Fall 2024/2025 Chapter 4
Sedimentology
Ali Hatoum, Ph.D
4 January 2025
Sedimentology
Sedimentology is the science that studies sediments. The aim of
sedimentology is to describe the different environments in which
sediment is deposited. The aim is to reconstruct the
environment of the past (the paleoenvironment).
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Sedimentology
A SEDIMENT is a collection of particles of different sizes that have
undergone some form of transport. These particles may originate
from the erosion of previous rocks, or from organic activity (e.g.
accumulation of shells). Generally speaking, sediment is a recent
deposit that is still waterlogged.
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Sedimentology
Sedimentary particles are classified according to their size, e.g.
blocks, gravel, sand or clay (see table and figure):
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
The aim of granulometry is to measure grain size and determine
the statistical frequency of the different grain sizes that make up a
geological formation.
It is a fundamental piece of data that provides information on the
origin and mode of formation and transport of the material under
study. Granulometry has become a common technique in many
laboratories. The techniques employed are varied.
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
1-Manual sieving:
- The sediment is placed at the top of the column, then the sieves are
shaken, either dry or in the presence of water.
- After a few minutes, the sediment separates into several fractions
according to the size of its constituents: these are the granulometric
fractions. These fractions are then Weighing,
- These measurements are then used to construct granulometric
curves that provide information on the sediment's depositional
environment.
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
1-Manual sieving:
It's an ancient technique, simple and easy to use. It is still used today,
even if other modern techniques are much more precise and rapid.
The principle consists of using a series of sieves nested one inside the
other (known a s a "column of sieves", comprising at least ten or so
sieves), with increasing mesh sizes (the sieves placed at the bottom
are the finest).
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
1-Manual sieving:
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
2- A modern technique: the laser granulometry
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
2- A modern technique: the laser granulometry
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
2- A modern technique: the laser granulometry
- This technique was created in the 1970s.
- Like other particle sizing techniques, it is based on Stokes' law, The
smaller the particle size, the slower the falling speed during
sedimentation. This relationship is a fundamental principle in
sedimentation processes, where particles with smaller sizes tend to
settle more slowly due to lower mass and increased drag forces from
the surrounding medium.
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
2- A modern technique: the laser granulometry
- Compared with sieving, laser particle sizing offers a number of
advantages: it's very fast and very accurate. In just a few minutes, the
analysis is complete, and the granulometric curves are provided
automatically by the machine. The problem with this method is its
high cost.
- What's more, the machines are rare, and few university laboratories
have them
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
3- Grading Curves:
Sieve size curves are based on the
results of the particle size analysis, and
are produced either manually or
automatically (see the example of a
curve). Several types of curves are
used, such as histograms or cumulative
curves.
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Sedimentology
Granulometry:
3- Grading Curves:
We'll be looking to determine the different granulometric classes of
sediment, followed by several parameters such as average size (Md).
These results will then be interpreted, providing interesting
information about the environment in which the sediment was
deposited (was it aquatic? Wind? Marine? What was the current
speed? etc.).
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Sedimentology
Morphoscopy and Exoscopy of Quartz grains:
Both techniques focus on the quartz grains contained in the sediment.
Quartz is a very resistant mineral (it does not alter easily), and is
therefore often abundant in the sediment: it is the dominant
constituent of the sandy fraction.
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Sedimentology
Morphoscopy and Exoscopy of Quartz grains:
Morphoscopy is a technique founded in 1942 by a French scientist,
while Exoscopy is more recent (1970s). Both techniques are widely
used today: morphoscopy, which is older, is very easy to use (a simple
binocular magnifier is required), but gives less accurate results.
Exoscopy, on the other hand, is highly accurate, but requires
sophisticated and very expensive equipment (a scanning electron
microscope, or SEM, is needed).
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Sedimentology
Morphoscopy and Exoscopy of Quartz grains:
By studying the shape and appearance of the surface of quartz grains,
these two techniques enable us to reconstruct the origin and
sedimentary history of the grains, and therefore of the sediment.
In fact, depending on the environment in which they are found, quartz
grains acquire a different shape and appearance.
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Sedimentology
Morphoscopy and Exoscopy of Quartz grains:
Example:
- In a windy environment, quartz grains are carried along by the wind,
and undergo numerous impacts against each other. These grains are
of the 'round matte' type, highly worn, with characteristic marks on
their surface, such as V-shaped or crescent-shaped impact marks.
- In a glacial environment, the grains are crushed against each other
and break: these are 'unused' grains on which traces of mechanical
wear, such as grinding marks or striations, can be found
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Sedimentology
X-ray diffractometry (XRD) of clays:
- The clay fraction of a sediment is the finest fraction, less than 2 μm
in size. It is invisible to the optical microscope, so it is studied using
XRD or SEM.
- It is composed of a mixture of minerals, both clay minerals (which
are minerals with the appearance of 'sheets', of the phyllosilicate
family), but also many other minerals (quartz, feldspars, iron
oxides...).
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Sedimentology
X-ray diffractometry (XRD) of
clays:
- X-Ray diffraction on clay
preparations produces
spectra that identify the
minerals present, and their
respective abundance (see
following figure).
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Sedimentology
X-ray diffractometry (XRD) of clays:
- Interpretation is complex, but to simplify, each peak corresponds
to one mineral. The area of the peak is proportional to the
proportion of mineral present and its degree of crystallinity.
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Sedimentology
Sedimentary rocks
- A sedimentary rock forms after sediment deposition, following
diagenesis.
- Diagenesis encompasses all the physical, chemical and biological
processes that affect a sedimentary deposit, gradually
transforming it into solid sedimentary rock.
- In the case of marine sediments, diagenesis begins on the
seabed and continues throughout the burial process, i.e. as
other sediments cover the deposit.
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Sedimentology
Sedimentary rocks
- Diagenesis processes are varied and complex (compaction,
cementation, dissolution, recrystallization, replacement of
certain minerals).
- Cementation is the main diagenetic process responsible for the
transition from sediment to rock.
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Sedimentology
Sedimentary rocks
- Sedimentary rocks represent around 5% of the total volume of
the earth's crust (a small volume compared with metamorphic
or magmatic rocks), but around 75% of the total surface area of
land.
- 3/4 of all human settlements are therefore located on
sedimentary rock, which is of great importance
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Sedimentology
The main types of sedimentary rock:
- There are three main groups of sedimentary rocks, depending on
how they were formed:
1-detrital rocks (= silico-clastic or terrigenous) : They consist of
mineral particles derived from the weathering of pre-existing rocks. As
they are material derived from the continents (i.e. the "earth"), they
are also called "terrigenous".
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Sedimentology
The main types of sedimentary rock:
1-detrital rocks (= silico-clastic or terrigenous) : These particles are
transported by water, ice, wind or gravity currents, and are deposited
when the speed of the transporting agent decreases (or when the ice
melts). When detrital rocks consist mainly of quartz fragments, they
are also known as 'siliciclastic' or 'silicoclastic’.
Detrital rocks are generally classified according to the grain size of
their constituents. They make up nearly 85% of all sedimentary rocks
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Sedimentology
The main types of sedimentary rock:
2-biogenic, biochemical or organic rocks :
- In some cases, the action of organisms modifies the chemical
environment, and sediment is precipitated directly from
supersaturated marine or lake waters.
- In others, organisms use carbonates, phosphates and silicates to
form their shells or bones, and it is their remains that make up the
sedimentary rocks.
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Sedimentology
The main types of sedimentary rock:
3-Rock of chemical origin:
- They result from the precipitation (purely physico-chemical) of
minerals in a supersaturated medium. Evaporites(anhydrite, halite,
gypsum, sylvite...) are the best example.
- they are formed by the evaporation of brines. The relative
importance of these rocks is low (around 1%).
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Sedimentology
The main types of sedimentary rock:
Summary:
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Sedimentology
Petrography:
is the science that studies rocks (from the
Greek 'petra' = stone and 'graphein' = to write).
To describe and observe rocks, we use a special
microscope called a polarizing microscope. This
microscope differs from the more common
biological microscope in that it is equipped with
a turntable and two polarizing filters (one
above = the analyzer and one below = the
polarizer).
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Sedimentology
Petrography:
Before observing the rocks, we need to prepare a thin slide: we cut
the rock into small cubes (called 'sugars'), then glue them onto a glass
slide and refine them until they become transparent and allow light to
pass through (their thickness is then around 30 μm).
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