Physics 1214
Chapter 13
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
A fluid is any substance that can flow; we use the term for
both liquids and gases. Usually, gases are easily compressed
while liquids are quite incompressible.
Fluid statics: the study of fluids at rest (in equilibrium). Based
on Newton’s second and third laws.
Fluid dynamics: the study of fluids in motion. Millennium Prize Problems:
Navier–Stokes Existence and Smoothness
Fluid dynamics is much more complex and indeed is one
of the most mathematically sophisticated branches of
mechanics.
However, we can analyze many important situations with
simple idealized models and familiar principles such as
Newton’s laws and conservation of mass and energy.
Density
The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume.
𝑚𝑚
ρ= Units: 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑉
All objects made of a given material have the same density,
irrespective of their size. A homogeneous material such as ice or iron
has the same density throughout.
The specific gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water; it is
a pure (unitless) number. 𝜌𝜌
𝜌𝜌0
Density
Example 13.1
Find the mass of air and its weight in a living room that has a 4.0 𝑚𝑚 × 5.0 𝑚𝑚 floor and a
ceiling 3.0 𝑚𝑚 high. What are the mass and weight of an equal volume of water?
Pressure in a Fluid
When a fluid (either liquid or gas) is at rest, it exerts a force
perpendicular to any surface in contact with it, such as the
wall of a container or the surface of a body immersed in it.
The fluid on either side of a surface within a fluid exerts
forces on it.
Since the fluid is in equilibrium, the forces acting on the two
sides must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
and they must be oriented perpendicular to the surface.
Similarly, any surface of an object immersed in the fluid is
acted upon by a force perpendicular to the surface.
Pressure in a Fluid
We define the pressure at a point in a fluid as the ratio of the perpendicular force on a
small area around that point to the area.
𝐹𝐹⊥ 2 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝 = Units: 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐴 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 100 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere—the pressure
in the sea of air in which we live.
This pressure varies with weather changes and with elevation. The average
atmospheric pressure at sea level is used as a unit of pressure called the
atmosphere (atm), defined as:
1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 14.7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.013 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1013 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Example 13.2
Consider the room described in Example 13.1. What is the total force on the floor due
to the air above the surface if the air pressure is 1.00 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎?
𝐹𝐹⊥
𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴
Pascal’s Law
We can derive a general relationship between the pressure 𝑝𝑝
at any point in an incompressible fluid in a gravitational field
and the depth below the fluid surface, ℎ.
The top surface of the element is at ℎ = 0 and pressure 𝑝𝑝1 .
The bottom surface lies at depth ℎ below the top surface.
The area of each of these surfaces is 𝐴𝐴.
The height of the element is ℎ, its volume is 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴, its mass is
𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌, and its weight has magnitude 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
∑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴 − 𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴 − 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 0
𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
Pascal’s Law
We’re interested in the pressure 𝑝𝑝 at a depth ℎ below the surface.
𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
If the pressure at the top surface is increased (by inserting a piston
on the top surface and pressing down) the pressure at any depth
must increase by the same amount.
This fact was recognized in 1653 by the French scientist Blaise Pascal.
Pascal’s law:
Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.
The pressure depends only on depth; the shape of the container Blaise Pascal
(1623–1662)
does not matter.
[Link]
Pascal’s Law
Liquid rises to the same height in all of the arms, regardless of their
shape. This is the level at which 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .
At any level below the surface, the pressure is the same in all four arms.
A piston with a small cross-sectional area 𝐴𝐴1 exerts a force
with magnitude 𝐹𝐹1 on the surface of a liquid such as oil.
The pressure 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝐹1 /𝐴𝐴1 is transmitted through the connecting
pipe to a piston with a larger area 𝐴𝐴2 .
The two pistons are at the same height, so they experience
the same pressure 𝑝𝑝:
𝐹𝐹1 𝐹𝐹2 𝐴𝐴2
𝑝𝑝 = = ⇒ 𝐹𝐹2 = 𝐹𝐹1
𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1
The hydraulic jack is a force-amplifying device with an
amplification factor equal to the ratio 𝐴𝐴2 ⁄𝐴𝐴1 of the areas
of the two pistons.
Example 13.3
Suppose the hydraulic lift shown has a small cylindrical piston with radius 5.0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 and a
larger piston with radius 20 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. The mass of a car placed on the larger piston’s
platform is 1000 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
A. Assuming that the two pistons are at the same
height, what force must be applied to the small
piston to lift the car?
B. How far must the small piston move down to lift
the car through a height of 0.10 𝑚𝑚?
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
In many situations, we are more interested in pressure differences than in the absolute
value of the pressure.
If the pressure inside a car tire is equal to atmospheric pressure, then the tire is flat.
This will be true no matter what the actual value of atmospheric pressure is.
The quantity of interest is the difference between the inside and outside pressures. If
the pressure in a car tire is “32 pounds” (32 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 = 32𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 220 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘), means the
pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure by that amount.
The excess pressure above atmospheric pressure is usually called the gauge pressure,
and the total pressure is called the absolute pressure.
𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Excess pressure is called gauge pressure because it is, in fact, what many pressure
gauges measure.
If the pressure is less than atmospheric (partial vacuum), gauge pressure is negative.
Example 13.4
A solar water-heating system uses solar panels on the roof, 12.0 𝑚𝑚 above the storage
tank. The pressure at the level of the panels is 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
A. What is the absolute pressure at the top of the tank?
B. The gauge pressure?
Pressure Gauges
The simplest pressure gauge is the open-tube manometer.
The U-shaped tube contains a liquid; one end of the
tube is connected to the container in which the pressure
is to be measured, and the other end is open to the
atmosphere at pressure.
The fluid pressure at any given level in the right-hand
tube must be equal to the pressure at the same level in
the left-hand tube.
On the left side, the pressure at the surface is simply
𝑝𝑝0 and on the right side 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
Pressure Gauges
Another common pressure gauge is the mercury
barometer; it consists of a long glass tube, closed at
one end, that has been filled with mercury and then
inverted in a dish of mercury.
The space above the mercury column contains only
mercury vapor; the pressure of the vapor is
negligibly small 𝑝𝑝1 ≈ 0 .
At a depth ℎ in the column: 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
But 𝑝𝑝2 must be equal to atmospheric pressure, since it is
at the level of the liquid surface in the dish.
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 1 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 133.32 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
Example 13.5
Compute the atmospheric pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 on a day when the
height of mercury in a barometer is 76.0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
Archimedes’s Principle: Buoyancy
Archimedes’s principle:
When an object is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the
fluid exerts an upward force on the object equal to the weight of
the fluid that is displaced by the object.
Consider an arbitrary volume element of fluid at rest (in equilibrium).
Forces are exerted on the surface of the element by the surrounding
fluid due to the pressure of the fluid.
Since the entire beaker of fluid is in equilibrium: ∑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0
∑𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = ∑𝐹𝐹⊥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0
Also, the sum of the torques of these forces must be zero, so the line of action of the
resultant component of surface forces must pass through the center of gravity of this
portion of fluid.
Archimedes’s Principle: Buoyancy
Suppose that we remove the chosen element of fluid and replace
it with a solid object having exactly the same shape.
The pressure at each point on the surface of this object is the
same as before, so the total upward force exerted on the object
by the surrounding fluid is equal in magnitude to the weight of
the fluid that formerly occupied this spot.
We call this upward force the buoyant force on the solid object.
𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 = ∑𝐹𝐹⊥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The object need not have the same weight as the fluid it replaces.
Object sinks: 𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 > 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 = 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑜𝑜
= =
Object rises: 𝑤𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 < 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 = 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓
Objects that are denser than the surrounding fluid sink; those that are less dense.
Example 13.7
A 15.0 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 solid-gold statue is being raised from a sunken
treasure ship
A. Find the tension in the hoisting cable when the statue is
completely immersed.
B. Find the tension when the statue is completely out of the
water.
Surface Tension
Water molecules attract each other.
Below the water’s surface, a molecule is equally attracted in
all directions.
At the surface, a molecule is attracted to the molecules
around and below it, but not to the overlying air.
A drop of liquid in free fall in vacuum is always spherical in
shape because a surface under tension tends to have the
minimum possible area.
A sphere has a smaller surface
area for a given volume than
any other geometric shape.
Surface Tension
If a film apparatus is dipped into a soap solution and removed,
there will be an upward surface-tension force.
The slider is pulled down, increasing the area of the film the
molecules move from the interior of the liquid into the surface layers.
The surface layers do not stretch like a rubber sheet. Instead,
more surface is created by molecules moving from the bulk liquid.
The film has two surfaces, so the surface force acts along a total length 2𝑙𝑙.
Surface Tension: The ratio of the magnitude 𝐹𝐹 of the surface force to the
length 𝑑𝑑 (perpendicular to the force) along which the force acts.
Surface tension is a force per unit length that the surface of liquid applies to a
boundary and is a property of the liquid: 𝐹𝐹
𝛾𝛾 = Units: 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑑
Surface Tension
𝐹𝐹
In the case of the sliding wire, 𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑙𝑙 and 𝛾𝛾 =
2𝑙𝑙
Typical values of for familiar liquids are in the range from 20 to
100 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
The surface tension for a particular liquid usually decreases as its
temperature increases.
Surface tension tends to pull the surface of a soap
bubble inward, collapsing it. Excess pressure inside the
bubble is needed to maintain its spherical shape.
The excess pressure for a soap bubble with radius 𝑅𝑅,
due to surface tension, is: 4𝛾𝛾
𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅
2𝛾𝛾
A liquid droplet has only one surface film: 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅
Example 13.8
Mercury has an unusually high surface tension, about 465 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.
Calculate the excess pressure inside a drop of mercury 4.00 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in diameter.
Fluid Flow
An ideal fluid is a fluid that is both incompressible and has no internal friction (viscosity).
The path of an individual element of a moving fluid is called a flow line.
If the overall flow pattern does not change with time, the flow is called steady flow.
In steady flow, every element passing through a given point follows the same
flow line.
In this case, the “map” of the fluid velocities at various points in space remains
constant, although the velocity of a particular particle of the fluid changes in both
magnitude and direction during its motion.
Fluid Flow
Flow lines for motion of a fluid
flowing from left to right around
three different obstacles.
These patterns are typical of
laminar flow, in which adjacent
layers of fluid slide smoothly past
each other.
At high flow rates, the boundary surfaces cause abrupt changes
in velocity, the flow becomes irregular and chaotic; this is called
turbulent flow.
In turbulent flow, there is no steady-state pattern; the flow pattern
continuously changes.
Continuity Equation
Conservation of mass in fluid flow gives us an
important relationship called the continuity equation.
If the flow rate of a river with constant width is the
same everywhere along a certain length, the water must
run faster where it is shallow than where it is deep.
The stream of water from a faucet tapers down in width because
the water speeds up as it falls and a smaller diameter is needed
to carry the same volume flow rate as at the top.
Continuity Equation
We can turn these observations into a quantitative relationship. We’ll
consider only incompressible fluids, for which the density is constant.
During a small time interval Δ𝑡𝑡, the fluid at 𝐴𝐴1 moves a distance 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡.
The volume of fluid Δ𝑉𝑉1 that flows into the tube across 𝐴𝐴1
during this interval is the fluid in the cylindrical element
with base 𝐴𝐴1 and height 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡: Δ𝑉𝑉1 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡
The mass Δ𝑚𝑚1 that flows into the tube across 𝐴𝐴1 during
time Δ𝑡𝑡 is: Δ𝑚𝑚1 = 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉1 = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡
Similarly for mass Δ𝑚𝑚2 : Δ𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉2 = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 Δ𝑡𝑡
In steady flow the total mass in the tube is constant: Δ𝑚𝑚1 = Δ𝑚𝑚2
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 Δ𝑡𝑡 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2
Continuity Equation
This equation expresses conservation of mass for an incompressible
fluid flowing in a tube or some other channel.
It says that the amount (either mass or volume) of fluid
flowing through a cross section of the tube in a given
time interval must be the same for all cross sections:
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = constant ⇒ 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 Units: 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is the volume flow rate, the volume of fluid flowing through the pipe per second.
Δ𝑚𝑚/Δ𝑡𝑡 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 is the mass flow rate, the time rate at which a given mass crosses a
section of the tube.
Bernoulli’s Equation
When an incompressible fluid flows along a flow tube with varying cross section,
the flow speed must change
Each element of fluid must have an acceleration, and the force that causes this
acceleration has to be applied by the surrounding fluid.
When an element of the fluid speeds up, we know that it is moving from a region of
higher pressure to one of lower pressure; the pressure difference provides the net
forward force needed to accelerate it.
When the cross section of a flow tube changes, the pressure must vary along the tube,
even when there is no difference in elevation. If the elevation also changes, this causes
an additional pressure difference.
Bernoulli’s Equation
To derive Bernoulli’s equation, use the work–energy theorem:
∑𝑊𝑊𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = Δ𝐸𝐸
Consider as our system the segment of fluid that lies between the two
cross sections 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑐𝑐 at some initial time.
The speed at the upstream end is 𝑣𝑣1 and the pressure there is 𝑝𝑝1 .
In a small time interval the fluid initially at 𝑎𝑎 moves to 𝑏𝑏,
a distance Δ𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑣𝑣1 Δ𝑡𝑡.
In the same time interval, the fluid initially at 𝑐𝑐 moves to
𝑑𝑑, a distance Δ𝑠𝑠2 = 𝑣𝑣2 Δ𝑡𝑡.
Because of the continuity relationship, the volume of fluid
passing any cross section during time is the same at both ends:
Δ𝑉𝑉1 = Δ𝑉𝑉2 ⇒ 𝐴𝐴1 Δ𝑠𝑠1 = 𝐴𝐴2 Δ𝑠𝑠2
Bernoulli’s Equation
The net work done on the segment by the adjacent fluid during this displacement is:
∑𝑊𝑊𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴1 Δ𝑠𝑠1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴2 Δ𝑠𝑠2 = 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 Δ𝑉𝑉
The net change in potential energy during is:
Δ𝑈𝑈 = Δ𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑦𝑦2 − Δ𝑚𝑚𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦1 = 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1
The net change in kinetic energy during time is :
1 2
1 1
2 = 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑣 2
Δ𝐾𝐾 = Δ𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣2 − Δ𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣1 2 1
2 2 2
Now we combine all these in the work–energy theorem:
∑𝑊𝑊𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = Δ𝐸𝐸 = Δ𝐾𝐾 + Δ𝑈𝑈
1
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 Δ𝑉𝑉 = 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12 + 𝜌𝜌Δ𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦1 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 = constant
2 2 2
Example 13.9
Water enters a house through a pipe with an
inside diameter of 2.0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 at a gauge pressure of
4.0 × 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (about 4 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, or 60 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛2 ).
The cold-water pipe leading to the second-floor
bathroom 5.0 𝑚𝑚 above is 1.0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 in diameter.
A. Find the flow speed and gauge pressure in the
bathroom when the flow speed at the inlet
pipe is 2.0 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠.
B. How much time would be required to fill a
100 𝐿𝐿 bathtub with cold water?
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Speed of efflux; Torricelli’s theorem
A gasoline storage tank with cross-sectional area 𝐴𝐴1 filled
to a depth ℎ with a liquid of density 𝜌𝜌.
The space above the gasoline is vented to the atmosphere, so
it contains air at atmospheric pressure 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and the gasoline
flows out through a short pipe with cross-sectional area 𝐴𝐴2 .
How fast does the gasoline run out?
1 2 1 2
𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦1
2 2 𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1
1 2 1 2
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦1 ⇒ 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴2
2 2 𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑣2
𝐴𝐴1
𝑣𝑣2 = 2𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑣𝑣1 ≪ 𝑣𝑣2
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
Collapse of a blood vessel
the cross-sectional area of the healthy portion of the
blood vessel is 𝐴𝐴1 while the cross-sectional area of the
narrowing is 𝐴𝐴2 .
The continuity equation can be used to find the speed in the
narrow part of the vessel:
𝐴𝐴1
𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑣1
𝐴𝐴2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦2 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
1 𝐴𝐴1 1 2 𝐴𝐴1
Δ𝑝𝑝 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑣12 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 −1
2 𝐴𝐴2 2 𝐴𝐴2
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
A Venturi Meter is a device used to measure flow speed in a pipe.
The difference in height of the fluid in the two vertical
tubes is directly related to flow speed:
𝑝𝑝1 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦1
⇒ 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 𝑣𝑣2 𝐴𝐴1
𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝑦𝑦2
𝐴𝐴2 𝑣𝑣2 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣𝑣1 ⇒ =
𝑣𝑣1 𝐴𝐴2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
𝑝𝑝1 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 ⇒ 𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣2 − 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 = 𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣22 − 𝑣𝑣12
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2 𝑣𝑣2 1 2 𝐴𝐴1 1 2 𝐴𝐴1
𝑝𝑝1 − 𝑝𝑝2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 − 1 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 − 1 ⇒ 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣1 −1
2 𝑣𝑣1 2 𝐴𝐴2 2 𝐴𝐴2
2𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑣𝑣1 =
𝐴𝐴1 ⁄𝐴𝐴2 2 − 1
Magnus Effect
3 mins
Viscosity
Viscosity is internal friction in a fluid; viscous forces oppose the motion of one portion
of a fluid relative to another.
An ideal fluid, the model we used to derive the Bernoulli equation, has no viscosity, but
in real fluids, especially liquids, effects associated with viscosity are often significant.
A viscous fluid always tends to cling to a solid surface that is in contact with it. There is
always a thin boundary layer of fluid near the surface in which the fluid is almost at
rest with respect to the surface.
The flow velocity is different at different points of a cross section.
The outermost layer of fluid clings to the walls, so the speed
is zero at the pipe walls.
𝑣𝑣 vs. 𝑟𝑟
The walls exert a backward drag on this layer, which in
turn drags backward on the next layer inward, and so on.
The flow speed is greatest along the axis of the pipe.