Chapter 2

Atoms and Nuclei

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 Atomic Theory
• The most elementary concept is that matter is
composed of individual particles—atoms
• Weight of gas is the sum of the weights of all
gas atoms or molecules (e.g., He gas and CO2
gas)
• There are more than 100 known elements

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• Most are found in nature; some are artificially
produced.
– Each is given a specific number in the periodic
table of the elements; examples are
hydrogen (H) 1,
helium (He) 2,
oxygen (O) 8, and
uranium (U) 92.

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The symbol Z is assigned to the atomic number
(number of protons), which is also the number
of electrons in the atom and determines its
chemical properties.

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• Generally, the further an element is in the
periodic table, the heavier its atoms.
• The atomic weight M is the weight in grams
of a definite number of atoms, 6.022 x 1023,
which is Avogadro’s number, NA.

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• Although we often use the terms atomic
weight and atomic mass interchangeably,
atomic mass describes the mass of a single
atom of a particular isotope, whereas atomic
weight provides a weighted average mass for
an element based on the abundance of its
constituent isotopes.

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Hydrogen Isotopes

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• For the following elements, the values of M
(atomic weight) are approximately
– H, 1.008;
– He, 4.003;
– O, 16.00; and
– U, 238.0.

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• Atomic weight is expressed using grams/mole
or atomic mass units (u), and atomic mass is
quantified using atomic mass units (u).
• Accurate values of atomic weights of all the
elements are given in Table A.4 in Appendix
A of the book.

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• If an element has a nonnatural abundance of
its isotopes (i.e., the elemental material is
either enriched or depleted), it is necessary
to compute the atomic weight of the element
(M) from the weighted sum of all the atomic
masses of the isotopes (Mj) rather than to use
the tabulated M value found in a reference.

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• In such cases, the isotopic abundance may be
expressed either as
– an atom abundance or fraction (γj),
– or as a weight or mass fraction (ωj).
• This distinction leads to two formulas for
determining the elemental atomic weight:

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γj = atom abundance or fraction
ωj = weight or mass fraction

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• We can easily find the number of atoms per
cubic centimeter in a substance if its density ρ
(rho) in grams per cubic centimeter is known.
• This procedure can be expressed as a
convenient formula for finding N, the atomic
number density for any material

• The relationship holds for compounds as well, if M is taken as the

molecular weight.
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 Gases
• Substances in the gaseous state are described
approximately by the perfect or ideal gas law,
relating pressure (p), volume (V), and absolute
temperature (T),

pV = n* RT
• where n is the number of particles and k is
Boltzmann’s constant (k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/oK)
• R = K Na, R = Gas constant, NA = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
• n* = number of moles
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• An increase in the temperature of the gas as a
result of heating causes greater molecular
motion, which results in an increase of
particle bombardment of a container wall and
thus of pressure on the wall.

P~T

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 Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution
• The gas particles, each of mass m, have a
variety of speeds v in accord with Maxwell’s
gas theory, as shown in Figure 2.2. Maxwell’s
formula for the number of molecules per unit
speed is

where no is the total number of molecules.

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• The most probable speed, at the peak of this
Maxwellian distribution, depends on
temperature according to the relation

while the average speed is

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• The average energy of gas molecules is
proportional to the temperature,

3
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2

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 The Atom and Light
• It is well known that the color of a heated solid or gas changes
as the temperature is increased, tending to go from the red end
of the visible region toward the blue end (i.e., from long
wavelengths to short wavelengths).
• The measured distribution of light among the different
wavelengths at a certain temperature can be explained by the
assumption that light is in the form of photons.
• These are absorbed and emitted with definite amounts of
energy E that are proportional to the frequency ν (Greek letter
nu), according to

where h is Planck’s constant, 6.6261 x 10–34 J s

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• Bohr (1913) first explained the emission and
absorption of light from incandescent
hydrogen gas with a novel model of the
hydrogen atom.
• He assumed that the atom consists of a single
electron moving at constant speed in a
circular orbit about a nucleus—the proton—
as shown in Figure 2.3.

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• Each particle has an electric charge of 1.602
x10–19 coulombs (C), but the positively
charged proton has a mass that is 1836 times
that of the negatively charged electron.
• The radius of the orbit is set by the equality of
electrostatic force, attracting the two charges
toward each other, to centripetal force,
required to keep the electron on a circular
path.
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• If sufficient energy is supplied to the
hydrogen atom from the outside, the electron
is caused to jump to a larger orbit of definite
radius.
• At some later time, the electron falls back
spontaneously to the original orbit, and
energy is released in the form of a photon of
light.

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• The photon energy hν is equal to the
difference between energies in the two orbits.
• The smallest orbit has a radius
R1 = 0.53 x 10–10 m,
whereas the others have radii increasing as the
square of integers, n, which are called principal
quantum numbers. Thus if n is 1, 2, 3, . . . ,7,
the radius of the n-th orbit is

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• Figure 2.4 shows the allowed electron orbits in hydrogen. The
energy of the atom system when the electron is in the first orbit
is E = -13.6 eV, where the negative sign means that energy must
be supplied to remove the electron to a great distance and
leave the hydrogen as a positive ion.
• The energy when the electron is in the nth orbit is

• The various discrete levels are shown in Figure 2.5.

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• 1 eV (electronvolt) = 1.602 x 10-19 J

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• The electronic structure of the other elements
is described by the shell model, in which a
limited number of electrons can occupy a
given orbit or shell.
• The atomic number Z is unique for each
chemical element and represents both the
number of positive charges on the central
massive nucleus of the atom and the number
of electrons in orbits around the nucleus.
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• The maximum allowed numbers of electrons
• in orbits as Z increases for the first few shells
are 2, 8, and 18.
• The number of electrons in the outermost, or
valence, shell determines the chemical
behavior of elements.

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• For example, oxygen with Z=8 has two
electrons in the inner shell, six in the outer.
• Thus, oxygen has an affinity for elements
with two electrons in the valence shell.
• The formation of molecules from atoms by
electron sharing is illustrated by Figure 2.6,
which shows the water molecule.

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• The Bohr model of atoms is useful for
visualization, but quantum mechanics
provides a more rigorous view.
• There, the location of the electron in the H
atom is described by a probability expression.
• A key feature of quantum mechanics is
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. It states
that the precise values of both a particle’s
position and momentum cannot be known at
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• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a rule
in quantum mechanics. It states that there is a
fundamental limit to how well you can
simultaneously know the position and
momentum (where momentum is classically
mass times velocity) of a particle. This
means if you know the position very
precisely, you can only have limited
information about its momentum and vice-
versa.
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• Furthermore this is a mathematical inequality
that does not depend on measurement
technique or how you find the position and
momentum. In fact, it has recently been
shown experimentally that even if you have
an instrument that is so precise that it should
(theoretically) be capable of measuring the
position and momentum of the particle below
the Heisenberg uncertainty limit, the spread in
measured values leads to an uncertainty that
is still above this limit.
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ℏ = h/2𝜋𝜋

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 Laser Beams
• Ordinary light in the visible range is a mixture
of many frequencies, directions, and phases.
In contrast, light from a laser (light amplified
by stimulated emission of radiation) consists
of a direct beam of one color and with the
waves in synchronization.
• The device consists of a tube of material to
which energy is supplied, exciting the atoms
to higher-energy states.
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• A photon of a certain frequency is introduced.
• It strikes an excited atom, causing it to fall
back to the ground state and in so doing emit
another photon of the same frequency.
• The two photons strike other atoms,
producing four identical photons, and so on.

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• The ends of the laser are partially reflecting,
which causes the light to be trapped and to
build up inside by a combination of reflection
and stimulation.
• An avalanche of photons is produced that
makes a very intense beam.
• Light moving in directions other than the long
axis of the laser is lost through the sides, so
that the beam that escapes from the end
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• The reflection between the two end mirrors
assures a coherent beam (i.e., the waves are in
phase).
• Nuclear application – isotope separation

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 Nuclear Structure
• Most elements are composed of atoms of
different mass, called isotopes.
• For instance, hydrogen has three isotopes of
weights in proportion 1, 2, and 3—ordinary
hydrogen, heavy hydrogen (deuterium), and
tritium.

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• Each has atomic number Z=1 and the same
chemical properties, but they differ in the
composition of the central nucleus, where
most of the mass resides.
• The nucleus of ordinary hydrogen is the
positively charged proton; the deuteron
consists of a proton plus a neutron; the triton
contains a proton plus two neutrons.
• The neutron is a neutral particle of mass very
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• To distinguish isotopes, we identify the
atomic mass number A as the total number of
nucleons, which are the heavy particles in the
nucleus.
• The atomic weight, a real number, is
approximated by the mass number, which is
an integer, M ≅ A.

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• The complete shorthand notation for an
isotope is given by the chemical symbol X
with leading superscript A and subscript Z
values, that is, 𝐴𝐴𝑍𝑍𝑋𝑋
• Figure 2.7 shows the nuclear and atomic
structure of the three hydrogen isotopes

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 Nuclear Notation
235 235 235
U ~ U ~ U ~ U-235
92 143

Means:
• 235 nucleons (atomic mass # =protons + neutrons)
• 92 atomic number (number of protons)
• 143 number of neutrons

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For neutrons: 10𝑛𝑛
For electrons: −10𝑒𝑒

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 Sizes and Masses of Nuclei
• Nucleus size ~ 10-15 m = 1 fentometer (fm)
• Atom size ~ 10-10 m = 1 angstrom (Å)

• The radii of nuclei can be calculated by

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• The masses of atoms, labeled M, are
compared on a scale in which an isotope of
12
carbon 6𝐶𝐶 has a mass of exactly 12.
• The atomic mass of the proton is 1.007276, of
the neutron 1.008665, the difference being
only about 0.1%. The mass of the electron on
this scale is 0.000549.
• A list of atomic masses appears in Table A.5.

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Mass-Energy Equivalence
1 eV (electron volt) = 1.602 x 10-19 J
1 amu = 1 u = 1.660539 x 10-27 kg = 931.49 MeV

E = m c2 leads to Energy Mass

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 Binding Energy
• The force of electrostatic repulsion between
like charges, which varies inversely as the
square of their separation, would be expected
to be so large that nuclei could not be formed.
• The fact that nuclei do exist is evidence that
there is an even larger force of attraction.
• The nuclear force is of very short range

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• The radius of a nucleon is approximately
1.25 x 10–11 m; the distance of separation
of centers is about twice that.
• The nuclear force acts only when the
nucleons are very close to each other and
binds them into a compact structure.
• Associated with the net force is a potential
energy of binding.

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Mass Defect

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• To disrupt a nucleus and separate it into its
component nucleons, energy must be supplied
from the outside.
• Recalling Einstein’s relation between mass
and energy, this is the same as saying that a
given nucleus is lighter than the sum of its
separate nucleons, the difference being the
mass defect.

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• Let the mass of an atom including nucleus
and external electrons be M, and let mn and
MH be the respective masses of the neutron
and the proton plus matching electron. Then
the mass defect is

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• In nuclear physics, a magic number is a
number of nucleons (either protons or
neutrons) such that they are arranged into
complete shells within the atomic nucleus.
• The seven most widely recognized magic
numbers as of 2019 are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82,
and 126.
• Atomic nuclei consisting of such a magic
number of nucleons have a high binding
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Binding Energy per Nucleon (BE/A)

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[Link]

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[Link]

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Binding energies per nucleon for some common
elements:

[Link]

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• Example 2.6 shows the necessity of utilizing masses known
to 6 or more significant digits in the computation of the mass
defect.
• Calculations such as these are required for several purposes:
• to compare the stability of one nucleus with that of
another,
• to find the energy release in a nuclear reaction, and
• to predict the possibility of fission of a nucleus.

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• We can speak of the binding energy
associated with one particle such as a neutron.
• Suppose that M1 is the mass of an atom and
M2 is its mass after absorbing a neutron.
• The binding energy of the additional neutron
of mass mn is then

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• Explanations of binding energy effects by
means of physical logic and measured atomic
masses have led to what are called
semiempirical formulas for binding energy.
• The BE for any nuclide may be approximated
using a liquid drop model that accounts for
(1) attraction of nucleons for each other due to strong
nuclear force,
(2) electrostatic (Coulombic) repulsion,
(3) surface tension effects, and
(4) the imbalance of neutrons and protons
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The Bethe-Weizsacker formula is one such expression to calculate
the binding energy:

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