Ethiopia.
 A massive flood, called the pluvial period, occurred. This flood formed deep gorges,
moraines and lacustrine deposits. Example the Abbay gorge.
 It is believed that Lake Langano, Lake Abijata and Lake Shalla were one sheet of water
during the time of the pluvial period.
 The same is believed true of lakes Abbaya and Chamo. Today these lakes are widely
separated
The Cenozoic Era in its Quaternary Period is assumed to be the period in which modern human
evolved.

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3.3.1. Landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn

These landforms are the work of two opposite forces:
A. The endogenic force that originates from inside the earth. E.g. Volcanic activity and tectonic
forces
B. The exogenic force that originates at the surface (denudation and penepalantion).
 Altitude varies from about 116 meter below sea level at the Dallol depression (Kobar
sink) to 4620 [Link] Ras Dejen in Semein.
 Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated land in Africa which sometimes made
Ethiopia to be named the “Roof of Northeastern Africa.”
 It is the only country in the region with such a high proportion of elevated surface.
 This elevated surface is bisected diagonally by the Rift Valley which extends from Syria
to Mozoambique across the East African lakes.
The relief of Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three main physiographic divisions:
 Highlands
 The Rift Valley
 The lowlands
1. The Highlands of the Horn
 Highlands are lands with altitudes of over 1000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.)
The Horn’s highlands are:
A. The Northwestern Highlands
B. The Southeastern Highlands
A. The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn
 The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn stretch from Ras Kassar in Eritrea to the
highlands of Gamo-Goffa in s/western Ethiopia.
 They are separated from the s/eastern highlands by the Rift Valley, which is part of the
Great East African Rift Valley. They consist of:
I. The Plateau of Eritrea
 It is located b/n the course of the Barka River and the coastal plain of Eritrea.
 It is bisected by the upper basin of the Mereb River. The plateau is capped by basaltic
rocks.

II. The Plateau of Tigray

 It extends from the Tekeze gorge in the south to central Eritrean highlands.
 The Tigray plateau is separated from the Eritrean plateau by the Mereb River.
 Some of the high mountains in this plateau
1. Mt. Tsibet = 3988 m
2. Mt. Ambalage = 3291 m

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3. Mt .Assimba = 3248 m.a.s.l

III. The North-Central Massifs

 These are the most rugged and dissected plateaus of Ethiopia.

 They are capped by basalts and surrounded by deep gorges. Within each of the plateaus
are small arable lands known as Ambas.
 The Ambas are isolated from one another by gorges.
 The North-Central Massifs are made up of numerous high mountains. They are known
for the production of cereals, such as teff, pulses and oil seeds.
Famous mountain peaks on these massifs are
 Mt. Ras Dajen (4,620 m),
 Mt. legeda (in Gondar) – 4532 masl
 Mt. Analu (in Gondar) – 4480 Masl
 Mt Weynobar (4462 m.a.s.l),
 Mt. Tefaw lezer (in Gondar) – 4456
 Mt KidisYared (4453 m. )
 Mt Bwahit (4437 ml) in the Simen Mountain System.
 Mt Guna (4,231m)
 Abune Yoseph (4,260 ml) in the Lasta highlands of Wello and Mt Birhan (4,154 m) in
the Choke Mountain System in Gojjam.
IV. The Plateau of Shewa
 It is a dome-shaped plateau that serves as a watershed b/n the Awash and Abbay River
basins.
 It extends westwards into western Wellega through Horo Guduru and forms a crescent
shape .
The Shewa plateau is separated:
 From the plateau of Gojjam by the Abbay gorge in the north
 From the southeastern highlands by the Awash River and the Rift Valley.
 From the Highlands of Keffa by the Ghibe River.
The Plateau of Shewa is drained by the tributaries of the Abbay River in the west and the Awash
River in the east. Its high mountains are found on its northeastern and south eastern margins;
they are:
 Mt. Abbuye Meda (on the northeastern margin) – 4000 masl
 Mt. Guraghe (on the southeastern margin) – 3721 m.a.s.l
V. The Southwestern Highlands of the Horn
 Includes the highland areas of Wellega, Illubabor, Gamo Goffa and Keffa.

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 . It is the wettest region of the country with a total average annual rainfall of above 1500
mm.
The region is drained:
 northwards, by the Dabus and Diddeessa tributaries of the Abbay River
 westwards, by the headstreams of the Baro-Akobo River
 southwards, by the Omo-Ghibe River, which ends in Lake Turkana
Eastwards, by the right-bank tributaries of the Omo-Ghibe (the Gojeb-Ghibe River of Jima and
Yem zone) the highest points in the region are the:
 Gamo-Konso Highlands (in GamoGoffa)
 Maji-Korma Highlands (in Keffa Zone)
 Kulo-Konta Highlands (Keffa zone)
 Benishangul mountain (in Benshangul Gumuz)
 Tullu Wallel (in West Wellega
 The highest points in the region are the:
Mt. Gughe has the highest altitude: 4200 m.a.s.l. It is found in the Gammo plateau.
These highlands are well-known for the production of coffee, inset and maize.
2. The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn
It includes
I. The Plateau of Hararghe
 The Plateau of Hararghe rises sharply from the fault line of the Rift Valley and extends
gently to the east up to Jijiga.
 The Plateau is drained by the left-bank tributaries of the Wabishebelle River.
 The basaltic rocks have been worn away, exposing limestones and earlier sedimentary
rocks.
 The Hararge Plateau area and its foothills are significant producers of coffee,chat,
sorghum and millet.
 The highest points of this plateau are Mount GaraMuleta (3381 masl) & Mount Jebel Tita
(3122 m).
II. The Plateau of Arsi
 It consists of the Gugu and Chillalo Massifs.
 It is an extendingly rolling plateau; it is a very suitable plateau for farming.
 The Arsi plateau is known for its wheat. The highest points on the Arsi plateau are
Mt. Chillallo (4136 masl), Mt. Bada (4139 masl) and Mt. Kaka (4180 masl).

III. The Bale Massif

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 The Bale Massif is next to the Arsi Plateau but is separated from it by the headstreams of
the Wabishebelle River (popularly known as the Wabe).
 It is dominated by Mt. Tulu Dimtu (4377 masl)Mt. Batu (4307 masl)
IV. The Plateau of Sidama
It is next to the Bale Massifs, but is separated from them by the Genalle River.
The plateau slopes away gently to the south and is drained by the Dawa River and its
tributaries.
The Jemjem is the dominant part of the plateau.
V. The Somali Highlands
The highlands are the extension of the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia.
The average altitude doesn’t exceed 1500 masl.
They rise gently in the west and descend sharply to the Indian Ocean coasts.
The Rift Valley System

 The Great East African Rift System is a set of fractures in the earth’s crust that extend
from the Dead Sea in the north, through the Red Sea, and then across East and Central
Africa to Mozambique in the south.
 It formed during the tertiary period.
 The Rift Valley runs diagonally from northeast to southwest and divides Ethiopia east-to-
west.
 It covers a total length of 1700 kms in Ethiopia& Eritrea.
Subdivisions of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System It is subdivided into three main parts:

 The Afar Triangle (northern)

 The Main Ethiopian Rift (central)
 The Chew-Bahir Rift (southern)
A. The Afar Triangle (Northern Subdivision)

 It is the largest and widest part of the system.

 Its altitude is generally low, ranging from 116 m.b.s.l at the Kobar Sink to about 900
[Link] Awash.
 This part of the Ethiopian Rift System is characterized by faulted depressions (the Dallol
Depression) and grabens (also called troughs) and Volcanic Mountains.
 A large part of the area is covered by extensive salt plains and lakes (Lake Assale and
Lake Afrera).
The Afar triangle is bounded by parallel fault lines on the east and west. Its flooris made
up of:
 grabens such as the Tendaho Graben

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 volcanic ash and lava deposits

 Lacustrian and fluvial deposits, and
 Volcanic mountains such as Mount Fentalle.

The Afar Triangle has special characteristics that do not exist in other regions of
Ethiopia.

It consists of: fossil rich sediments and Rich archeological sites which have shown us
that the area was the home of the ancient ancestors of primates and hominids.

B. The Main Ethiopian Rift (Lake Region or Central Part)

 It covers the area from the lower Awash basin up to Lake Chamo.
 It is the most elevated part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
 It is also the wettest, most densely vegetated, and most densely populated.
 Sedentary farming is practiced here.
 The area also includes numerous lakes of enormous aesthetic value.
C .The Chew-Bahir Rift (Southern Subdivision)
 It is also known as the Omo-Ghibe trough.
 It is the smallest section of the Ethiopian Rift System.
 It consists of an extensive shallow marshy area covered by tall grasses.
 In the vicinity of Arba Minch, this part of the Ethiopian Rift valley system is split into the
Ganjuli and the Galena Valleys by the Amaro mountain range.
The Lowlands of the Horn
The lowlands of the Horn are subdivided into
A. Western lowlands B. Southeastern lowlands
A. The Western Lowlands
These lowlands extend from western Eritrea in the north up to the Omo-GhibeRiver in the south,
bordering the Sudan. They have a general elevation of 500 –1000 masl.
These lowlands are sub-divided into
 The Setit and Barka Lowlands (in Eritrea)
 The Tekezze and Angereb Lowlands
 The Abbay Dinder Lowlands (in Benishangul Gumuz Region)
 The Baro-Akobo Lowlands (in Gambella)
 The Omo-Ghibe Lowlands (in SNNP)
The Western Lowlands are characterized by arid and semi–arid conditions. The Baro-Akobo
lowland is the wettest lowland. Because of climatic hardship in most parts of these lowlands,
the communities practice nomadic and semi-nomadic pasturalist ways of life. However, there

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are notable towns, such as Humera, Kurmuk, Omedla and Metema that serve as business
centers for the communities living along the Ethio-Sudanese border.
B. The Southeastern Lowlands
Like the Western Lowlands, the Northeastern and Southeastern Lowlands run from
northwest to southeast. They begin in Djibouti and run all the way to Somalia in the
southeast, bordering the Indian Ocean. They consist of
 The Red Sea coastal plains (in Eritrea)
 The Afar plains (in Afar) which are included in the Afar Triangle.
 The Ogaden plains (in Somali region)
 The Elkeri plains (in Bale)
 The Borena plains (in Oromiya)
 The Benadir plains (in Somalia)
 Djibouti: These lowlands are highly extensive lowlands. They are characterized by low
annual rainfall-often below 500 mm. it is covered by sandstones and recent marine
deposits. The people practice a pastoralist way of life because of the harsh climate.
3.4. Drainage Systems and Water Resources of Ethiopia

3.4.1. Major Rivers of Ethiopia and their Characteristics

 Ethiopia has enormous potential water resources. As well as being numerous, Ethiopian
rivers are energetic.
 They flow from the highlands of the interior to the peripheral lowlands and then to seas
and lakes bouncingly.
 These conditions have made Ethiopia known as the “water tower of Northeastern Africa”
Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
 Steep profiles.
 They have rapids and waterfalls along their courses.
 They show seasonal fluctuation in water volume.
 They run through steep-sided river valleys and gorges.
 they serve as boundaries, both international and domestic
Some of the Ethiopian rivers are given new names after they cross the country’s borders.
Examples:
 River Abbay becomes Blue Nile in the Sudan.
 River Tekezze becomes River Athbara in the Sudan.
 River Ghenalle becomes River Juba in Somalia.
 River Baro becomes River Sobat in the Sudan.

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3.4.2. Drainage Systems of Ethiopia

Based on their flow direction the drainage systems of Ethiopia are divided into three major
groups:
1. The Western (Mediterranean) Drainage System
This system is the largest of all, both in aerial extent and volume of water outflow.
 It contributes 60 % of the country’s total annual water discharge.
 It consists of three major rivers and their tributaries:
A. River Tekezze– drains the massifs of western Lasta, northern Gondar/ Semein and
southwestern, western and central Tigray.
B. River Abbay– This one has its origin in the Gojjam plateau. A large number of streams join
the river from the plateaus of western Shoa, southwestern Wello, northern Wollega, and northern
Illubabor.
C. River Baro-Akobo– drains the wettest highlands of the southwest and crosses the border to
join the Nile.

2. The Southeastern Drainage System

It is the second largest drainage system.
It consists of the Genalle and Wabishebelle.
These rivers collect waters from the highlands of Hararghe, Sidamo, Bale and Arsi.
This drainage system flows southeast, across the Somali arid and semi-arid areas.
It contributes about 32% of the country’s total annual water flow.
The Wabishebelle, the longest river in the country, does not reach the Indian Ocean. It
ends at the Benadir coast of Somalia.
The Ghenalle River reaches the Indian Ocean. It joins the Dawa River at the Ethio-
Somalia border, where it acquires the name Juba.

3. The Inland (Rift Valley) Drainage System

 The smallest of the three systems in terms of: Catchment area, discharge of water and
volume of water
 There are a number of lakes and smaller streams, like the Bilate and Gedabo, which flow
into Lake Abbaya; the Segan, which flows into Chew Bahir; and the Meki and the Katar,
which flow into Lake Ziway.
 The major rivers in this drainage system are the Awash and the Omo-Ghibe.
The Awash River basin is the most utilized in the Rift Valley.
The Omo-Ghibe Basin in southwestern Ethiopia is filled with water and sediments
carried by the rivers from the highlands.

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3.4.3. Lakes of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia is rich in lakes.
 They are found dispersed on the plateaus and clustered in the Rift Valley.
 Most of the lakes are the result of structures that occurred during the Quaternary Period;
i.e., they are not outcomes of climate. This fact is proved by the location of these lakes in
the drier parts of the country.
 The natural lakes found in Ethiopia can be classified into highland and Rift Valley lakes.
Highland Lakes
 Are found dispersed on the plateaus, either as crater or watershed lakes.
 These types of lakes resulted from different types of structural formations.
A crater lake is formed after an explosive volcano breaks a mountain open, leaving a
deep mouth. The mouth is filled with water – from either small streams or subterranean
sources.
A watershed lake is formed when a sheet of lava dams up a shallow surface depression.
For example, Lake Tana was formed during the Quaternary Period, when a sheet of
flowing lava dammed the shallow depression that had already been formed b/n the
Gojjam and Gondar massifs.
Example:
Crater lakes in Ethiopia:
 Bishoftu, Kuruftu, Babbo Gaya, and Arsedi, all around Bishoftu
 Wonchi and Dendi around Ambo, Ginchi and Wellisso
 Zequala near Bishoftu
 Hashenge near Korum in Tigray
 Haik, (some 30 kilometers away from Desse on the road to Woldiya

Rift Valley Lakes

 The Rift Valley lakes are clustered. They are found in a linear pattern along the floor of
the Rift Valley.
 Ziway is the shallowest(8.95m) and Shala is the deepest lakes(266m) in the central
Ethiopian Rift

Significance of Ethiopian Lakes and Rivers

Economic Functions of Ethiopia’s Lakes and Rivers

 Lakes and rivers are Ethiopia’s main water resources.
 They are the main source of hydroelectric power (H.E.P.) supplies for the country
Example:
River Ghibe – Gilgel Gibbe – 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. plants

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River Awash – Awash 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. project

River Fincha – Fincha H.E.P. project,
 They are also the country’s main source of fish.
Example: Lake Chamo. Lake Abbay, Lake Tana, River Baro, etc
 They are again very important water sources for irrigation.
E.g. Awash is the most utilized in this regard; because of theflat plains it crosses for hundreds of
kms.
 What is more, one river provides transportation services.
Example: The River Baro is the only river in Ethiopia used for transportation.
 Ethiopia’s lakes and rivers provide recreation resorts and aesthetic value

Water-Resource Conservation and Management

Ethiopia is the second richest African country in terms of water-resource potential, following the
DRC. However,
 Drought is recurring every 3 to 5 years.
 Some highland lakes are disappearing or are on the verge of disappearance.
Example: Lake Haromaya in Hararghe zone and Lake Cheleklektu in Bishoftu.
 The volume and purity of Ethiopia’s rivers is decreasing. Pollutants are increasingly
contaminating the country’s water resources.
 Due to the rapid growth of human population, there is a crucial growing demand for
potable water.
 These and other factors have led to the need for the conservation and management of
water resources in Ethiopia. So The FDR E has adopted a national conservation strategy
for natural resources under the Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority. The
Authority has developed policy goals, objectives and guiding principles.

3.5. Climate of Ethiopia and the Horn

Weather is the current state of the atmosphere like temperature, humidity, wind speed and
direction, cloudiness and precipitation.
Climate refers the state of the atmosphere over long time periods

3.5.1. Factors Influencing the Spatial &Temporal Distribution of Climatic Elements in

Ethiopia & the Horn
The following factors influence the control of the spatial and temporal distribution of the climatic
elements in Ethiopia and the Horn:
Latitude

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Ethiopia’s and the Horn’s location within the tropical zone results in
 high temperatures during most of the year
 high daily (diurnal) ranges of temperature
 relatively small annual ranges of temperature
 Little difference b/n summer and winter in the ratios of daylight to night.
Altitude is the height of location above sea level

 Under normal conditions temperature decrease with increasing elevation.

 The average rate at which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal change is known as
lapse rate
 The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the atmosphere named as troposphere.
 The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per km. (1000 m) rise in altitude.
 Altitude is the main factor that determines the spatial distribution of temperature in
Ethiopia.

Revolution of the Earth and Inclination of the Earth’s Axis

It creates different seasons and these different seasons result in the temporal variation of
temperature in a year in Ethiopia and in the Horn as a whole.
Distance from water bodies

 The sea affects the Horn’s climate only in coastal areas that are adjacent to the Red Sea
and the northwestern Indian Ocean.
 In all other areas, the role of distance from the sea in climate control is insignificant.
Mountain Barriers
 It can affect climate in that they exert influence on the spatial distribution of rainfall.
 Places located on the leeward side of mountains (also called rain shadow) receive little
rain. This effect occurs in the northwestern and northeastern lowlands of Ethiopia and the
Horn.
Weather Systems
The major weather systems that impact over Ethiopia and the Horn are:
 The Northeast Trade winds (prevalent in December, January and February)
 The Equatorial Westerlies (prevalent in June, July and August)
 The Equatorial easterlies (prevalent in September and October, March and April).
It is because of these weather systems that the rainfall period varies in Ethiopia and the Horn.

3.5.2 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Temperature in Ethiopia

A. Spatial Variation of Temperature in Ethiopia

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The two factors that most affect the spatial variation of temperature in Ethiopia are:
1. Cloud cover and
2. Altitude
1. Cloud Cover: the presence or absence of cloud cover produces spatial temperature variations
in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn.
2. Altitude: has such a large effect on temperature, it is a major determining factor of Ethiopia’s
agro-climatic zones. These zones have traditionally been defined in terms of temperature (five
groups).
I. Wurch-Zone Areas
These areas have the highest altitudes and lowest temperatures. Frequently they have
temperatures of less than 10oC. These areas exist only in the very high mountains of South
Gondar, Wollo, Shoa, Arsi and Bale.
Example: Mt. Ras Dashen in Semien Gondar, Mt. Batu in Bale, etc.
II. Dega-Zone Areas
The Dega-zone areas are highland areas with lower altitudes and higher temperatures than
Wurch-zone areas. Historically, Dega-zone areas were the home of concentrated human
settlement.
They were chosen because of the features below:
1. Secure location (from which people could defend themselves from threats)
2. Reliable rainfall
3. Absence of diseases such as malaria, etc.
Due to high concentration of human population, the Dega zone has been intensively cultivated
and has a high rate of soil erosion, overgrazing and deforestation.
Some of the humid areas of this zone support two growing periods per year under rain-fed
agriculture.
Example: Dinsho in Bale,Chillallo in Arsi ,Hulla in Sidama,Debresina in North Shewa
III. Woina-Dega-Zone Areas

 The Woina-Dega-zone areas contain most of Ethiopia’s agricultural land.

 They are the country’s main areas producing: Surplus grain , Inset and its derivatives
 In the Woina-Dega zone, as in the Dega zone, there can be two growing seasons when
rainfall reliability is high.
IV. Qolla Zone and Bereha-Zone Areas

 The Qolla and Bereha agro - climatic zones are largely confined to lowland areas with
altitudes of 1500 meters and below.
 They are sparsely populated and their populations are primarily engaged in pastoralist
activities.

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 They occupy the peripheral areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea, Most of Somalia, Djibouti.

B. Temporal variation of temperature in Ethiopia

 In Ethiopia and the Horn, temperatures vary from season to season. For example, in most
of Ethiopia, high temperatures are recorded from March to June. Conversely, low
temperatures are recorded from November to February
 These variations are primarily due to.
 The tilting of the earth at 23½º to the normal elliptic
 the distance of the overhead sun and its apparent north-south movement across the
equator as the earth revolves around the sun
3.5.3 Spatial and Temporal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia and the Horn
Rainfall is one of the main climatic elements;
A. Spatial Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia and the Horn
 The spatial variation of rainfall is the result of the strength and nature of prevailing
weather systems.
 Ethiopia’s and the Horn’s weather systems result from
the apparent movement of the overhead sun
prevailing winds
the associated Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
It is a low pressure zone formed by the convergence of Northeast Trade winds and the Equatorial
Westerlies. It shifts north and south of the equator following the position of the overhead sun.
B .Temporal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s rainfall is characterized by seasonal variation.
 The “Kiremt (summer) and Belg (spring)” contribute more than 90% of the country’s rain
supply.
 The autumn rains, called the Metsew, and the winter rains. Compared to the two main
seasons, the duration, volume, and aerial coverage of Metsew rains are less.
 The winter rainy season is insignificant for the highlands. It supplies rain only to the Afar
lowlands, the Red Sea coastal areas and the eastern escarpment of the Eritrean highlands.

3.5.4 Rainfall Regions in Ethiopia and the Horn

Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and time, five types of rainfall regions can be
identified in Ethiopia and the Horn. These are:
i. year-round rainfall region (wet in most months)
ii. . Summer rainfall region

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iii. . autumn-and-spring rainfall region

iv. .winter rainfall region
v. . merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region
I. Year-Round Rainfall Region
 Includes the southwestern plateau comprising the highlands of Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor
and Gamo Goffa.
 It can be represented by the following stations: Gore, Mizan, Metu, Bonga, Gambella,
etc.
 Have more rainy days than any other part of the country.
 The average rainfall varies from 1400 mm to 2200 mm.
II. Summer Rainfall Region
 It is the largest in the country.
 it consists of the Northwest Highlands and Western Lowlands,
 It can be represented by the following stations. Debremarkos, Fitche, Gondar,
Bahrdar, etc.
 Its moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial Westerlies and Easterlies.
III. Autumn-and-Spring Rainfall Region

 It covers the southeastern highlands and associated lowlands up to the Somalia coasts.
 They can be represented by the following stations: Gode, Moyalle, Jigjiga, Yabello,
Baydhabo.
 The region’s moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial Easterlies.
 They pick up moisture from the Indian Ocean& they blow over the autumn and spring
rainfall region
 The region’s average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1000 mm.
IV. Winter Rainfall Region
 It consists of the eastern escarpment of the western highlands, the middle Rift Valley
section, the Afar subdivision and Eritrea.
 It can be represented by the following stations, Mitswa, Assaita and Djibouti.
 The region’s moisture-bearing winds are, for the most part, the North Easterlies.
V. Merged Spring, summer and Autumn Rainfall Region
 The merged spring, summer and autumn rainfall region is the smallest in the country.
 It consists mainly of the western foothills of the Southeastern Highlands.
 The region’s total annual rainfall varies from 1500 mm to 1000 mm.
 It covers a corridor that stretches from the Sidama Highlands to the Hararge Plateau.

3.6. Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of Ethiopia

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3.6.1 Types of Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia

 It is any original plant grown in and covering an area.
 The distribution of natural vegetation is influenced by many factors. The most important
ones are: altitude, climate, soil type, and drainage
.Based on altitude, we can classify the natural vegetation of Ethiopia into the following five
types:

A. Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-Alpine Vegetation

 Found at very high altitudes (above 3300 meters).

 Afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine vegetation is very similar to European alpine vegetation.
 Sub-afro-alpine vegetation is found between 3000 – 3300 m, while Afroalpine
vegetation is found at higher altitudes than these.
 In Ethiopia, Afro-alpine and sub-Afro-alpine vegetations are found in the: Highlands of
Semein and Highlands of Bale
 Afro-Alpine vegetation consists of tussock grasslands, serules, scattered mosses and
lichens.
 Sub Afro-Alpines are Gibra (Lobelia rhynchopetalum) and Asta (Erica arborea) are
dominant plant species in this region of natural vegetation.

B. Forests
 It is characterized by broad altitudinal ranges (450 – 3300 m)
 Mean annual rainfall (200 – 2200 mm).
 This wide variation in altitude and rainfall results in the formation of highland and
lowland forests.
These two types of forests have very different characteristics since they are the results of
altitudinal zonation.
I. Highland Forests (1500 - 3300 masl) Ethiopia’s highland forests consist of
 Kerkha (Arundinarial) 2800 – 3000 masl
 Tid (Juniperous Procera) or Coniferous trees 2200 – 2800 masl
 Zigba (Podocarpus) 1800 – 2200 masl
 Woira (Oliia Africana) and Kosso (Hagenia Abbyssinia (1500 – 1800)
II. Lowland Forests (below 1500 m altitude)
Known as gallery/riverine forests.
They grow along the banks of the Awash, Wabishabelle, and Ghanalle Rivers where
moisture is available in the soil.
The predominant trees are Sholla and Warka.

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C. Woodland Savanna

 Are found in both highland and lowland areas.

 Altitudinal range is 250 – 2300 m, and their mean annual rainfall range is b/n 200 – 1400
mm. (Example: acacia, grass etc.)
D. Semi-desert and Desert Vegetation
 Consists of short acacia, thorn bushes, succulent plants and a few rough grasses.
 Found in the Eastern, Northwestern and Southeastern Lowlands,
 Annual rainfall is below 500 mm and drought persists for a long period of time.

3.6.2 Wild Animals of Ethiopia

 Ethiopia has about 277 species of mammals and 862 species of birds. Of these, 7 species
of mammals & 25 species of birds are endemic to Ethiopia.

Types of Wild Animals in Ethiopia

 It can be grouped into the following broad categories

A. Common wild animals: commonly found in many places of the world. eg hyena, jackal.
B. Game animals: These are animals that are killed for sport. They are found in the lowlands.

C. Arboreal (tree climber) animals, such as the Colobus monkey and baboons, are mostly found
in the rainforest regions of Ethiopia
D. Aquatic animals: Those live in lakes and rivers. Example: Fish, crocodiles and
hippopotamus.
E. Birds: Ethiopia has different kinds of both endemic and migratory birds; for example, Pelicans
and flamingoes.
F. Rare/Endemic animals:
 Found only in Ethiopia. These days Ethiopia’s endemic animals exist in only very small
numbers.
 They inhabit highland and other areas.
 They are at great risk of extinction.
For instance,

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 Walia Ibex (wild goat), found in the Semein highlands.

 Mountain Nyala (Dega Agazon), found in the Bale mountains. Gelada’ or ‘Chelad’
baboon, found in the Semein highlands.
 Menilik’s Bushbuk (‘Dikula’) in the Shoan and Bale highlands.
 Swayne’s Hartebeest (‘Korkay’), found in the Nechsar park and the Sankalle sanctuary.
 Semein Fox (‘Key Kebero’), found in the Bale and Semein Highlands.
 Wild Ass (Yedur Ahiya), found in the Afar and Southeast Lowlands

Causes Of the Extinction of Wild-animals

The main reasons for such conditions are
Rapid expansion of farmland, settlements, and industrialization
Expansion of grazing land
Wide spread practices of illegal hunting by the local people in search of meat, skin,
fur, horn and ivory.
Frequent wild fires
Migration of the wild animals to neighboring countries
Conservation Measures
 establish national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries
 Monitor and administer existing conservation areas properly.
 Establish and implement strong laws that effectively prohibit illegal hunting.
 Educate and encourage local communities to protect their animals’ habitats and
resources
 Educate the public about environment protection.
 Protect habitats.
Establishing Protected Areas

A. Game Reserves are wild-animal conservation areas where tourists are allowed to practice
licensed hunting. Example Borena, Arsi , Bale , lower wabishebelle,
B. Sanctuaries are wild-animal conservation areas where, hunting is strictly prohibited
Example: Afar Gewane Sankele ,Yabello and Babille
C. National Parks: are conservation areas for wild animals in which legal hunting is allowed,
with some restrictions.

3.6.3 Human Intervention in Forest Lands

One intervention is in deforestation.
Causes of Deforestation
 unwise tree cutting for supplies and materials
 overgrazing

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 slash-and-burn practices
 Fuel wood, furniture and Construction etc.
Mitigation Measures:
A. Conservation of Natural Vegetation:
 Reforestation – planting trees after every tree harvest.
 Afforestation – planting trees on bare and unproductive lands.
 Controlling burning practices (i.e., the slash-and-burn activities).
 Practicing agro-forestry and Controlling overgrazing
 Reducing the use of fuel wood by adopting alternative sources of energy for
household consumption.
B. Capacity Building and Institutional Development
 Providing environmental education to enhance public awareness
 Developing forest-related curricula for schools, colleges, universities,
 Supporting and protecting community forests by applying strict legal measures.
 Moderating the existing rapid rate of population growth
 Facilitate community participation in combating deforestation.
 Changing the life style of the people in terms of ongoing deforestation activities

3.7. Soils of Ethiopia

3.7.1 Formation of Soils in Ethiopia

 Its major components are water, air, organic and inorganic minerals.
 It is a dynamic, natural and complex substance which can support animals and
plants.
Soils of Ethiopia owe their origin to
 Parent rock material, which has been broken into small particles by way of weathering
and natural decomposition, climatic conditions, vegetation cover, which adds humus to
the soils.
 On the plateaus that make up extensive areas in north, north western, south western, and
central and south eastern Ethiopia the parent rocks are volcanic origin and experience
sufficient rainfall. The soils formed in these areas are red basaltic and black basaltic soils.
 In areas where the hard crystalline rocks are the parent rock, the soils are poor and
thin. They are also rocky and acidic. They range in color from grey to brown. They are
found in Hararghe plateaus and Borena lowlands.
 In the Afar region where recent volcanic deposits and dried-out lake deposits had
occurred, very shallow and saline-dominated soils are formed. Due to time and climatic
effects, these soils are not deep and fertile.

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 In the southeastern lowlands where the parent rocks are sedimentary rocks, the soils
lack humus but are rich in phosphorous and potash. They are also low in nitrogen
content.
 In the lower course of the major rivers, transported soils often known as alluvial soils are
dominant. These soils because of their volcanic origin and continuous nourishment of
water are fertile.

3.7.2 Types of Soil in Ethiopia

 The soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
 According to the FAO, there are 18 classes of soil in Ethiopia.
Here are the main soil types. They cover more than 85% of the country.
Nithosols (red basaltic soils): These soil types:
 Cover about 12 percent of the country.
 Are basically associated with high rainfall and are found in areas that were previously
covered with forest.
 are predominant in the Western Highlands of Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor, the Southern
Highlands of Sidama, the Central and Western Highlands of Shoa, the Highlands of
Gojjam and the Eastern Highlands of Hararghe
 Are matured soils with deep profiles. They are highly leached and lack soluble minerals
like Sodium, Calcium, etc., but they are rich in iron and aluminum.
 Are potentially good for farming and other agricultural practices since they are friable,
and have a stable structure; as a result,
 Are the most widely cultivated soil type. They are the best soils for coffee, inset and
cereals
Vertisols (black Basaltic soils): soil types of these sorts:
 Cover about 10 percent of the total land of Ethiopia.
 Have high clay content; so, are sticky. For this reason and for poor drainage qualities,
such soils are difficult to be used for farming purposes.
 Have excellent nutrients that could provide support for agriculture, but their poor
drainage qualities limit their use for grazing purposes.
 Are largely found in Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe, where there are pronounced wet
and dry seasons.
Acrisols: These soil types:
 Are found associated with Nithosols.
 Cover about 4.5 percent of the country.
 Are widely found in the Southwestern Highlands of Ethiopia,where there is high rainfall.

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 Are extremely leached; and therefore, have low productivity capacity.

Cambisoils: Such soils:
 Are soils that developed from the recent lava deposits of the Quaternary Period
 Young and shallow.
 Found on the rugged and sloping terrain of the Plateau of Shoa (eastern escarpment)
and Chercher Highlands.
Regosols: These types:
 Like the cambisols, are shallow and young; but they are coarse-textured.
 Have low agricultural value.
 Are found in the Danakil and Ogaden plains.
Xerosols: These soils:
 These soils are generally young and shallow, and are found in arid and semi-arid
regions. They have a weakly developed profile.
 Are found extensively in the Northeastern escarpment, Northwestern and
Southeastern Lowlands.
 Are characterized by high salt content and humus deficiencies.
 Have little significance for agriculture except places where they could be irrigated.
Yermosols: Soils of this sort:
 Found in desert and semi-desert areas, as are xerosols.
 Salty, acidic and have a weakly-developed profile.
 Not suitable for cultivation, even when irrigated, due to their salty and acidic nature.
Luvisols: These soils:
 Well-developed in areas where there are clearly marked wet and dry seasons and when
leaching is not very high.
 The best soils, since they have good chemical nutrients.
 Intensively cultivated, except in areas that are steeply sloped or water-logged.
 Found around Lake Tana, and in the eastern part of the Northern Central Highlands and
in the Southern Lowlands.
Lithosols: Such soils:
 Similar to cambisols and regosols in their poor maturity and their location on steep
slopes.
 Found in areas of low precipitation.
 Cover the escarpments of the Northeastern and Chercher Highlands.
Fluvisols: This type of soils:
 Are soils that rivers have transported from highlands to lowlands
 Cover about 10 percent of the country’s total area.
 Are associated with river, sea and lake deposits.

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 Have very good agricultural potential.

 Are found extensively in the lower regions of the Omo, Awash, Abbay and Baro-Akobo
Rivers.

3.7.3 Soil Problems and Conservation in Ethiopia

Factors that Accelerate Soil Erosion in Ethiopia: Both natural and human-made factors play a
role in accelerating erosion.
Natural Factors
They are two main natural factors
1. Topography: Many Ethiopian rivers set in motion from high places and have steep profiles as
they progress to lower altitudes.
2. The heavy summer rains: Although most of Ethiopia’s rivers have very low flows during the
dry season, the heavy summer rains turn them into rushing torrents.
Human-Made Factors
A. Deforestation: is progressing at a rapid rate and has become one of the main causes for
Ethiopia’s hastened erosion rate.
B. Bad cultivation practices: also speed up erosion by making the soil vulnerable to the natural
forces
C. Over cropping –It is the act of planting an area too densely.
D. Over cultivation –tilling land every year. Too frequent tilling can remove nutrients from the
soil
E. Slash and burn – With such a practice, people slash (cut down and dig up) all or most of an
area’s vegetation and then burn
F. Over grazing: most areas used for pastoral activities are overgrazed
Conservation Measures to Combat Soil Erosion
 Reforestation – replanting trees immediately after tree harvesting;
 Afforestation of areas that are not used for cultivation, are along steep slopes that are
exposed to erosion.
 Proper terracing of slopes and are set a side for cultivation.
 Intercropping –the practice of growing two or more crops on the same field
 Controlling livestock populations.
 Developing improved grass types that can feed more livestock.
 Installing fences to control the movement of grazing animals,
 Proper construction of tracks and routes so that drainage could not wash them easily.
 Constructing check dams.
 Installing shelter-belts and windbreaks in arid and semi-arid areas.

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 Extending irrigation schemes along the major river basins and their tributaries

Exercise Three

I. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives

1. Ethiopia & the Horn countries have tropical characters and lie in the GMT +3 time zone. This
particular features could be attributed to its
A. Relative location B. Geological location C. Astronomical location D. Latitudinal
variation
2. Which geological era was significant regarding the formation of the present landform
configuration of Ethiopia and the Horn?
A. Mesozoic era B. Cenozoic era C. Paleozoic era D.
Precambrian era
3. Which one of the following geological era is correctly associated with the rock types?
A. Paleozoic era upper sandstone
B. Precambrian era Sedimentary rock
C. Cenozoic era igneous rock
D. Mesozoic era crystalline basement complex
4. Which one of the following plateau is served as a watershed between the Awash and Abay
river basins?
A. North central massifs B. The shewan plateau C. S/ western plateau D. S/
eastern plateau
5. Which one of the following statement is the advantage of Ethiopia’s large size?
A. Own extensive arable land C. Require large army to protect its territory
B. Greater depth in defense external invasion D. has small population size E. None of
the above
6. From an economic point of view the south western highlands are becoming significant for
A. The production of coffee, inset C. The great potential in the extraction of salts
B. The production of cereals such as teff, oilseeds D. Huge potential of geothermal energy
7. Which One of the following statement is not true about the Afar Triangle?
A. The widest and largest part of the rift valley
B. The depression hosts the most hostile environment
C. The Afar triangle is generally wet and cool
D. It has electric potential from geothermal energy E. All but not C
8. If you travel from southwestern plateaus of Ethiopia to north eastern Afar lowlands of
Ethiopia in summer season you can recognize a high variation in rainfall. This spatial variation is
mainly caused by

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A. Cloud covers B. Weather systems C. Latitudinal variation D. Mountain

barriers
9. Which part of Ethiopian physiographic division is the most unstable?
A. The north central massifs B. The shewa plateau C. The western high lands D. the
rift valley
10. The western drainage system consists of
A. Awash and Gehnalle C. Wabishebelle & Gehlale
B. Tekezze , Abay and Baro-Akobo Rivers D. Awash and Baro- Akobo rivers
11. Which one of the following rivers does not end in lakes?
A. Omo-Ghibe River B. Bilate and Gedabo Rivers C. Awash River [Link]
River
12. Which highlands are the main water sources of the rivers flowing in the Mediterranean
drainage system?
A. North central massifs, S/western plateaus C. The north eastern lowlands
B. Hararghe, sidama Arsi and Bale plateaus D. The south eastern highlands
13. Addis Ababa, Bako and Awash cities in Ethiopia are located at 90 N latitude and they have
2200 m.a.s.l. 1800 m.a.s.l., and 900 [Link].l. Respectively, but they have different average annual
temperature. In this case which one of the following is the most influential factor on the spatial
variation of temperature?
A. Latitude B. Altitude C. Mountain barriers D. weather systems
14. Dega zone areas were the home of concentrated human settlement in Ethiopian history. Why
earliest Ethiopians were chosen the Dega zone?
A. Due to security (secure location) C. Due to the absence of disease
B. Due to unreliable rainfall D. All but not B
15. All geological events were formed during in the Cenozoic era of quaternary period in
Ethiopia and the horn except ------------------
A. The formation of north western highlands C. The occurrence of pluvial rainfall
B. The emergence of modern human being D. The active volcano of Ertalle in
Afar
16. Which one of the following is not the basic characteristic one geological era is distinguished
from the others,
A. The pre dominant life form C. the relative positions of the continents
B. The size and shape of the continent D. the character of the prevailing climate
17. The Bale massif is separated from the plateaus of Arsi is by the headstream of__________
A. Awash River B. Genalle River C. Wabishebelle River D. Dawa River
18. Which one of the following is not correct about the lowlands of Ethiopia and the Horn?

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A. It is characterized by arid and semiarid climate C. They have generally below 1000
m.a.s.l.
B. They are inhabited mainly by pastoralists D. They have relatively favorable
climate
19. Which one of the following statement is true about Ethiopian highlands?
A. The climate is unfavorable for biotic life C. it is not free from tropical disease
B. High mean annual temperature D. Attractive for human habitation and densely populated
20. Which one of the following is the deepest and shallowest lake in Ethiopia respectively?
A. Lake Chamo and Lake Shalla C. Lake Shalla and Lake Tana
B. LakeZiway and Shalla D. Lake Shalla and Lake Ziway
21. According to the Sizes of the Horn’s Countries, Djibouti is the smallest while _______is the
biggest.
A. Sudan B. Ethiopia C. Somalia D. Eritrea
22. Which one of the following countries of the Horn of Africa doesn’t have an out let to the sea?
A. Djibouti B. Ethiopia C. Eritrea D. Somalia
23. What kind of geological event occurred during the Triassic period of the Mesozoic era in the
Horn of Africa?
A. Formation of folded mountain ranges C. The sea started to regress towards southeast
B. Adigrat sandstone was formed D. Hintalo lime stone was formed
24. Which neighboring countries share the longest of boundary line and the shortest boundary
line length with Ethiopia respectively?
A. Sudan and Eritrea B. Kenya and Eritrea C. Sudan and Djibouti D. Djibouti and
Sudan
25. Which one of the following is the main biological events occurred at the later stage of the
Mesozoic era?
A. Emerged amoeba and jellyfish C. The disappearance of dinosaurs & the emergence of
mammals
B. modern man was evolved D. Predominance of invertebrates

26. The most recent deposited rock type in Ethiopia is

A. The igneous rock B. The sedimentary rock C. The metamorphic rock D.
Crystalline basement rock
27. The plateau of shewa is drained out wards in all directions by the tributaries of Abbay and
Awash rivers, then forming ___________ drainage pattern?
A. Dendritic B. Radial C. Rectangular D. Centripetal
28. Which one of the following is correctly describes the geographic center of Ethiopia?

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A. 30 N—150 N latitude and 330 E—480 E longitude C. 90 N and 400 30’ E longitude
B. 120 N latitude and 150 N longitudes D. 180 -- 10 S latitude and 33 0 E-- 510 24’ E
longitudes
29. _______ is a type of tectonic activity which is associated with uplifting and sinking of rocks
or earth?
A. Orogenic movement B. Horst / Block mountain C. Fluvial deposits D. Epeirogenic
movement
30. The Afar Triangle has a special characteristic that does not exist in other regions of Ethiopia?
A. It consists of fossil rich sediments C. It consists of rich archeological sites
B. It consists of Favorable climates D. All except B
31. Which one of the following is false about inland drainage system in Ethiopia?
A. It is the smallest of the others C. It does not have an out let
B. It collects water from the south eastern highlands D. It consists of two major rivers
32. Which river is useful for source of generating hydroelectric power and for irrigation?
A. Abbay River B. Awash Riverr C. Tekezze River D. Boro River
33. Which one of the following statement is not true about Ethiopian rivers?
A. Most of the major rivers originates from the highlands
B. The majority of Ethiopian rivers are navigable
C. They show seasonal fluctuation in water volume
D. They have waterfalls and rapids along their course
34. Which one of the following land form serves as a natural bridge connecting the highlands f
Gondar and Gojjam with the highlands of Wollo?
A. The north central massifs C. The Yeju-Wadila-Delanta mountain ridges
B. The shewan plateaus D. The Guna mountain ranges
35. What is the advantage of the compact shape of Ethiopia?
A. Possessing similar types of resources C. Good economic integrations
B. High communication gaps D. Easily direct access to the sea
36. The enormous water resource potential of Ethiopia is underutilized. What are the critical
challenges belongs to the unwise use of water resource?
A. Good governance and effective administration C. Lack of positive attitude, technology
and finance
B. Huge financial resource D. This resource is found only in specific area
37. What kind of measure do you recommended for water resource management and
conservation in the current situation of Ethiopia?
A. Rainwater harvesting in the wettest part of the country
B. Planting trees on the upper part of the country
C. Building dams to generate hydroelectric power

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D. Planting exotic (non indigenous) plants around the lakes and rivers
38. Which one of the following era is created a gap in the formation of rock?
[Link] B. Paleozoic C. Precambrian D. Mesozoic

39. Vicinally, Ethiopia is located to the

A. North West of Indian Ocean C. West of Djibouti
B. South of Europe D .South west of Red Sea
40. Old crystalline basement complex rocks are found in all of the following areas of Ethiopia,
except
A. Western Wellega B. Illubabor C. Central Tigray D. Afar low lands
41. Which one of the following events did not occur during the Precambrian era?
A. Coal formation B. Volcanism C. Metamorphism D. Orogenic movement
42. All of the following are the major reasons for the unsuitability of Ethiopian rivers for
navigation except__________
A. They cross flat plains in most of their courses with constant water volume.
B. They have rapids and waterfalls.
C. They show seasonal fluctuation in their volume of water.
D. They flow over very rugged and steep courses.
43. Which one of the following climatic control factor in Ethiopia has less influence in
determining the distribution of temperature and rainfall?
A. Latitude B. Distance from the sea C. Altitude D. Elevation
44. From the Astronomical location of the horn of Africa, we can understand that
A. Most of the region is found in the Southern hemisphere
B. Few parts of Somalia is found in the in the Northern hemisphere
C. Some parts of the horn is located to the West of Prime Meridian
D. The horn of Africa is found in the Tropical Zone
45. The narrowest part of the Ethiopian rift valley system is
A. Lakes region B. Afar triangle [Link] bahir rift D. Omo - Ghibe trough
46. Identify the wrong pair?
A. Chelada Babbon ---- Bale mountain C. Key Kebero------ Semein HLs
B. Wild Ass--------- Afar LLs D. Korkay----- Sankele Sanctury
47. Which one of the following isn’t a highland forest in Ethiopia?
A. Warka B. Zigba C .Woira D. Kerkha
48. Which one of the following city is found in the south eastern highlands of Ethiopia?
A. Goba B. Nekemt C. Arba minch D. Addis Ababa
49. Which one of the following is false about Ethiopian broad leaf forests?
A. they are found in the south western highlands of Ethiopia
B. They consist hard wood ever green forests
C. They include Kerero, Tikur inchet & Bisana trees
D. They are confined to isolated areas of Shoa, Arsi & Bale highlands
50. All of the following are true about Afar Triangle, except

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A. It is rich Archeological sites

B. A large part of the area is covered by extensive salt plains
C. Its floor is consists of volcanic ash and lava deposits
D. It is the narrowest part of the Ethiopian Rift valley system
51. Which one of the following station is found in the autumn and Spring Rainfall region?
A. Jijiga B. Wello C. Awash D. Bonga
52. The global equivalence name for Dega zone of Ethiopia is
A. Temperate B. Tropical C. Alpine D. Sub tropical
53. Which one of the following is different from the others?
A. Ziway B. Haik C. Abbaya D. Hawassa
54. The main factor that determines the temporal variation of temperature in Ethiopia and the
horn is
A. Altitude B. Latitude C. Earth’s revolution & inclination of its axis D.
mountain barrier
55. Which one of the following statement is correct?
A. Most Ethiopian drainage systems are dendritic
B. Abbay is the longest river in Ethiopia
C. All of the existing landforms of Ethiopia are the result of tectonic activity
D. latitudinal factor cause the energetic flow of Ethiopian rivers
56. Which of the following explain the relative location of Ethiopia?
A. It is located southwest of Sudan C. It is found north of Eritrea
B. It is located east of Somalia D. It is situated west of Djibouti
57. The formation of inselbergs in some parts of Ethiopia and the horn can be explained by the
geological activities that took place
A. Precambrian era B. Cenozoic era C. Mesozoic era D. Paleozoic era
58. According to the geological history of Africa, the Paleozoic era was known for but one of the
following geologic process
A. extensive formation of coal C. Widespread of denudation and peneplanation
B. absence of major rock formation D. Extensive mountain building process
59. Where are the wettest areas of Ethiopia mainly located?
A. Northeastern highlands C. southeastern highlands
B. Northwester highlands D. southwestern highlands
60. Among the following mountains, which one belongs to the southeastern highlands of
Ethiopia?
A. Gughe B. Batu C. Assimba D. Guna
61. Which of the following southeastern lowlands borders the Indian Ocean?
A. The Borena Plains B. The Benadir Plains C. The Afar plains D. The Elkeri
plains

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62. Which one of the following river course of Ethiopia marks a part of international boundary
that Ethiopia share with south Sudan?
A. Angereb B. Gojeb C. Akobo D. Beles
63. Which one of the following rivers of Ethiopia is most suitable for inland water transport?
A. Ghibe river B. Abay river C. Baro river D. Tekezze River
64. One of the following crater lakes is located outside the Ethiopian rift valley?
A. Kuriftu B. Babbo Gaya C. Ashenge D. Zequala
65. What name does the Baro River acquire after it has crossed the Ethio-Sudan boundary?
A. Athbara B. Sobat C. Juba D. White Nile
66. The sun is overhead in the northern hemisphere of Africa between _______
A. September 22nd and March 23rd B. March 21st and September 23rd
C. December 23rd and September 23rd D. December 23rd and March 21st
67. The traditional agro climate zone of Ethiopia that is the most important producer of surplus
grain is
A. Dega B. Woina Dega C. Qolla D. Bereha
68. Which metrological stations represent the winter rainfall region of Ethiopia?
A. Assaita and Djibouti B. Moyalle and Yabello C. Metu and Gambella D. Gonder and
Fiche
69. Which season supplies rain to the Afar lowlands, while the rest of the country remains dry?
A. Winter season B. Autumn season C. Spring season D. Summer reason
70. What is the main source of the highest amount of moisture to the western lowlands of
Ethiopia?
A. Monsoon winds B. Equatorial Westerlies C. North easterlies D. Southeast trade
wind winds
71. What is the smallest rainfall region in Ethiopia?
A. Autumn and spring rainfall region C. Winter rainfall region
B. Merged spring, summer and autumn rainfall region D. Summer rainfall region
72. Where is the hottest area of Ethiopia located?
A. Around the lake Chamo C. near mount Bantu
B. In the main Ethiopia rift valley D. In the Afar Triangle

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UNIT FOUR
Population of Ethiopia and the Horn
4.1. Population theories
Introduction
 Population growth is the major concern of mankind's since ancient time.
 Based on political, social, economic and military considerations statesman and thinkers
held opinion to retard population growth.
 Due to the above condition statesman's and thinkers formulate policies.
 The policies are the base of modern population theories.
N.B: The main purpose of population theory is to seek appropriate answers to the
following population-related questions.
 How large can world population ultimately become, and more particularly how many
human beings can the planet feed and the environment sustain?
 How does population growth determine the socio-economic issues of countries?
 How do biological, economic, social, and political factors determine population growth?
Population theories can be grouped in to two broad categories
A. Malthusian/neo- Malthusian and
B. Anti-Malthusian

4.1.1 Malthusian Population Theory

 He supports pessimistic (negativist) view

 According to his theory population growth faster than food supply.
 He believed that food supply grow in arithmetical progression (1,2,3,4,5…)but human
population grow in geometrical progression( 2,4,8,16,32…)

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 Therefore population would outstrip food supply until catastrophe occurred. The
catastrophe includes famine, disease, war…
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) was an influential English economist who founded the
science of modern demography
 Malthus put forward the following three basic propositions.
 Passion between sexes is inevitable and universal;
 Food production is limited, and population cannot increase beyond the means of
subsistence; and
 If population growth outstrips the means of subsistence, “positive checks” will apply
 Today, supporters of Malthus’s pessimistic view, who fear that population growth will
outstrip food supply and other resources, leading to the catastrophic consequences (the
positive checks) predicted by Malthus, are called Malthusians or neo-Malthusians.
Catastrophe referred as positive checks

 Positive checks control fast population growth and maintain a balance b/n population and
resource

 To prevent catastrophes human being should adopt preventive checks.

 preventive checks means “ moral restraints”
 moral restraints includes late marriage, avoid sexual contact before marriage ,have fewer
children
 Malthus against family planning (all artificial) methods

4.1.2 Anti-Malthusian Population Theories

A. Marxian Population Theory

 Karl Marx (1818-1883) was an influential German economist, revolutionary, political
thinker, sociologist, socialist, and all round major figure historian, of the 19th century.
 He was one of the leading opponents of Malthus. Marx’s “surplus population theory” was
a reaction to Malthus's theory.
Surplus population theory
According to Karl Marx's
 No population problem under socialist mode of production & ownership of resources
 He believed that population became a problem of surplus people under capitalist mode of
production
 Socialism surplus people mean unsupported peoples.
 Food scarcity is the result of unequal distribution by capitalism.
 The system of capitalist production is not target to meet the need of the poor people. Its
aim to increase the accumulation for the wealthy.
 Capitalism benefits from the conditions that produce is called surplus population.
 Marx's solution to the problem of overpopulation was socialism with a new economic
structure of society within a new social order.

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B. Boserupian Population Theory (theory of population & agriculture)

 Esther Boserup (1910-1999) was a Danish economist of the 20th century.

 In 1965, she developed a “Theory on Population and Agriculture”, in which she argued
against Malthus.
 In her theory, Boserup argued that technological advancement would ensure that food
supply would keep up with population growth.
 She formulate on optimistic theory about the influence of population growth on
agricultural development.
 She elaborate facts showed that population growth would lead to agricultural
development.
 For Boserup population is a variable that contribute positively to agricultural
development because it leads humankind to innovation.
 She formulate five stage of agricultural development from “A up to E”

A. Forest-Fallow Cultivation

 Long periods of forest growth alternate with short periods of cultivation.

 Per-capita, the population owns and must cultivate large areas of land. However, because
the work required - and therefore the labor requirement - of the forest-fallow approach to
cultivation is low, food supplies are adequate.
B. Bush-Fallow Cultivation
 Relatively long periods of bush growth alternate with short periods of cultivation. The
bush-growth periods are not longer than the forest growth periods.
 The labor requirement is larger than for the first (forest-fallow) approach.
C. Short-Fallow Cultivation
 The land is cultivated with intervals of only a few years of abandonment. These intervals
last only for only a few years. They allow the land to regenerate and are used to enhance
its productivity.
 The labor requirement is larger than for the first two approaches.
D. Annual Cropping
 The land is cultivated annually.
 Fertilizers are required.
 Labor requirement is larger than for all of the earlier approaches.

E. Multiple Cropping
 Different crops are grown at the same time, on the same land, throughout the year. The
land is used throughout the year.
 The labor requirement is larger than for all of the earlier approaches
4.2.1 Trends of Population Growth in Ethiopia
Population data is collected through census, sample survey, vital registration and
other

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I. Census is the total enumeration of all people of a certain geographic area.

 It provides size growth rate fertility and mortality, employment, ethnicity..

 Census is the main source of population data. It is started in Rome Palestine, Greece,
India
 Ethiopia is the third most populous country in Africa, next to Nigeria and Egypt.

According to the 2007 Census, the population of Ethiopia is 73.8 million. The country’s
population is among the fastest growing in the world. The 2008 estimate of the annual growth
rate of Ethiopian population is 2.23 percent

 Over the two decades b/n the three censuses, for instance, the population of Ethiopia
increased from 42.6 million in 1984 to 53.5 million in 1994 and to 73.8 in 2007.

 According to the results of the three censuses, there was a slight decline in the population
growth rate over recent decades, changing from 3.1 percent in 1984 to 2.9 percent in
1994, and to 2.0 percent in 2007. This was mainly the result of the government’s efforts
to regulate fertility rates through the delivery of family planning services. Since 1987,
family planning services have been rendered through government health institutions such
as hospitals, clinics, and health centers.

II. Sample survey (Taking specimen)

 It is widely used sources of population data.
 It collects information only from a part of the whole population
 It provides accurate detail information than census.
 It is under taken b/n two consecutive census. It is less expensive
III. Vital Registration (civil registration)
 It is continuous registration of vital events. Vital events include birth rate, death rate,
marriage divorce and adoption.
NB. Ethiopia has the fastest population growth rate (PGR) in the world and Ethiopia has shortest
doubling time (DT)
𝟕𝟎
DT =
𝐏𝐆𝐑

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 Population growth and DT are inversely proportional

 More developed countries have longer DT and smallest PGR
 Less developed countries have short DT and highest PGR
4.2.2 Age and Sex Structure of the Ethiopian Population

A. Age Structure
 Age structure is the distribution of a given population into age groups.
 Two important statistical tools for understanding age structure are
1) Age groups
2) Population pyramids
[Link] Groups: the most widely used age groups are the five-year age groups 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, …,
60-64, 65+ & broad age groups 0-14, 15-64, 65+.
In the broad age groups, age groups 0-14, young age (45%), 15-64working age (51.8%) and 65+,
as old age (3.2%) (2007).
 2010 Population data shows that the age groups are 0-14 =44 %, 15-64 = 53 % &above
65 = 3%

Population Pyramid:
 It is the graphic representation of the age distribution of a given population by sex & age
 In Developing countries, birth rates and death rates are high.
 The population pyramid has the form of a triangle, in which many children are born, but
few reach old age.
 In contrast, in the developed countries, with their lower birth rates and fewer people
dying young, the population pyramid is more rectangular, narrowing only nears its top.
Age Dependency Ratio (ADR)

The ADR is the relationship b/n the economically active population and the non-working
population

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 The ADR for more developed countries is usually b/n 50 and 75.
 In contrast, less developed countries like Ethiopia have ratios b/n 85 and 105. In
Ethiopia, the age dependency ratio is very high.
 knowing about the age structure of a country’s population helps its policy-makers and
socio-economic planners to predict for the future
 The age structure of a population also affects its growth rates.

B. Sex Structure
 The sex structure of a population is shown by its sex ratio, which is the ratio of
male population to female population.
 Sex ratio is usually expressed as the number of males per 100 females in a
population.
 A ratio greater than 100 shows a greater number called an excess of males than
females.
The formula for calculating a sex ratio is:

 The sex ratio of Ethiopia’s population increased from 99.4 in 1984 to 101.3 in 1994; and
to 101.9, in 2007.
 The low sex ratio during the 1980s appears to be due to political unrest and civil war.
 During those years, a large number of the male population was killed or was forced to
migrate to other countries to escape being killed.
 Sex ratios in Ethiopia are generally lower for urban areas and higher for rural areas. This
is primarily due to large number of females migrating to urban areas.
Sex ratio in Ethiopia also varies with age
 Males predominate among newborns and the very young. However, their numbers lessen
as age increases.
 Hence, sex ratios are high for young age groups and low for adult and old-age groups.
However, in rural areas this pattern does not hold for later age groups.
 In the country, the situation of more male than female newborns accounts for the normal
high sex ratio in the young age groups.

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 So that the usual situation of higher mortality among male than female children narrows
the gap, which gives the normal drop in sex ratio.

4.3. The Spatial Distribution of Population in Ethiopia

 The distribution of population is indicated by population density.

 Population density is the average number of people per square kilometer in a given area.

Activity: Use the table given below to answer the questions that follow it.

Ethiopia in 1994
Total population 53,477,265
Rural population 46,154,058
Total area (km2) 1,106,000
Arable land (km2) 969,680
Cultivated land (km2) 185,177

1. Calculate the crude density of Ethiopia in 1994.

2 Interpret the results you obtained for each measure
3. Calculate the agricultural density of Ethiopia in 1994.

Densely and Sparsely Populated Areas of Ethiopia

 In Ethiopia, the population is unevenly distributed for various physical and human related
reasons about 77 % of the population of Ethiopia lives in the highlands at altitudes above
1800 m, and only 11 % lives at altitudes below 1400 meters.
 Spatial distribution of population by region very significant.
 The largest proportion of population is found in the Oromiya region (26,993,933)
 The smallest proportion of persons is in the Harari region (183,415).
 The Amhara region (17,221,976) and the SNNP region (14,929,548) have the second and
third largest population in the country, respectively.
 According to the 2007 Census, Ethiopia had significant variation of population distribution
b/n the rural and urban areas.
 At the national level, 83.9 % of the total population lives in rural places, while the urban
population accounts for only 16.1 %.
 In terms of density of population, AA, Dire Dawa, and Harari Regions have much higher
population densities than the rest of the nation
 Excluding these regions, the most densely populated region in Ethiopia is the SNNP (133
p/km2), followed by the Amhara (108.2 p/km2) and Tigray (86.2 p/km2) regions.
 On the other hand, the Somali, Afar and Gambela regions are the most sparsely populated
regions in the country.

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 Some of the zones with very high population densities are Ghedeo (424 p/km2), Sidama (299
p/km2), Kembata- Alaba-Tembaro (299 p/km2) and Hadiya (264 p/km2
 densities of less than 10 persons p/km2, two of which are Kamashi (5.7 p/km2, and Metekel
(7.7 p/km2

4.4 Factors Affecting Population Distribution in Ethiopia

 The distribution of population in Ethiopia is extremely uneven. Due to the result of a

number of factors.

4.4.1 Physical Factors

 Climate (mainly rainfall and temperature)

 Soil fertility
 Natural water supply
 Relief (slope and altitude)
 Vegetation cover
Altitude is the most crucial physical factor influencing patterns of population distribution and
settlement in the country.
Rainfall is high and temperature moderately low in the highlands tend to have better soils and
vegetation cover.
Lowlands in Ethiopia are characterized by scarcity of rainfall, high temperature, and poor
vegetation and soil conditions.
I. Types of Economic Activity
The arid and semi-arid lowland areas of Ethiopia are areas that are more suitable for
pastoralist activity.
Pastoralism is an economic activity that requires large areas of grazing lands.
In most pastoralist areas of Ethiopia, the land requirement for grazing is as large as 20
hectares or more per head of cattle.
Each household might possess hundreds of cattle, and as a result, people need large areas of
grazing land.
Crop-farming areas have greater carrying capacity and higher densities of population.
Example, in the highland areas of Ethiopia.
In the northern and north central highland areas of Ethiopia, the most cultivated crops are
cereals. Cereals have relatively low yields per unit area. Therefore, these areas tend to have
relatively lower carrying capacities and population density.
In contrast, the southern enset and coffee growing regions of the country have greater yields
per unit area.
This is an important reason for the very high population densities in some zones and weredas
of the southern region
II. Historical Pattern of Population Movement

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 The pattern of movement of two major groups of people (the Semitic and the Cushitic )
had direct impact on the distribution of population in the country.

 The two waves of population movement, one from the north (the Semitic) and the other
from the south, (the Cushitic) led to the high concentration of people in and around the
central highlands of Ethiopia.

4.5 Settlement Patterns of Ethiopian Population

In Ethiopia, different settlement types have been developed in response to mainly the following
and other physical and human factors.
 Relief (altitude and slope of the land)
 Climate (the magnitude of rainfall and temperature)
 The kind of land ownership
 The level of development (transportation and industrialization)
 The need for community defense
 The need for communal field labor
4.5.1 Settlement Pattern
A settlement is a place in which people live; carrying out a variety of activities to make their
living. it may broadly be divided in to rural settlement and urban settlement

Rural settlement:
 All villages and dispersed (scattered) settlement and are dominated by isolated homesteads.
Inhabitants of rural settlements are mainly engaged in agriculture. Settlements in the rural areas of
Ethiopia can be broadly grouped into two:

A. Permanent Settlements
 Most rural settlements over the highland areas of Ethiopia are permanent.
 It is considered permanent if their locations do not frequently change, i.e. if they remain
in place for more than ten years.
 The permanent rural settlements of Ethiopia are mostly associated with the crop-farming
highland areas of the country.
 permanent rural settlements of Ethiopia can be divided into two:

1. The scattered (diffused or dispersed) settlements

 In areas of scattered settlements, homesteads are separated by relatively long
distances.
2. The grouped (nucleated) settlements. The grouped settlements are characterized by a large
number of homesteads/house in one place.
In Ethiopia, the Derg Regime’s compulsory villagization program resulted in the formation of
grouped settlements (villages) in many parts of the country holds concentrated

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B. Temporary Settlements
 The lowlands in most parts of the Rift Valley and peripheral areas of Ethiopia are
characterized by pastoralism with temporary settlements.
 The settlements in these areas are temporary b/c the pastoralists have to look for new sites for
water and pasture lands for their livestock.
 The major problem posed by mobile settlements in these pastoralist areas is the difficulty in
providing the people with social services.

Hierarchies of settlement
4.5.2 Urban Settlements
 Urban settlements include residence in cities and towns.
 The process of development of urban settlements is known as urbanization.
 Not all grouped settlements are classified as urban centers.
Exercise four
Chose the best answer from the given four alternatives
. 1. Which of the following areas is in the most sparsely populated areas of Ethiopia?
[Link] B. Sidama C. Borena D. Hadiya
2. Which one of the following is true about Ethiopian population?
A. has low dependency ratio B. has low life expectancy
C. has high proportion of old age D. has low population growth rate
3. ___refers to the number of males per hundred females
A. Age structure B. Sex ratio C. Dependency ratio D. Population pyramid
4. The most densely populated region in Ethiopia is:

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A. Amhara B. Oromiya C. SNNP D. Somali

5. Which one is human factor that affect population distribution in Ethiopia.
A. Economic activity B. Soil fertility C. Water supply D. Vegetation cover
6. Which one of the following crop is associated with higher density of population in Ethiopia?
A. Sorghum B. Wheat C. Enset D. Millet
7. All are the major factors that contribute to the prevalence of high fertility rates in Ethiopia,
except:
A. The low socio economic status of women in the Ethiopian society
B. early marriage particularly females
C. Increased availability of high family planning services
D. Religious thought
8. Rapid population growth rate in Ethiopia has least contribution to--------------
A. Deforestation B. Pollution C. Desertification D. Soil degradation
9. Which of the population theories below considers the loss of human life though war, drought
and disease as a positive check to control fast population growth?
A. Boserupian population theory C. Marxian population theory
B. Malthusian population theory D. Theory of population and
agriculture
10. In which part of Ethiopia do you mostly observe permanent rural settlement?
A. Along the major river valley C. In the rift valley section
B. In the crop farming areas D. In the pastoralist areas
11. What is the major factor that forces people to migrate from their places of origin in search of
employment?
A. Economic factor B. Political factor C. Ecological factor D. Socio- cultural
factor

4.6 Determinants of Population Change in Ethiopia

The major determinants of population are-

A. Fertility
B. Mortality &
C. Migration

4.6.1 Fertility in Ethiopia

Fertility refers to the occurrence of birth in a given country or region. Before studying the
fertility characteristics of the population of Ethiopia, become familiar with the following
measures of fertility.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR): this is the total number of births occurring in a given year, per 1000
population.

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General Fertility Rate (GFR): this one is the number of births occurring in a given year per
1000 women in the reproductive ages (i.e., women aged 15-49).
Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR): this is the number of births that occur in a given year per
woman in the reproductive ages, presented in five-year age groups.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): this is the number of children a woman may have produced by the
end of her reproductive period, given the current ASFR.
Fertility Levels and Differentials in Ethiopia

Ethiopia, like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, has rapid population growth, characterized
by a high level of fertility. The result of the most recently conducted demographic and health
survey of Ethiopia (EDHS 2005) indicate that the fertility level of Ethiopia’s population, as
measured by TFR (5.4), GFR (179) and CBR (35.7), is among the highest in the world.
, fertility rates are high in Ethiopia due to the following major factors.
 Low levels of family planning practices, due to lack of awareness and religious beliefs;
 Early marriage, particularly of females;
 Perception of high social and economic value of children;
 Low social status of women; and
 Relatively high infant and child mortality (death) rates, which leads parents to produce
larger number of offspring, in compensation.
4.6.2 Mortality in Ethiopia

4.6.2 Mortality in Ethiopia

Mortality: - Occurrence of deaths in a given population
 Tends to decrease the size & growth of population
 Has negative effect on population growth
Measures of mortality:-
 Crude death rate:- Total number of deaths per 1000 population in a given year
CDR= Total number of deaths x 1000
Total population
 Infant mortality rate(IMR):- total number of infant deaths per 1000 live births in a
given year
IMR= number of infant deaths (age of < 1) x1000
Total number of live births
 Child mortality rate(CMR)= number of child deaths( in b/n the age of1- 5 years)
x1000
Total number of children
 Under 5 mortality rates: - The number of deaths in a year among infants and
children per 1000 live births and children in a given year.

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 Maternal mortality rates(MMR):- Annual number of maternal deaths occurring

during pregnancy, child birth or within two months after the birth or termination of
pregnancy per 1000 women b/n 15 and 49 years of ages( reproductive ages).
 Adult mortality rate (AMR):- Number of adult deaths per 1000 adults (b/n 15-64
years of age) in a given year.
 Age specific death rate (ASDR):- Number of deaths that occur in a given year per
1000 population in a five year age groups.
Example: - ASDR (0-4 years of age) = deaths of population in b/n 0-4 years of
age x 1000
Population number b/n 0-4 years of age
 Life expectancy: - The average number of years a new born baby is expected to live
under the prevailing death rates.

Levels of mortality rate in Ethiopia

 Mortality decreases in Ethiopia from time to time but still high level as compared
with the rest of the world.
 Ethiopian Demographic Health Survey (EDHS, 2005):- AMR (5.99), IMR (80),
CMR (56), MMR (1.34) _ highest in the world.
 IMR :- Global average (52/1000) Japan(4.4)- lowest in the
world
Average in less developed countries (57/1000) Sweden (5.7)
Finland (5.8/1000), Taiwan (6/1000), Switzerland (7.3/1000), USA
(8.8/1000),
Ethiopia (80/1000) - highest
 CDR: - reveals neither the age and sex patterns of mortality levels nor the socio
economic characteristics of a given population.
 IMR _ more specific indicator of health & socio-economic development status
 MMR- indicator of reproductive health status, high in Ethiopia
 Analyses of these rates are useful in
 identifying needs and planning health programs
 initiating child survival efforts
 population projections
 Millennium development goals- 2/3 reduction in infant and child mortality rates by
2015 through
 Upgrading birth attended by health personals
 Increasing immunization against the six vaccine preventable diseases
 Upgrading women status-education & increasing labor force participation
rates
Differentials of mortality in Ethiopia

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 Mortality vary in rural , urban areas and among regions in Ethiopia

 EDHS(2005) - urban IMR(66/1000) rural IMR (81/1000)
 Regions:- A.A (72/1000)- lowest
Benishangul (157/1000), Gambela (156/1000) & Amhara (154/1000)
 EDHS (2005) showed that, survival of infants and child in Ethiopia is strongly
influenced by
 Maternal education- mother with no education has 2 times higher mortality rate
 Age at birth- mother whose age is less than 20 and more than 40 years has high
infant & child mortality
 Birth interval- children born within two years interval has high mortality than
three years
 Birth order- first & seven births of order children has high mortality than two to
six
 Gender- Males experience higher mortality
 Born place – home born by traditional birth attendants has high mortality

4.7 Impacts of Rapid Population Growth

 Environmental and socio-economic problems
 Land degradation
 Deforestation
 Pollution
 Soil erosion
 Depletion of resource
4.7.1 Deforestation
 Forests:- Are
 Store energy from the sun
 Bind top soil to the land
 Control climate
 Absorbs carbon dioxide & exhale oxygen
 Habitat for wild animals
 Global store house of genetic diversity
 Lunges of the earth
 There is a direct relationship b/n population density and deforestation
 The Ethiopian forests are being depleted at an alarming rate b/c of
 Increased need for fuel wood
 Increased need for agricultural ,settlement & grazing land
 Direct consequences of deforestation
 Accelerates soil erosion
 Destroys biodiversity
 Affects rainfall by decreasing evapotranspiration

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 Shortage of wood and affects the natural beauty of an area etc...

4.7.2. Pollution
Pollution refers to any undesirable change in natural conditions of water, air, and other
components of the natural environment that has negative effects on the health and activities of
human beings and other living creatures.
Water and air pollution are mainly caused
 Human activities (human activities in households, industries, farmlands, means of
transportation)
 Natural events (volcanic eruption, wildfire, etc…)
In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to environmental pollution by increasing emission of
the amounts of pollutants such as:
 Sewage, solid wastes, and pollutant gases generated by households.
 Pollutant gases, liquids, and solid chemicals generated by expanded industries.
 Pollutant gases generated by the increasing number of automobiles.
 Agricultural pollutants, such as fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, etc.

4.8. Population Policy of Ethiopia

 Population policy: - formulated and implemented by a government in order to plan
& control population growth based on economic, social, cultural, demographic &
other conditions of the country.
 It is needed mainly to address population-related problems in a country.
 The population policies of countries can be broadly categorized into two groups
A. Anti-natalist population policy seeks to lower fertility rates, in particular, and
population growth rates, in general.
B. Pro-natalist population policy seeks to increase fertility rates, in particular, and
population growth rates, in general.
Ethiopia’s population policy is basically anti- natalist

History of population policy in Ethiopia

 Low priority before the early 1990’5
 1993, TGE adopted a national population policy based on
 Awareness that large population size can be an enemy of development and
causes economic, social & environmental problems
 Broad goal of Ethiopia’s population policy
 To promote social welfare by harmonizing the rate of population growth &
economic growth , rational utilization of natural resources( concern age
structure –young & women in child bearing age)

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4.9. Urbanization in Ethiopia

4.9.1. The concept of urbanization
 Urbanization:- process of population shift from rural to cities & urban expansion
 It refers to the process through which society is transformed from being predominantly
rural, in economy, culture and life style, to being predominantly urban.
 The degree of urbanization varies throughout the world but generally reflects the
wealth of individual countries.
 The rich, industrialized countries tend to be the most highly urbanized,
 The poor countries tend to be the least urbanized.
For example, In the Netherlands, 89 % of the population is urban, compared to
only 16 % in Ethiopia.

Some of the criteria used to identify urban settlements; different countries have different
criteria
Ethiopia has the following criteria
 , population size ( minimum 2000)
 At least two-third of the population engaged nonagricultural economic activities
 The presence of social service and amenities
 Presence of municipality.
Trends of urbanization in Ethiopia
In the history of Ethiopia, major factors contributed to the origin and development of most
urban centers
 The interconnection of the different parts of the country by all-weather roads, which
radiate from Addis Ababa.
 The five-year Italian occupation, which intensified the construction of roads, and the
development of small-scale industries and service-giving institutions.
Two main areas in the country have relatively large concentrations of urban populations: the
Shewan and the Harerghe plateaus.
The major reasons for this situation are:
 relatively high concentration of industries
 Greater assemblage of social services, such as schools, health institutions, water
supplies, electricity, transportation, etc.

Factors that affect Urbanization

One can attribute the growth and development of urbanization to several factors, including:
 High rate of natural increase of population: This is happened when birth rates remain
high, but death rates fall rapidly due to great improvements in social facilities and in
food production, that resulted in population growth and so does urbanization

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 Significant of rural to urban migration: Many large cities in developing countries are
growing at a faster rate due to rural ‘push’ factors that forced the people to leave the
country side, and due to urban ‘pull’ factors where people migrate to cities.
 Industrialization: In the 19thC, industrialization led to a huge demand for labor in
mining and manufacturing centers, in what are now referred to as developed countries.
Rapid growth of population in urban centers has the following problems

 Overcrowding
 Sub-standard housing
 Homelessness
 Inadequate municipal services
 Crimes, poverty & pollution
Levels and distribution of urbanization in Ethiopia
 1940’s – less than 3% lived in urban areas
 1967 – 8.5%
 1970 – 9.7%
 1984 -10.6%
 1994 – 13.7%
 2007 – 16.1%
Ethiopia has High rate of urbanization but Low level of urbanization

 Smallest urban population in the world

 Very underdeveloped nation
According to the 2007 Census, the urban population rate ranges from 10 % in SNNP to 100 % in
Addis Ababa. Despite the fact that Addis Ababa City Administration is entirely urban, its
percentage share of Ethiopia’s total urban population is only 23.1 percent. The largest share,
about 28%, is living in Oromiya Region. In contrast, Gambella region has the smallest share of
the country’s urban population, although more than one-fourth of the region’s population lives in
urban areas.
 % urban from regional total population
 Addis Ababa - 100% urban, Dire Dawa (68.2%) & Harari (54.2%)
 SNNP – 10% urban( smallest)
 % urban from the country’s total population
 Oromyia (27.97%) Addis Ababa (23.09%) & Amhara (17.8%)
 Gambela (0.66%) – smallest

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Exercise five
Choose the best answer from the given four alternatives
1. The most specific measure of a county’s socio-economic & health status is
A. CDR B. IMR C. MMR D. life expectancy
2. Which one of the following is not the biological component of population dynamics in Africa?
A. Fertility B. Birth C. Migration D. Mortality
3. The number of deaths that occur in a given year per 1000 population in five year age group is
A. ASMR B. IMR C. AMR D. TFR
4. Which of the following is the major factor that contributes to the prevalence of high fertility
rate in Ethiopia?
A. High status of women C. Increased availability of health services
B. Early marriage D. Increased availability of family planning services
5. Assume that the birth and death rate of hypothetical country x in 2010 were 44/1000 and
19/1000. The rate of natural increase of this country is:-
A. 4.4% B. 1.9% C. 2.5% D. 6.3%
6. In Ethiopian context, which impact of rapid population growth is critical compared to the
others?
A. occurrence of water pollution C. high rate of deforestation
B. massive air pollution D. shortage of grazing land
7. Which one of the following statement about urbanization in Ethiopia is false?
A. Gambella region has the smallest share of the country’s urban population
B. Ethiopia is the least urbanized country in the world
C. most urban centers of Ethiopia have developed along the major transport routes
D. Ethiopia‘s rate of urban growth is among the slowest in the world
8. What is the disadvantage of migration to the losing countries?
A. It leads to overcrowding C. It losses people in productive age group
B. It increases cost of services D. It put more pressure on public services
9. What could be generalized about the population structure of Ethiopia?
A. In most rural areas, the size of male population is greater than that of females
B. Ethiopia has the smallest size of economically active population
C. In urban areas, the size of male population is greater than that of females
D. one fourth of the total population of Ethiopia is the elder population
10. Which one of the following the main reason for high rate of urbanization in Ethiopia?
A. The presence of large number immigrants
B. High rate of urban to urban migration
C. The presence of high rate of natural increase
D. Urban development policy
11. Which one of the following national regional state of Ethiopia has the lowest percentage of
urban from the regional total population? A. SNNPR B. Somalia C. Tigray D.
Gambella
12. What important message do you expect to hear in a speech to be delivered on the population
policy of Ethiopia?

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A. Discouraging contraceptive methods C. Discouraging gender inequalities

B. Encouraging early marriage females D. promoting men focused family planning
strategies
13. What is the implication of the low level of urbanization in Ethiopia?
A. Low cost of urban transport facilities C. Low rate of rural to rural migration
B. Low rate of urban to rural migration D. Low living standards of urban population
14.Among the following one is not the causes of high rate of maternal mortality in Ethiopia?
A. High educational status of women C. Low access of women to reproductive
health services.
B. High frequency of births per woman D. Early marriage
15. The most important physical factor influencing patterns of population distribution and
settlement in Ethiopia is A. Altitude B. Latitude C. Soil type D. Air pressure

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UNIT FIVE

Economic Growth & Development Trend in Ethiopia

5.1. An overview of growth and development in Ethiopia
Economic Growth is quantitative accumulation of the national capital
 It is a process of change in output
 Change in output regardless of cultural , political, economic and other
improvements
 Increase in a nations production of goods and services
Effects of slower economic growth
 Slower increase in living standards
 Less tax revenue
 Unemployment
 Increase government borrowing etc..
Factors of economic growth
 Physical capital
 Human capital(labor)
 Technology
 Economic system

Economic Development:
 it is all over change
 It is a Process involving economic, social and environmental changes.
 Qualitative transformation of the whole society a shift to new ways of thinking, new
relations and new methods of production
 It Must be inclusive of future generation
 It Must engage peoples participation

Indicators of economic development

 High per capita income
 Equitable education
 Job opportunities
 Greater gender equality
 Better health and nutrition
 Cleaner and more sustainable environment
 Impartial judicial & legal system
 Broader civil & political freedom
 richer cultural life

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According to the UN Commission on Environment and Development (1987) “sustainable

development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. It must engage in people, for without their
participation, no strategy can succeed for long.

Economic Growth & Development Trend in Ethiopia

Trend: - general tendency, movement or direction (Upward, downward or stagnant)
 Ethiopia’s economy shows forward tendency
 Encouraging trend since 1996
 According to Welfare monitoring surveys –PASDEP 2005-10 contributed
much to enhance all achievements
 Literacy rate increased in rural areas
 Gross enrollment increased
 Primary and secondary drop out in rural area decreased
 Fallen distance to school, health centers, water source & all weather
roads
 Decline in malnutrition

5.2 Major Features of Ethiopian Economy

Agricultural sector:-
It is a Dominant sector
Unsatisfactory performance for the last 40 or 50 years due to multifaceted
determining factors
Since 1960s , various development strategies have been adopted, however its
performance has been low
2002/03 – 2007/08, GDP share declined from 44.0% -44.6% due to weather
changes
After 2002, the sector has promoted significantly due to reforms
Leading sector until 2007/08 , after 2008/09 service sector emerged as the dominant
sector due to economic & natural factors

Contribution of agriculture for Ethiopian economy

 Provide employment opportunities (85% of labor force)

 Accounts more than 90% of the country’s export earnings (coffee:
60%, livestock 20-30%)
 It accounts 40%- 50% GDP)
 It is a source for raw material supply for agro based industries

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Service sector: - (2006/07 -09/10): it includes the provision of economic activities such as

Trade ,hotels & restaurants, transport , communication and tourism

Banking & insurance shows the highest growth rate (18.5%)
Education show significant growth performance

Industrial sector: - it is the third contributor to Ethiopia’s GDP

Smallest contributor due to its short history of industrialization (13%)

It involves the production of textiles, food stuffs, beverages, garment, leather,
metal product
Mining and quarrying has highest growth rate (42.2%) ( 2001/02 – 2009/10)
Large and medium scale manufacturing
Construction
 Weak linkages among the sectors to strengthen their linkages
ADLI the current adopted development strategies was launched in 2002
ADLI goals
 Economic growth through rural centered development strategy
 Improved living standards of rural and urban population
 Effective educational strategy
 Expansion of preventive and primary health care facilities

5.3 Present Features of Ethiopian Socio- Economic Development

 GDP/ GNP - lowest in the world, the current status of Ethiopia’s GDP per capita is
estimated to be US $344 per annum (source: wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
Through PASDEP shift the society in to middle income level
 Illiteracy rate – it decreased by 50 %( because of the rise in gross school
enrollment)

-The current literacy rate of Ethiopia is said to be 42.7% in the year 2009 ( Source: wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia).

 IMR=lower down the IMR from 111/1000 to 477/1000

 Life expectancy – it is shifted from 43 to 55.8 year
 Population growth rate: surveys reveal that 38,000 people are added to the
population each week incurring high costs of providing additional services. to slow
down by applying spacing of birth through health services
 Percentage of population with access to clean water – traveling long distance to fetch
water

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(Survey of welfare monitoring organization2009/10)

 32% rural people unclean rivers & lakes
 42% unprotected well & Spring
 14% protected spring
 10% public tap
 Levels of infrastructure development
 Expansion of road network
 Expansion of construction (514 towns) & rehabilitation work (228 towns)
 Improving the living conditions of urban poor
 Improving access to health services
 Expansion of electric use
 Changed the lives of pastoralists – informal community schools, improved
veterinary services & marketing system.

5.4 Challenges & prospects of socio – economic development of Ethiopia

5.4.1. Challenges to Ethiopia’s socio- economic development.
 Inter connected factors that hinders Ethiopia’s progress ( poverty line) or prevents
Ethiopia from breaking out of poverty
 Rapid population growth and the concomitant addition of 2 million
persons per year is a major barrier to poverty reduction.
 Land fragmentation
 Environmental degradation b/c of frequent drought
 Very low productivity
 Low income and Low levels of investment, Low infrastructure coverage
 Dependency on unreliable rainfall
 Structural bottlenecks
 Lack of good governance & commitment to accomplishing tasks

5.4.2 Prospects for Ethiopia’s socio- economic development

 Encouraging progress in recent years in improving some basic aspect of life
 Since 1996
 Literacy rate has increased by 50%
 Malnutrition rate has fallen by 20%
 Share of population with access to clean water has risen to 38 %
 Decline reported incidence of illness
 Human development indicators still at low levels compared with global
indicators

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E.g MMR in 2005/06 is 673/100,000

Goals of GTP as well as MDGS

 Proper utilization of agricultural potential

 Much more rapid d/v of the modern sector
 Exploitation of niche markets and opportunities
 Expansion of exports- widens economic base, reduce susceptibility to
shocks & reduce dependency on foreign aid
 Promotion of better links b/n markets & producers
 Proper utilization of the potential of Ethiopian’s women

5.5 Economic relation

Many geographical and political factors drive countries to establish economic relationships with
other countries

Factors that decelerate (slow down) economic relation

 Geographic factors-Physiographic variation

 Political factors – political affiliations due to temporary/permanent common
interest
 Economic factors – comparative advantages

Ethiopia’s economic relationships are greatly affected by factors such as those. As a result, the nation
has economic relationships with:
 neighboring countries,
 Other countries.

5.5.1 Ethiopia’s economic relation with neighboring countries

 Long stand economic relationship with republic of Djibouti

 Sudan has started a good economic relation with Ethiopia ( providing Petroleum)
 Minor economic relations with Somalia due to political instability

5.5.2 Ethiopia’s economic relationship with other countries than its neighbors
 Based on
 Nature of Ethiopia’s export and import items
 Trade policy & strategy
 Geographic proximity – middle East, Gulf and Europe

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 Exports
Ethiopia has had substantial economic relationships with Western Europe, the Far
East and North America & Central America

Ethiopia’s export distribution in world regions, (continental level)

 Europe was the leading export destination in the year 2006/07,

 Europe 40.8%
 Asia(33.5%, ),
 Africa (15.5%) and North & Central America (5.8%).

In terms of individual trade-partner countries, the export major destinations were:

 Germany 13.3%
 China 9.1%
 Japan 7.3%
 Saudi Arabia 6%
 Djibouti 5.9%
 Italy 5%
 USA 4.7%

Germany was the single most important destination for Ethiopian exports between 2004
and 2006.

Imports

1) .Middle East & Asia,( first) 57.5%

2) Europe(2nd) 23.1%
3) North America (3rd)
4) Africa(4th)
 Individual countries –
 Saudi Arabia in 2003(9.5%) & 2005(15.7%)
 .China in2003 (9.6%) & 2007(12.7%)

Duty free (tax free) and quota free market access opportunities

 China granted almost all Ethiopian export product duty free access to its markets
 Such opportunities
 Broaden Ethiopia’s economic relations

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 SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

 This process will be facilitated by Ethiopia’s advantageous geographical

proximities to Middle East, Gulf countries and European countries

Trade balance of Ethiopia is negative (export less than import)

5.6. Plan For Accelerated Sustainable Development To End Poverty (PASDEP)

 Since 1960s various development plans have been designed in Ethiopia to alleviate
poverty
 However, due to wrong structural adjustments & frequent weather shocks , Ethiopia is
unable to come out poverty trap
 Five year d/v plans
 SDPRP(2000 -04), PASDEP (2005 – 10) & GTP(2010 – 15)
 PASDEP carries important SDPRP strategies related to
 Human development
 Rural development
 Expanding education
 Strengthening health services
 Food security
 Capacity building
 Decentralization
 It was affected by a number external and internal shocks
 Less support than expected from donors
 Poor rain fall
 Global financial crises that began in 2008/09
 PASDEP process is benefited from
 Two round consultations with civil society, NGOs and partners
 A number of background papers and studies by government ministries and
independent Ethiopian experts

The PASDEP Strategy

The PASDEP program was based on these nine activities:
1. A massive push to accelerate growth. This strategy had two main thrusts:
i. Commercialization of agriculture, and
ii. Promoting much moral rapid non-farm private sector.
2. A more differentiated approach to agriculture, focusing on Ethiopia’s very different agro-
ecological area.)
3. A renewed look at several-urban linkages and the urban agenda.
4. Addressing the population challenge by implementing the existing national population strategy
and making services available for spacing births.

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5. Unleashing the potential of Ethiopia’s women

6. Strengthening the infrastructure’s backbone – the road network, water supply, electric power
supply, etc.
7. Managing risk and volatility.
8. Intensive efforts to reach the MDGs.
9. Creating jobs. In Ethiopia, especially in urban areas, unemployment is a serious challenge.
The goals were:
i. managing the dynamics of population growth
ii. Expanding labor-intensive production activities
Exercise Six
Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. All of the following factors hinder Ethiopian development, except
A. Inadequate natural resource base C. Lack of modern technology
B. Limited saving and low investment capital D. Rapid population growth

2. Which one of the following is true about the current development status of Ethiopia?
A. Low GDP/GNP C. High infrastructure coverage
B. Low population growth D. High income
3. One of the following challenges of Ethiopia’s socio-economic development is directly or
indirectly affects the others
A. Land degradation B. Low investment level C. Income shortage D. Population
growth
4. The major destination of Ethiopian export is
A. China B. Saudi Arabia C. Brazil D. Germany
5. The leading sector in the Ethiopian economy in terms of output contribution since 2008/09 is
A. Industrial sector B. Service sector C. Agricultural sector D. Manufacturing sector
6. Which one of the following describes the socio- economic characteristics of Ethiopia?
A. the majority of Ethiopian population has access to clean water
B. Currently, Ethiopia is one of the middle income countries
C. Illiteracy rate has been decreasing significantly since the 1990s
D. more than half of the rural population has access to electricity
7. One of the following conditions can be taken as evidence of promising features for socio-
economic development in Ethiopia, which one is it?
A. diverse nature of imported goods C. Availability of various natural resource
B. High rate of rural- urban migration D. Rapid population growth
8. Why has the effectiveness of the Ethiopia’s plan for accelerated sustainable development to
end poverty (PASDEP) remained below the anticipated level? This is due to
A. limited road net work and infrastructure C. shortage of human resource
B. the diverse agro-climatic nature D. high economic growth and
development
9. Which one of the following is true about the concept of economic development?
A. it involves the quantitative accumulation of national output

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B. it is a process of change regardless of cultural structural, environmental and better ways of

the society
C. it states how fast the production of agricultural crops increases
D. it measures the well being of the society in the country
10. What characterizes countries of low standard of living?
A. low per capita income C. standard housing
B. High life expectancy D. Low fertility
11 Which sub-sector of the service/distributive sector showed the best growth performance
during the fiscal year 2005/2006?
A. Education B. Transport and communication C. Hotels and restaurants D. Banking and
insurance
12. All are the challenges to Ethiopia’s socio-economic development except
A. Rapid population growth C .Low level of infrastructure
B. Unexpected weather changes D. Diversified climatic zones

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Answer keys

PART ONE (GRADE 9-10)

EXERCISE ONE
1. B . 5. D 9. B.
2. A 6. C. 10. D.
3. D 7. D. 11. A
4. B. 8.

EXERCISE TWO 5. A.
1. A.
6. A.
2. B
3. C. 7. D.
4. D.

EXERCISE THREE
1. D 6. C. 11. B 16. C. 21. C
2. D 7. B. 12. A 17. C
3. C. 8. D. 13. C 18. B
4. B 9. A 14. A 19 C
5. B 10. C 15. A. 20. C
EXERCISE FOUR
1. B. 7. C. 13. B 20. A 26. A. 32. A
2. D 8. B. 14. A 21. D 27. B. 33. A
3. D 9. C 15. D 22. B 28. B 34.C
4. C 10. B. 16 D 23 B 29. C.
5. D 11. B 17. A. 24. B 30. C
6. B 12. B 18 C 25. C 31. C
19. C

EXERCISE FIVE
1. C. 6. C. 11 A 16. D 21. C 26 A 31. D
2. C. 7. B. 12. A 17. A. 22 A. 27. B. 32. D.
3. B. 8. D. 13. A. 18. C 23. C. 28 .B 33. B.
4. A. 9. B. 14. B. 19. D 24 .D 29. D.
5. C. 10. B. 15. A. 20. B. 25. A 30. D 34. B.
35. D.

239
36. C. 39. B. 42. B. 45. A. 48. D 51 A
37. B. 40 .C. 43. D 46. B. 49. D 52. D
38. C 41. A 44. A 47. C 50. A. 53.C

SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS

EXERCISE SIX

1. A 6. B 11. D 16. C 21. .B 26. . A

2. D. 7. A. 12. B. 17. B. 22. A 27. C
3. B 8. A 13. D 18. A 23. B
4. A 9. A. 14. C 19. A 24. B
5. A. 10. C 15. A. 20. A. 25. B

EXERCISE SEVEN
1. A. 7. A. 13. A. 18. B
2. C. 8. A 14. D
3. A 9. A. 15. D 19.B
4. D 10. C 16. B
5. C 11. B. 20.C
6. C. 12. B. 17. B
21. C

PART TWO
Exercise one
1. C 4. C 7. A
2. B 5. C 8. B
3. A 6. B
Exercise Two
1. C 5. B 9. D 13. A
2. B 6. A 10. D 14. B
3. C 7. B 11. C 15. C
4. A 8. A 12. C

EXERCISE THREE
1. A 5. D
2. A 6. B
3. C 7. D
4. D
EXERCISE FOUR
1. B 4. B 7. A
2. A 5. D 8. C
3. D 6. C 9. B 10.A

EXERCISE FIVE
1. A 2. B 3. A 4. C
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 5. A 6. A 7. A

EXERCISE SIX
SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS
1. A 3. A 5. C
2. D 4. D 6. C

EXERCISE SEVEN

1. C 4. A 7. D
2. B 5. A
3. C 6. C
EXERCISE EIGHT
1. A 4. C 7. B
2. A 5. B
3. B 6. B
EXERCISE NINE
1. B 6. D 11. D
2. C 7. B 12. C
3. A 8. B 13. C
4. D 9. B
5. B 10. A

EXERCISE TEN
1. B 4. C 7. C
2. C 5. B 8. C
3. C 6. C 9. A

EXERCISE ELEVEN

1. A 4. A 7. B
2. C 5. A 8. C
3. B 6. A 9. B
EXERCISE TWELVE

1. B
2. C
3. D
4. B

EXERCISE THIRTEEN

1. C 4. A
2. A 5. A
3. D 6. C
EXERCISE FOURTEEN

1. D
2. A 4. D 6. E 8. A
3. B 5. D 7. D 9. E
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 10. C 18. A 26. A 34. C
11. B 19. D 27. A 35. A
12. C 20. A 28. A 36. D
13. B 21. A 29. A 37. B
14. B 30. A
22. D
SUPPLEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY MODULE WITH DETAILED NOTS AND QUESTIONS
15. B 31. A
16. C 23. B 32. D
17. D 24. B 33. A
25. A
PART THREE
EXERCISEONE
1) D 8) D 15) A 22) C
2) B 9) A 16) C 23) A
3) B 10) D 17) D 24) A
4) C 11) A 18) B 25) D
5) C 12) A 19) C
6) D 13) D 20) C
7) D 14) B 21) C

EXERCISE TWO
1) C 7) D 13) D
2) A 8) A 14) D
3) A 9) B 15) B
4) C 10) B 16) B
5) B 11) B 17) B
6) A 12) D

EXERCISE THREE
1) C 17) C 33) B 49) D
2) B 18) D 34) C 50) D
3) C 19) D 35) C 51) A
4) B 20) D 36) C 52) A
5) A 21) B 37) B 53) B
6) A 22) B 38) B 54) C
7) C 23) B 39) C 55) A
8) D 24) C 40) D 56) D
9) D 25) C 41) A 57) D
10) B 26) A 42) A 58) D
11) D 27) B 43) B 59) D
12) A 28) C 44) D 60) B
13) B 29) D 45) A 61) B
14) D 30) D 46) A 62) C
15) A 31) B 47) A 63) C
16) B 32) B 48) A 64) C

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 65) B 67) B 69) A 71) C
66) B 68) A 70) B 72) D
EXERCISE FOUR
1. C 5. A 9. B
2. B 6. C 10. B
3. B 7. C 11. A
4. C 8. B

EXERCISE FIVE
1. B 6. C 13. D
2. C 7. D 11.D
3. A 8. C 14.A
4. B 9. A 12.D
5.C 10. C 15.A

Exercise six
1. A 5. B 9. D
10. A
2. A 6. C
11.D
3. D 7. C
4. D 8. A 12.D