CHAPTER THREE: CNC Router Components

3.1 Frame
3.1.1 general material
3.1.1 lower assembly
3.1.1 upper assembly(gantry)
3.2 Lead screw
3.2.1 Lead screw calculation
3.2.2 Lead screw selection
3.3 Motor
3.3.1 Motor overview
3.3.2 Motor selection
3.4 Spindle
3.4.1 Spindle calculation
3.4.2 Spindle selection
3.5 Electrical component
3.5.1 controller
3.5.2 Electrical component selection
 3.1 Frame
The frame of a CNC router is one of the fundamental components that influences
the machine's stability, accuracy, and performance.

Purpose of the Frame

• Structural Support: The frame provides the necessary rigidity and stability to support
the movement of the machine's components, such as the spindle and gantry.[1]
• Vibration Dampening: A well-constructed frame minimizes vibrations during
operation, which is crucial for achieving precision in machining.[1]

Fig 1.1 CNC Router Frame

3.1.1 General Material
Common materials for CNC router frames include:
A. Steel
Description: A strong and durable material, often used in industrial
applications.[2]
- Properties:
• Density:7.85 g/cm³ (heavy)
• Yield Strength:250-800 MPa (varies with grade)
• Hardness:120-180 HB
• Thermal Conductivity:50 W/m·K
• Elastic Modulus:200 GPa

• Advantages:
o High rigidity and strength, providing excellent vibration dampening.[2]
o Suitable for heavy-duty applications and larger machines.
o Can handle higher cutting forces and is less prone to flexing.[2]
• Disadvantages:
o Heavier than other materials, making it less portable.[2]
o Prone to corrosion unless properly coated or treated.[2]
o Requires more effort and resources for machining and welding.[2]

Type of Steel

1. 304 stainless steel [4]

2. 316 stainless steel [4]
3. 416 stainless steel [4]
4. Stainless steel grade 630 [4]
5. Stainless steels [4]
6. 316 stainless steel [4]

Fig 1.2 cnc router machine with steel frame

 B. Aluminum
Description: A lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal, commonly used in CNC
router frames.[2]

• Advantages:
o Lightweight, making it easier to handle and transport.[2]
o Good strength-to-weight ratio, providing decent rigidity.[2]
o Corrosion-resistant, requiring less maintenance.[2]
o Easier to machine compared to steel.[2]
• Disadvantages:
o Not as strong as steel, which may lead to flexing under high loads.[2]
o More expensive than some steel options.[2]
o May require additional bracing for larger frames.[2]

Type of Aluminum

AL-2020
92% AL + 4.5% CU + 1.5% Mg + 2% Mn
a) high strength-to-weight ratio [5]
b) excellent weldability [5]
c) good formability [5]
d) tensile strength rating of 258 MPa [5]
e) yield strength rating is 225 MPa [5]
f) elongation rate of 10% [5]
g) strong corrosion resistance [5] Fig 1.4 AL 2020

AL-2024
(90.7%-94.7%) AL + 0.5% Si +0.5% Fe +(3.8%-4.9%) Cu +(0.3%-0.9%) Mn +
(1.2%-1.8%) Mg +0.1% Cr +0.25% Zn +0.15% Ti +( 0.05%-0.15%) another element
a) Ultimate Tensile Strength: ~470 MPa [5]
b) Yield Strength: ~325 MPa [5]
c) Elongation at Break: 10–15% (depending on form and heat treatment) [5]
d) Fatigue Strength: ~140 MPa [5]
e) Modulus of Elasticity: ~73 GPa [5]
f) Moderate corrosion resistance [5]
g) Poor weldability [5]
h) good formability [5]
i) high fatigue resistance [5]
 Fig 1.5 AL 2024

Aluminum Profile (2040):

- Properties:
• Density: 2.70 g/cm³ (lightweight)
• Yield Strength:200 MPa (varies with alloy)
• Hardness:60-85 HB (Brinell hardness)
• Thermal Conductivity150-235 W/m·K
• Elastic Modulus:69 GPa
- Advantages:
• Lightweight yet strong, reducing the machine's overall weight
• Corrosion-resistant, ideal for long-term usage
• Easy to assemble and modify using standard T-slot hardware
• Aesthetic appearance and versatility in design
- Disadvantages:
• Relatively expensive compared to steel
• May lack the rigidity of heavier materials, although sufficient for
most small-to-medium CNC machines
 Fig 1.6 Aluminum and Steel Graph

C. Composite Materials

• Description: Materials made from a combination of two or more constituent

materials (e.g., carbon fiber, fiberglass).[2]
• Advantages:
o Lightweight and high strength, excellent for reducing overall weight.[2]
o Good vibration dampening properties.[2]
o Corrosion-resistant and can be molded into complex shapes.[2]
• Disadvantages:
o More expensive than metals.[2]
o May require specialized machining techniques.[2]
o Less common for heavy-duty applications, which could limit the
design.[2]

Fig 1.8
Fig 1.8
D. Wood

Description: Some smaller or hobbyist CNC routers use wood for the frame.[2]

- Properties:
• Density:0.6-0.8 g/cm³
• Elastic Modulus:3-4 GPa
• Advantages
• Affordable and easy to work with
• Disadvantages
• Low rigidity and susceptible to warping

• Advantages:
o Can provide adequate stability for small-scale applications.[2]
o Lightweight and easy to modify or repair.[2]
• Disadvantages:
o Less rigid than metal options, leading to potential flexing.[2]
o Susceptible to warping, swelling, and degradation over time.[2]
o Limited lifespan in comparison to metals.[2]

Fig 1.9 cnc router machine with wood frame

E. Cast Iron
- Properties:
• Density: 7.2 g/cm³
• Yield Strength:150-300 MPa
• Hardness:150-250 HB
• Thermal Conductivity:50-60 W/m·K
• Elastic Modulus:100-125 GPa
Advantages:
• Superior vibration damping and stability under load
• High rigidity and durability
Disadvantages:
• Extremely heavy and expensive to manufacture

F. Composite Materials (Epoxy Granite)

- Properties:
• Density:2.3-3.0 g/cm³
• Thermal Conductivity:2-4 W/m·K
• Elastic Modulus:25-50 GPa
Advantages:
• Outstanding vibration damping and thermal stability
Disadvantages:
• Limited strength under extreme loads

G. Plastic (HDPE, Acrylic)

- Properties:
• Density:0.94-1.19 g/cm³
• Elastic Modulus:0.8-3 GPa
Advantages:
• Lightweight and cost-effective for small-scale machines
Disadvantages
• Limited rigidity and structural strength
Conclusion:
- The 2040 aluminum profile is widely used due to its excellent balance of
strength, weight, and ease of customization.
 - Its high thermal conductivity ensures stability in fluctuating temperatures, and
the modular T-slot design makes it accessible for both professionals and hobbyists.
3.1.1 Lower Assembly
Definition
• The table bed is the flat surface where the workpiece is secured during the CNC
routing process. It is designed to support the weight of the material and
withstand cutting forces.

Fig 1.8 CNC Router Bed

Functionality
• The table bed serves as the primary mounting surface for the workpiece and is
crucial for maintaining precision during cutting operations. It ensures that the
workpiece remains stable and aligned with the cutting tool.

Components
• Base Plate: The main surface of the table bed, often made from materials like
aluminum, steel, or a composite material.
• T-slot Channels: Incorporated into the table surface to allow for clamping and
securing workpieces using T-slot nuts and bolts.

Fig 1.10 T-Slot Channel

• Vacuum or Clamp System: Many CNC routers feature a vacuum table or clamps
to hold the workpiece securely in place.

Design Considerations
• Material Selection: Common materials include:
▪ Aluminum: Lightweight and corrosion-resistant, offering good rigidity.[2]
▪ Steel: Provides excellent strength and stability, suitable for heavy-duty
applications.[2]
▪ MDF or Phenolic Resin: Used for lighter-duty machines, offering a smooth
surface for cutting.[1]
• Flatness and Rigidity: The table bed must be flat to ensure accurate machining
and rigid enough to withstand cutting forces without deforming.[1]
• Size: The dimensions of the table bed dictate the maximum size of workpieces
that can be accommodated.[1]

Impact on Performance
o The design and quality of the table bed directly affect the accuracy and
quality of the finished parts. A sturdy, well-designed table bed can
minimize vibrations and movement, leading to better machining
results.[1]

3.1.1 upper assembly(gantry)

Definition
• The gantry is a structure that supports the cutting tool or spindle and moves
along the Y-axis of the CNC router. It typically spans the width of the machine
and is mounted on the frame.[1]

Fig 1.6 CNC Router Gantry

 Functionality
• The gantry enables horizontal movement across the workpiece, allowing the
cutting tool to access different areas. It usually moves on linear rails, which
provide smooth motion.[1]
Components
• Frame: The main structure of the gantry, usually made of aluminum or steel,
providing strength and rigidity.[1]
• Linear Motion Systems: These include rails and bearings that allow for smooth,
precise movement along the X-axis.[1]
• Drive Mechanism: Typically, a belt or screw drive system, which translates
motor movement into gantry motion.[1]

Fig 1.7 CNC Router Side View

 Design Considerations
• Weight: The gantry must be lightweight yet rigid enough to minimize vibrations
during operation.[1]
• Stability: A stable gantry is essential for maintaining accuracy during
machining. Design choices like cross-bracing can enhance stability.[1]
• Size: The size of the gantry will determine the maximum cutting area of the
CNC router.[1]
Types of Gantries
• Traditional Gantry: A fixed structure that supports the spindle and moves in a
linear fashion.[1]
• Bridge Gantry: A variation where the gantry spans over the work area, allowing
for larger machining capabilities.[1]
Impact on Performance
• The design and construction of the gantry directly influence the precision,
speed, and capabilities of the CNC router. A well-designed gantry can reduce
flexing and vibrations, leading to better machining results.[1]

3.2 Lead screw

3.2.1 Lead screw calculation
Lead Screw TR 8x8
Mass = 10 kg → W (load) = 98.1 N
Lead (L) = 8 mm
Thread Angle (α) = 30°
Friction Coefficient (μ) = 0.15 (assumption)
Efficiency (η) = ??

Lead Angle (λ):

tan(λ) = L / πd
= 8 / π(8)
= 0.318 → λ = 17.62°

Efficiency of Lead Screw (η):

η = [cos(λ) - μ * cos(α)] / [cos(λ) + μ * cos(α)]
= [cos(17.62°) - 0.15 * cos(30°)] / [cos(17.62°) + 0.15 * cos(30°)]
= 0.7559
Let the lead screw be turned at a speed of 100 RPM:
V = Lead * RPM = 8 * (100 / 60) = 13.3333 mm/s
It means the linear velocity of the nut is 13.3333 mm/s and the efficiency is
75.59%.

Shear Stress (τ):

τ=W/A
A = π/4 * d² = π/4 * (8)² = 50.27 mm²
τ = 98.1 / 50.27 = 1.95 MPa

Normal Stress (σ):

σ = W / A_contact
A_contact = 2 * Lead * d = 2 * 8 * 8 = 128 mm²
σ = 98.1 / 128 = 0.77 MPa

Using Von Mises Stress:

σ_vm = √(σ² + 3τ²)
= √((0.77)² + 3(1.95)²)
= 3.46 MPa

Yield Strength for Steel 38 (σ_y) = 450 MPa

σ_vm < σ_y → Lead Screw is safe.

Factor of Safety (FOS):

FOS = σ_y / σ_vm = 450 / 3.46 = 130

Torque Required (T):

T = F * L / (2π * η)
= 98.1 * 8 / (2π * 0.7559)
= 164.56 N-mm = 0.16456 N-m
3.2.2 Lead screw selection

A. T8x8 Lead Screw:

- Properties:
• Material: Typically made of stainless steel or carbon steel
• Diameter: 8 mm
• Pitch: 2 mm (4 starts, 8 mm lead)
• Hardness: 150-200 HB (Brinell hardness)
• Strength: Tensile strength 450-600 MPa (depending on material grade)
• Efficiency: 50-60% due to multi-start design
Advantages:
• High efficiency and smooth motion due to multi-start threads
• Durable and resistant to wear, making it suitable for high-precision
applications
• Balances load capacity and speed well for medium-to-heavy-duty CNC
machines
Disadvantages:
• More expensive compared to single-start screws

B. T8x2 Lead Screw:

- Properties:
• Diameter: 8 mm
• Pitch: 2 mm (single start)
• Hardness: 150-200 HB
• Strength: Tensile strength 450-600 MPa
• Efficiency: 35-40% (lower than multi-start screws)
Advantages:
• High precision due to smaller lead
• Cost-effective for low-speed, high-precision applications
 Disadvantages:
• Slower travel speed compared to multi-start screws
• Higher friction, leading to quicker wear

C. Trapezoidal (TR12x3) Lead Screw:

- Properties:
• Diameter: 12 mm
• Pitch: 3 mm (single start)
• Hardness: 160-220 HB
• Strength: Tensile strength 450-700 MPa
• Efficiency: 35-50%
Advantages:
• Higher load capacity due to larger diameter
• Suitable for heavy-duty CNC machines
Disadvantages:
• Slower travel speed
• Heavier and more expensive than smaller screws

D. Acme Lead Screw (1/2" x 10):

- Properties:
• Diameter: 1/2 inch ( 12.7 mm)
• Pitch: 10 TPI (Threads Per Inch, 2.54 mm lead)
• Hardness: 150-180 HB
• Strength: Tensile strength 400-600 MPa
• Efficiency: 35-50%
Advantages:
• Widely available and cost-effective
• Good balance of strength and precision
 Disadvantages:
• Lower efficiency compared to ball screws

E. Ball Screw:
- Properties:
• Diameter: Varies (e.g., 12 mm, 16 mm)
• Pitch: Varies (e.g., 5 mm lead)
• Hardness: 200-250 HB
• Strength: Tensile strength 600-900 MPa
• Efficiency: 90%
Advantages:
• High efficiency and minimal backlash
• Ideal for high-speed, high-precision applications
Disadvantages:
• Expensive and requires precise maintenance
• Susceptible to contamination without proper seals

Conclusion:
The T8x8 lead screw emerges as the most suitable choice for CNC machines that
require a balance between precision, speed, and durability. Its multi-start thread
design ensures faster operation without compromising accuracy, making it a reliable
and efficient component for medium-to-heavy-duty CNC machines.
3.3 Motor

3.3.1 Motor overview

Motors in CNC machines are responsible for translating electrical energy into
mechanical motion. They drive the movement of different components, including
the cutting tool, workpiece, and various axes of motion (such as X, Y, and Z axes in
3-axis CNC machines). The type of motor used determines the machine's speed,
precision, and capabilities.

Types of Motors
Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are widely used in CNC machines for their precise control over
position and speed. They move in discrete steps, making them ideal for applications
requiring accurate positioning, such as 3D printing and prototyping. However, they
may lack the speed and torque of other motor types.
Advantages
• Precise positioning
• Simple control system
• Cost-effective
Disadvantages
• Limited speed
• Lower torque compared to servo motors
• Susceptible to resonance issues

Fig 1.12
Servo Motors
Servo motors offer high performance and flexibility, making them suitable for a wide
range of CNC applications. Unlike stepper motors, servo motors operate based on
feedback from encoders, enabling precise control over speed, torque, and position.
They excel in high-speed machining and dynamic load handling.
Advantages
• High torque at high speeds
• Excellent positional accuracy
• Dynamic response to varying loads
Disadvantages
• Higher cost compared to stepper motors
• More complex control system
• Require tuning and maintenance

Fig 2
Linear Motors
Linear motors are relatively newer to the CNC industry but are gaining popularity
due to their unique advantages. Instead of rotational motion, linear motors produce
linear motion directly, eliminating the need for mechanical transmission components
like belts and screws. This design offers faster acceleration, smoother operation, and
higher precision.
Advantages
• Direct linear motion without mechanical components
• High speed and acceleration
• Minimal maintenance
Disadvantages
• Higher initial cost
• Limited availability for certain applications
• Sensitivity to environmental factors like dust and debris

Fig 3
3.3.2 Motor selection
A. NEMA 17 Stepper Motor:
- Scientific Properties:
• Frame Size: 1.7 inches (43.2 mm)
• Torque: ~20-60 oz-in (0.14-0.42 Nm)
• Step Angle: 1.8° (200 steps/revolution)
• Current Rating: ~1.0-2.0 A per phase
• Voltage Rating: Typically, 3-12 V
• Holding Torque: ~0.4 Nm (varies by model)

- Advantages:
• Compact and lightweight, suitable for small-to-medium CNC machines.
• Widely available and cost-effective.
• Sufficient torque for applications like 3D printing and light milling.
• Highly compatible with most stepper motor drivers.

- Disadvantages:
• Limited torque compared to larger motors.
• May overheat under heavy loads if not properly managed.
• Reasons for Suitability:
The NEMA 17 stepper motor is ideal for hobbyist and light industrial CNC
machines due to its balance of size, torque, and affordability. Its precision and
compatibility with common drivers make it a preferred choice.

B. NEMA 23 Stepper Motor:

- Scientific Properties:
• Frame Size: 2.3 inches (58.4 mm)
• Torque: ~100-300 oz-in (0.7-2.1 Nm)
• Step Angle: 1.8° (200 steps/revolution)
• Current Rating: ~2.0-3.0 A per phase
• Voltage Rating: Typically, 12-48 V
• Holding Torque: ~1.2 Nm (varies by model)
- Advantages:
• Higher torque, suitable for medium-duty CNC machines and milling
operations.
• Reliable for higher loads and cutting forces.
 - Disadvantages:
• Heavier and bulkier compared to NEMA 17.
• Higher cost and power requirements.

C. NEMA 34 Stepper Motor:

- Scientific Properties:
• Frame Size: 3.4 inches (86.4 mm)
• Torque: ~300-1200 oz-in (2.1-8.5 Nm)
• Step Angle: 1.8° (200 steps/revolution)
• Current Rating: ~3.0-6.0 A per phase
• Voltage Rating: Typically, 24-80 V
• Holding Torque: ~5 Nm (varies by model)
- Advantages:
• Exceptional torque, ideal for heavy-duty industrial CNC machines.
• Suitable for applications requiring significant cutting forces.
- Disadvantages:
• Very heavy and expensive.
• Requires specialized drivers and power supplies.

D. NEMA 14 Stepper Motor:

- Scientific Properties:
• Frame Size: 1.4 inches (35.6 mm)
• Torque: ~10-25 oz-in (0.07-0.18 Nm)
• Step Angle: 1.8° (200 steps/revolution)
• Current Rating: ~0.5-1.5 A per phase
• Voltage Rating: Typically, 3-6 V
- Advantages:
• Compact and lightweight, ideal for small-scale or portable CNC machines.
• Low power consumption.
- Disadvantages:
• Limited torque, unsuitable for heavy-duty applications.

- Conclusion:
The NEMA 17 stepper motor is the most suitable choice for CNC machines targeting
small-to-medium workloads, particularly for hobbyists and light industrial use. Its
compact size, affordability, and adequate torque make it versatile and efficient.
While larger motors like the NEMA 23 and NEMA 34 offer higher torque, they come
at the cost of increased weight, power requirements, and expense, which may not be
necessary for most applications.

3.4 Spindle
3.4.1 Spindle calculation
3.4.2 Spindle selection
3.5 Electrical component
3.5.1 controller
What is a CNC Router Controller?
A CNC router controller is the pivotal component of a CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) router system, tasked with interpreting digital commands and converting
them into precise movements and operations. Acting as the brain of the CNC router,
it coordinates the motors, drives, and other mechanical parts to accurately execute
instructions.
The controller receives numerical data from CAD (Computer-Aided Design) or
CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) software. This data typically includes
details on toolpaths, cutting parameters, and other specifications for the desired
machining task. Upon receiving the instructions, the controller processes this
information and generates signals to drive the motors that control the router’s X, Y,
and Z axes. Additionally, the controller may manage auxiliary functions such as
spindle speed, tool changes, and coolant systems, depending on the complexity of
the CNC router configuration.
There are different types of CNC router controllers available, ranging from basic
open-loop systems to more advanced closed-loop systems. Each type offers varying
levels of precision, speed, and functionality, catering to a wide array of applications
and user needs. The CNC router controller is integral to the world of computer-
controlled machining, ensuring the seamless operation of CNC routers.

Types of CNC router controllers

a) GRBL
GRBL is an open-source firmware designed for controlling CNC machines,
primarily using Arduino microcontrollers. Released in 2009, it has become a
cornerstone for DIY CNC enthusiasts, makers, and educators looking for an
affordable and customizable solution for CNC machining.
How Does GRBL Work? GRBL translates G-code commands into precise
movements of your CNC machine’s motors. When you provide digital instructions
(G-code), GRBL interprets them and sends signals to the motors, allowing.
 Fig 1.1 setup GRBL

Fig 1.2 GRBL circuit diagram

Key Features of GRBL
• Open Source: GRBL is licensed under GPLv3, which allows users to modify
and distribute the software. This encourages a collaborative community that
continually enhances the software.
• Lightweight: Designed to run efficiently on Arduino boards, GRBL has a small
memory footprint, making it accessible for a wide range of projects.
• Ease of Use: The straightforward interface and comprehensive documentation
make it easy for beginners to get started.
• Customization: Users can tailor GRBL settings to fit specific hardware
configurations and machining needs.

Common Uses of GRBL

• DIY CNC Routers: Ideal for hobbyists building their own CNC machines for
woodworking, metalworking, and other applications.
• Laser Cutters: Often used to control laser engravers and cutters, allowing for
intricate designs and patterns.
• 3D Printing: While primarily for CNC, GRBL can also be adapted for 3D
printers with certain modifications.

A simple guide to start using GRBL:

- Hardware Requirements
• Arduino Board: Commonly used boards include Arduino Uno or Mega.
• Stepper Motor Drivers: Such as A4988 or DRV8825 for controlling stepper
motors.
• CNC Machine Components: Including the frame, spindle, and other mechanical
parts.
- Software Installation
• Download GRBL: Get the latest version from the GRBL GitHub repository.
• Install Arduino IDE: Download and install the Arduino Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) from the official website.
- Uploading GRBL to Arduino
• Open the GRBL file in the Arduino IDE.
• Connect your Arduino board to your computer via USB.
• Select the correct board type and COM port in the IDE.
• Click on the "Upload" button to transfer GRBL to the Arduino.
 - Configuring GRBL
• Use a serial terminal (like PuTTY or the Arduino Serial Monitor) to send
commands to GRBL.
• Configure the settings according to your machine’s specifications (steps per
mm, acceleration, etc.) using G-code commands.
- Sending G-code Commands
• You can use various G-code sender software (like Universal Gcode Sender or
bCNC) to send commands to GRBL.
• Load your G-code file and start the CNC process.

A. Mach3
Mach3 is a software program that transforms a standard PC into a powerful 4-axis
CNC controller for machining operations. It is widely used in various industries and
by hobbyists to manage CNC machines such as lathes, mills, routers, lasers, plasma
cutters, and engravers.

Fig 1.3 Mach3

Key Features of Mach3

• CNC Control: Converts a standard PC into a fully featured 6-axis CNC
controller.
• File Import: Allows direct import of various file formats, including DXF, BMP,
JPG, and HPGL, through LazyCam.
 • Visual G-code Display: Offers a visual representation of the G-code for better
understanding.
• G-code Generation: Generates G-code via LazyCam or built-in Wizards.
• Customizable Interface: Users can customize the interface to suit their needs.
• M-Codes and Macros: Supports customizable M-Codes and macros using
VBscript for enhanced functionality.
• Spindle Speed Control: Allows for precise control of spindle speeds.
• Multiple Relay Control: Manage multiple relays for various functions.
• Manual Pulse Generation: Facilitates manual control of the machine.
• Video Display: Provides a video display of the machine in action.
• Touchscreen Capability: Supports touchscreen interfaces for easier navigation.
• Full-Screen Mode: Offers a full-screen mode for better visibility.

Wizards
Mach3 includes "Wizards," which are mini-programs that extend the software's
capabilities. These Wizards allow users to perform routine tasks without needing a
pre-written G-code file. Examples of included Wizards are:
• Gear Cutting
• Digitizing
• Holes and Slots
• Keyways
• Text Engraving
• Surfacing
• And many more
• Basic computer skills [3]
Advantages
- Versatility: Mach3 is compatible with various CNC routers and can be
customized to suit different machining needs.
- Customizability: Mach3’s customizable GUI and support for macros and plugins
allow users to tailor the software to their specific needs and workflow.
- Cost-Effective: Mach3 is available at a relatively low cost compared to some
other CNC control software options, making it an attractive choice for budget-
conscious users.
Disadvantages
- Compatibility Limitations: Mach3 is primarily designed for use with
Windows-based systems, limiting its compatibility with other operating
systems.
- Hardware Requirements: Mach3 requires a computer with sufficient
processing power and compatible hardware interfaces, which may necessitate
additional investment.
- Parallel Port Dependence: While Mach3 can interface with machines via
USB or Ethernet, its original design relied on the now-obsolete parallel port,
which may pose compatibility issues with modern computers.

B. Mach4
Mach4 is a significant advancement over its predecessor, Mach3. Rather than simply
being an upgrade, it represents a complete rewrite of the software, containing less
than 1% of Mach3's original code.

Fig 1.4 Mach4

Key Differences Between Mach3 and Mach4

• Flexibility: Mach4 is designed to handle larger files and more complex
operations, making it suitable for a wider range of applications compared to
Mach3, which is more focused on simple hobbyist tasks.
 • Performance: Mach4 offers improved speed and power, making it more
capable of managing demanding CNC projects across various machine types,
including lathes, routers, plasma cutters, and 3D printers.
• Industrial-Style Controls: It incorporates advanced controls that cater to
industrial applications, allowing for more precise and efficient operation.

WixHC Mach4 Controller

The WixHC Mach4 controller is an excellent option for running Mach4. Here are
some of its notable features:
• Axis Functionality: Supports up to 6 axes, providing versatility for different
machining applications.
• High Step Pulse Frequency: Offers up to 2000KHz step pulse frequency,
ensuring stable performance and the power needed for continuous, demanding
CNC projects.
• Metal Casing: The controller's metal casing shields against external
interference, enhancing reliability during operation.
• Status Indicator: Equipped with an LED indicator to show the status of the
USB connection, allowing for easy monitoring.
• Hot-Swappable: Can be connected or disconnected without needing to shut
down the computer, making it user-friendly.

Advantages
- Has a rich variety of features.
- Supports a variety of functions, including automatic tool probing, emergency
input, and a limit switch.
- Can control both 3-axis and 4-axis CNC machines.
Disadvantages
- No major drawback.

a) Centroid Acorn
The Centroid Acorn is one of the most popular controllers for retrofitted CNC
machines. Centroid offers a comprehensive retrofitting service that includes
everything from installation to training. This retrofitting approach can significantly
reduce costs
 Fig 1.5 The Centroid Acorn

Key Features of the Centroid Acorn

• Beaglebone Green Motion Control CPU: At its core, the Acorn uses a
Beaglebone Green, which is an open-source, single-board computer similar to
the Raspberry Pi. This means you don’t need a high-performance computer to
carry out complex CNC operations.
• Centroid CNC12 Software: The Acorn controller kit comes with Centroid’s
own CNC12 software, which is specifically optimized for retrofitting. The
software is regularly updated and does not require additional costs for the base
version, which supports g-code files up to 50kb. This capacity is typically
sufficient for most hobbyist projects.
• Upgrade Options: If you need to work with larger g-code files, you can
purchase the Pro version of the software for enhanced capabilities.

Support and Community

One of the significant advantages of choosing the Centroid Acorn controller is the
level of support available. Users benefit from:
• Active User Community: An engaged community of users who share tips,
experiences, and troubleshooting advice.
• Phone Support: Direct support from Centroid, providing assistance when
needed[4].
 C. Mesa 7176E
The 7I76E ia a remote FPGA card with Ethernet interface designed for interfacing
up to 5 Axis of step &dir step motor or servo motor drives and also provides a spindle
encoder interface, isolated analog spindle speed control and 48 isolated I/O points
for general purpose field I/O use [5].

Fig 1.6 Mesa 7176E

Key Features of Mesa 7176E Motion Control Board

• Compatibility with LinuxCNC: Excellent motion control board for running
LinuxCNC software.
• Ethernet Connection: Connects to your PC via an Ethernet cable.
• Control Capabilities: Controls stepper and servo motors on up to 5 axes.
• No Breakout Board Needed: Allows usage of LinuxCNC without connecting
a breakout board to a parallel port.
• Increased I/O Points: Provides 48 I/O points for enhanced functionality.
• Spindle Encoder Interface: Offers feedback and issue alerts.
• Software Flexibility: LinuxCNC is free, open-source, and widely used for
various CNC applications.
• Application Versatility: Suitable for CNC lathes, CNC mills, 3D printers,
plasma cutters, laser cutters, and more.
• Community and Support: Highly popular for its flexibility, robustness, and
active user community.
• Learning Curve: Noted for having a relatively steep learning curve.
 Advantages
- Can control stepper and servo motors on up to 5 axes.
- Can be used to control CNC lathes, CNC mills, 3D printers, plasma cutters,
laser cutters, and more
Disadvantages
- Relatively steep learning curve.

a) Fangling Control System

Fangling control systems are a series of CNC (Computer Numerical Control)
systems developed and manufactured by Fangling Technology Co., Ltd., a leading
Chinese company specializing in CNC technology. These control systems are
designed to provide reliable and precise control for CNC routers, engraving
machines, milling machines, and other CNC equipment.

Fig 1.7 Fangling control systems

Key Features of Fangling Control System

• Stand-Alone Operation: Does not require a separate computer to operate.
• Built-In Processing: Equipped with internal processing capabilities.
• Proprietary Control Software: Runs on proprietary software designed for
precise control.
• User Interface: Features an intuitive user interface with a touchscreen or
keypad for easy programming and operation.
• Input Methods: Supports G-code, DXF files, and manual input for precise
machining control.

Advantages
- Reliability: Fangling controllers are known for their reliability and stability,
ensuring consistent performance even in demanding production
environments.
 - Ease of Use: The user-friendly interface makes programming and operating
the CNC router straightforward, reducing setup time and training
requirements.
- Cost-Effective: Fangling controllers offer a good balance of performance and
affordability, making them suitable for both hobbyists and small to medium-
sized businesses.
Disadvantages
- Limited Customization: While Fangling controllers offer a range of features,
they may have limited customization options compared to more advanced
controllers.
- Software Dependence: Users are reliant on the proprietary control software
provided by Fangling, which may have limitations in terms of features or
compatibility with third-party software.
- Technical Support: Depending on the region and distributor, technical support
for Fangling controllers may vary, potentially causing challenges in
troubleshooting or resolving issues.

b) Weihong Controller
Weihong CNC controllers are produced by Beijing FANCH Machinery Co., Ltd., a
leading manufacturer of CNC control systems and equipment.

Fig 1.8 Weihong CNC controllers

Key Features of Weihong Controller
• Reliability and Performance: Known for their dependable performance across
various CNC machines.
• Cost-Effectiveness: Offers excellent value, making them popular choices in
different industries.
• Versatility: Capable of handling multiple CNC machining tasks, such as
milling, turning, and drilling.
• User Interface: Features user-friendly interfaces with LCD displays and
keypad inputs for easy programming and operation.
• Customization Options: Allows users to customize parameters and settings to
optimize performance for specific applications and tasks.

Advantages
- Reliability: Weihong controllers are known for their reliability and durability,
making them suitable for continuous operation in industrial environments.
- Cost-Effectiveness: They offer good value for money, providing advanced
features and performance at competitive prices.
- Ease of Use: Many Weihong controllers feature intuitive interfaces and user-
friendly programming tools, reducing the learning curve for operators.

Disadvantages
- Limited Availability: While Weihong controllers are popular in certain
regions, they may be less commonly available in other parts of the world,
which could affect support and spare parts availability.
- Compatibility Issues: There may be compatibility issues with certain CNC
machines or software packages, particularly in more specialized or niche
applications.

c) FANUC Control System

The FANUC Control System is a widely used CNC control system developed by
FANUC Corporation, a leading manufacturer of factory automation and industrial
robotics systems.
 Fig 1.9 The FANUC Control System

Key Features of FANUC Control System

• Comprehensive Solution: Designed for a wide range of machining and
manufacturing applications.
• Generations of Systems: Several generations available, catering to different
levels of complexity and performance requirements.
• High-Speed Processing: Known for high-speed processing capabilities,
enabling rapid execution of complex machining operations.
• Advanced Functionalities: Includes toolpath optimization, adaptive control,
and real-time monitoring.
• Integration with FANUC Robotics: Seamlessly integrates with FANUC robots
and automation solutions for efficient production workflows.
Advantages
- Reliability and Durability: FANUC Control Systems are renowned for their
reliability and durability, with robust hardware and software designed to
withstand the demands of industrial machining environments.
- Wide Range of Applications: The versatility of FANUC Control Systems
makes them suitable for machining tasks ranging from simple milling and
drilling to complex multi-axis machining and high-speed contouring.
- Global Support Network: FANUC has a global network of service and support
centers, ensuring prompt assistance and maintenance services wherever the
equipment is deployed.
Disadvantages
- Cost: FANUC Control Systems can be relatively expensive compared to some
other CNC control solutions, particularly for entry-level or hobbyist
applications.
- Complexity for Novice Users: While FANUC Control Systems offer advanced
capabilities, they may have a steeper learning curve for novice users, requiring
training and experience to fully utilize their features [1].

d) SYNTEC Control System

SYNTEC is a Taiwanese company that specializes in manufacturing CNC
controllers

Fig 1.10 SYNTEC Control System

Key Features of SYNTEC Control System

• Manufacturer: Company specializing in CNC controllers for various
machining applications, including milling, turning, and routing.
• Comprehensive Solution: Includes hardware components (motion control
cards, operator panels) and software for programming and operating CNC
machines.
• Advanced Features: Offers advanced motion control capabilities, intuitive
programming interfaces, and extensive customization options for optimizing
machine performance and productivity.
• Multi-Axis Control: Supports multi-axis control, allowing for complex
machining operations and increased productivity.
• Remote Monitoring and Diagnostics: Provides remote monitoring
capabilities, allowing users to monitor machine performance and troubleshoot
issues from a remote location using network connectivity.
 Advantages
- Precision: SYNTEC control systems are known for their high precision and
accuracy in controlling machine movements, resulting in superior machining
quality.
- Versatility: They are suitable for various machining applications across
different industries, from woodworking to metalworking.
- User-friendly: The intuitive interface of SYNTEC control systems reduces
the learning curve for operators, improving efficiency and productivity.
Disadvantages
- Cost: SYNTEC control systems may come with a higher initial cost compared
to some other alternatives, which could be a drawback for budget-conscious
users.
- Complexity: While they offer advanced features, the complexity of SYNTEC
systems may require additional training for operators to fully utilize their
capabilities.

e) Buildbotics CNC Controller

The Buildbotics CNC controller is a great choice if you’re looking for a self-
contained CNC control box that allows you to operate your machine without
an external computer or Mach3 or LinuxCNC.

Fig 1.11 Buildbotics CNC Controller

Key Features of Buildbotics CNC Controller

• Microcomputer: Based on the Raspberry Pi 3, a compact and powerful single-
board microcomputer.
 • Microcontroller: Connected to an ATxmega192a3u microcontroller.
• G-code Signal Processing: Pi 3 sends G-code signals to the microcontroller,
controlling CNC machine components.
• Built-In Stepper Motor Drivers: Includes stepper motor drivers, saving costs
and simplifying setup for beginners.
• Web Interface: Accessible via WiFi or Ethernet on any device; can be
connected to a monitor, mouse, and keyboard.
• All-in-One Design: Offers 4-axis functionality, suitable for all CNC projects.
• PWM and RS485 Ports:
o PWM Port: For connecting lower-powered spindles.
o RS485 Port: For connecting more powerful air and water-cooled
spindles.
• Open Source: Fully open-source, ensuring regular updates and bug fixes for
sustained optimal performance.
• Compatibility: Suitable for all CNC machines; no external computer required.

Advantages
- Has stepper motor drivers included.
- Has 4-axis functionality and works with all types of CNC projects.
- Quick and easy to get started with.
Disadvantages
- The enclosure has no cooling fans [4].

f) MassoG3 CNC Controller

The MassoG3 CNC Controller is a high-quality, versatile control system
designed for both serious hobbyists and professional machinists. Known for
its exceptional performance

Fig 1.12 The MassoG3 CNC Controller

 Key Features of MassoG3 CNC Controller
• High-Quality CNC Control: Ideal for serious hobbyists and professionals for
tasks like furniture making and metal fabrication.
• Machine-Specific Controllers: Offers separate controllers optimized for
routers, mills, lathes, and plasma cutters, ensuring high performance.
• Plug-and-Play: Fully integrated controller that can be used without a
computer.
• WiFi Connectivity: Connects to devices via WiFi.
• Proprietary MassoG3 Software: Runs on Masso’s own software for precise
control.
• User Interface: Simple layout with a tool path display for real-time job
monitoring.
• Direct Spindle Control: Provides direct control of the spindle.
• Multiple USB Ports: Four USB ports for connecting accessories like
keyboards and mice without needing a USB hub.
• Touchscreen Version: Available with an integrated LED touchscreen for an
enhanced user experience.

Advantages
- High-quality CNC controller.
- Ideal for serious hobbyists and professionals.
- Offers different controllers for different machines.
Disadvantages
- Expensive.

g) LNC Control System

LNC Control Systems are popular CNC control systems developed by LNC
Technology Co., Ltd., a Taiwanese company specializing in CNC controllers
and automation solutions.

Fig 1.13 LNC Control System

 Key Features of LNC Control System
• Comprehensive CNC Control Solutions: Designed to drive various types of
CNC machines, including milling machines, lathes, routers, and more.
• Hardware and Software Components: Offers a complete package for
controlling machine tools and automation equipment.
• Real-Time Optimization: Adaptive control features optimize machining
parameters on-the-fly, improving efficiency and reducing machining times.
• Diagnostic Capabilities: Built-in diagnostic tools identify and address issues
quickly, minimizing machine downtime and increasing productivity.
• Advanced Features: Includes toolpath optimization, adaptive control, and
error compensation algorithms to enhance machining accuracy and efficiency.
• Software Integration: Supports integration with CAD/CAM systems and
networking capabilities for data exchange and remote monitoring.

Advantages
- High Performance: LNC Control Systems deliver high-speed and high-
precision motion control, enabling efficient machining of complex parts with
tight tolerances.
- simple milling and turning operations to complex multi-axis machining and
automation tasks.
- Reliability and Durability: LNC Control Systems are built to withstand the
demands of industrial machining environments, offering reliable performance
and long-term durability.

Disadvantages
- Cost: Compared to some entry-level CNC control solutions, LNC Control
Systems may have a higher initial cost, particularly for advanced
configurations with additional features.
- Initial setup complexity: Setting up and configuring LNC systems to work
optimally with specific machines and applications may require technical
expertise, which could be a challenge for some users [1].
h) DSP Control System
DSP Control Systems are standalone units designed specifically for
controlling CNC machinery.

Fig 1.14 DSP Control System

Key Features of DSP Control System

• Digital Signal Processing (DSP) Technology: Executes motion control
algorithms and generates precise control signals for CNC router motors.
• Dedicated Hardware: Features dedicated hardware for motion control tasks,
ensuring reliability and performance optimized for CNC applications.
• Real-Time Processing: Capable of real-time processing, allowing for fast and
precise control of the CNC router’s motors.
• High-Speed Communication: Communicates with external devices and
peripherals at high speeds, enabling seamless integration with other
components of the CNC system.
Advantages
- Ease of Use: Many DSP controllers feature a user-friendly interface, making
them easy to program and operate without extensive technical knowledge.
- Compact Design: DSP controllers are often compact in size, making them
suitable for installation in space-constrained environments.
- Cost-Effectiveness: DSP control systems can offer a cost-effective solution
for CNC control, particularly for smaller-scale applications.
Disadvantages
- Limited Flexibility: DSP controllers may have limited flexibility compared to
computer-based control systems, particularly in terms of customization and
software options.
- Dependency on Hardware: DSP controllers rely on dedicated hardware for
motion control tasks, which may limit the ability to upgrade or modify the
system easily.
- Programming Constraints: While DSP controllers offer ease of use, they may
have limitations in terms of programming capabilities compared to computer-
based systems.

i) Siemens Control System

Siemens offers a range of CNC control systems for various machining
applications

Fig 1.15 Siemens Control System

Key Features of Siemens Control System

• Comprehensive Range: Offers a variety of CNC control systems for different
machining applications, including CNC routers.
• SINUMERIK Line: Popular for its precision, reliability, and advanced
features.
• Integrated Safety Functions: Ensures operator and machine safety with
features like collision avoidance and emergency stop.
• Advanced Tool Management: Supports tool length measurement, tool wear
compensation, and automatic tool change.
• Simulation and Visualization: Provides tools to preview machining
operations, detect errors, and optimize toolpaths before actual machining.
• Remote Monitoring and Diagnostics: Allows for remote monitoring of
machine performance and troubleshooting issues.
 Advantages
- Reliability: SINUMERIK control systems are highly reliable, with robust
hardware and software designed to withstand the demands of industrial
machining environments.
- Global Support: Siemens provides extensive global support and service for
their control systems, ensuring prompt assistance and maintenance wherever
needed.
- Integration with CAD/CAM Systems: SINUMERIK control systems
seamlessly integrate with Siemens CAD/CAM software and other third-party
software solutions, streamlining the programming and machining workflow.
Disadvantages
- Cost: Siemens control systems tend to have a higher initial cost compared to
some other options in the market.
- Complexity: The advanced features and capabilities of SINUMERIK control
systems may require some learning curve for operators and programmers.

How to choose CNC router controller?

Selecting the appropriate CNC router controller requires careful consideration
of several factors to ensure it aligns with your specific needs and preferences.
Here's a detailed guide to help you make an informed choice:

I. Understand Your Requirements

• Material Types: Identify the materials you'll be working with (e.g., wood,
plastics, metals).
• Project Scope: Consider the size and complexity of the projects you'll be
handling.
• Features Needed: Determine any specific features or capabilities you require,
such as multi-axis control, high-speed processing, or software compatibility.
II. Research Available Options
• Controller Types: Investigate various CNC router controllers on the market,
such as PC-based controllers, DSP controllers, PLC controllers, and integrated
controllers.
• Feature Comparison: Look for controllers that offer features matching your
needs, including motion control accuracy, CAD/CAM software compatibility,
speed and feed control, tool management, and safety features.
III. Evaluate Compatibility
• Hardware Compatibility: Ensure the controller is compatible with your CNC
router hardware, including stepper motors, servo motors, and spindle motors.
• Software Compatibility: Check for compatibility with your current
CAD/CAM software or other third-party tools used for programming and
toolpath generation.
IV. Consider Support and Maintenance
• Technical Support: Look for manufacturers or suppliers that provide extensive
technical support, including documentation, tutorials, and troubleshooting
resources.
• Updates and Parts: Verify the availability of software updates, firmware
upgrades, and spare parts.
V. Factor in Cost
• Budgeting: Define your budget for the CNC router controller, accounting for
the initial cost and any additional expenses for software, accessories, and
ongoing maintenance.
VI. Seek Recommendations and Advice
• Expert Consultation: Seek advice from industry experts, fellow CNC router
users, or online communities.
VII. Demo or Trial Period
• Testing: If possible, request a demo or trial period to test the controller's
performance and suitability for your needs.
• Evaluation: Use this period to assess ease of use, compatibility, and overall
functionality before making a final decision.
By following these steps and thoroughly evaluating your options, you can
select a CNC router controller that meets your specific needs and helps you
achieve your machining goals effectively and efficiently [1].
3.5.2 Electrical component selection
Main components of CNC Router control system
a) Arduino Uno: The microcontroller board for CNC control.
b) CNC Shield: A generic shield designed specifically for controlling CNC
machines.
c) Stepper Motors: 3 stepper motors (one for each axis: X, Y, Z).
d) Stepper Motor Drivers: to control the stepper motors.
e) Power Supply: 12V–24V DC power supply (depending on motor and driver
requirements).
f) Spindle: The cutting tool, with its own power supply and speed control.
g) Sensors and Limit Switches: Detect end positions to prevent over-travel
h) Wires and Connectors: To connect motors, switches, and power to the shield.

Control Workflow
a) Program Input:
• The operator creates a design using CAD software, converts it into a toolpath
using CAM software, and generates G-code.
b) Command Processing:
• The G-code is fed to the CNC controller, which deciphers the commands.
c) Motion Control:
• The controller sends signals to the motor drivers to move the machine's axes
(X, Y, Z) accordingly.
d) Feedback Adjustment (if closed-loop):
• Sensors and encoders provide real-time data to adjust for errors or deviations.
e) Execution:
• The tool (router/spindle) executes the operations as per the programmed paths.
Wiring Steps
A) Connecting the Stepper Motors
➢ X-Axis Motor (Table Movement):
• Connect the X-axis motor to the CNC shield or directly to the stepper driver for
X.
• Stepper motors typically have 4 wires (A+, A-, B+, B-). Match the motor wires
to the driver terminals according to the motor’s datasheet.
➢ Y-Axis Motor (Spindle Horizontal Movement):
• Connect the Y-axis motor to the CNC shield or stepper driver for Y.
➢ Z-Axis Motor (Spindle Vertical Movement):
• Connect the Z-axis motor to the CNC shield or stepper driver for Z.

B) Connecting Stepper Motor Drivers

➢ Pin Mapping for Stepper Drivers:
o STEP Pin: Controls step pulses to the motor.
o DIR Pin: Controls the motor’s direction.
o Enable Pin (optional): Usually connected to ground or the GRBL shield.
➢ Driver Power:
o Connect the driver’s VCC and GND to the power supply (12V–24V).
o Ensure that the power supply matches the voltage requirements of your motors.
➢ Driver Signal Pins:
o Connect the STEP and DIR pins of each driver to the corresponding pins on the
GRBL shield or Arduino:
▪ X-axis driver → Arduino Pins 2 (STEP), 5 (DIR).
▪ Y-axis driver → Arduino Pins 3 (STEP), 6 (DIR).
▪ Z-axis driver → Arduino Pins 4 (STEP), 7 (DIR).
C) Connecting the CNC Shield to Arduino Uno
➢ Place the CNC Shield on top of the Arduino Uno, ensuring that the pins align
properly with the Arduino's headers.
➢ The CNC Shield has labels (e.g., D13, D12) that match the Arduino's pin labels.

D) Power Supply
Use an external power supply and connect it to the + and - terminals on the CNC
Shield.

The Arduino code of CNC router machine 3-axis.

Steps to Install GRBL on Arduino:
a) Download GRBL Firmware:
• Visit the GRBL GitHub Repository and download the GRBL source
code.
b) Install the GRBL Library in Arduino IDE:
• Open Arduino IDE.
• Go to Sketch > Include Library > Add .ZIP Library and add the GRBL
folder you downloaded.
c) Upload GRBL to Arduino:
• Open File > Examples > grbl > grblUpload.
• Connect your Arduino board, select the correct COM port, and upload
the firmware.
d) The modified code where:
• The X-axis controls the Table movement.
• The Y-axis and Z-axis control the Spindle movement
#include <AccelStepper.h>
// Define pins for the axes
#define X_STEP_PIN 2
#define X_DIR_PIN 5
#define Y_STEP_PIN 3
#define Y_DIR_PIN 6
#define Z_STEP_PIN 4
#define Z_DIR_PIN 7

// Create stepper objects

AccelStepper stepperX(AccelStepper::DRIVER, X_STEP_PIN, X_DIR_PIN); // X-axis
(Table)
AccelStepper stepperY(AccelStepper::DRIVER, Y_STEP_PIN, Y_DIR_PIN); // Y-axis
(Spindle)
AccelStepper stepperZ(AccelStepper::DRIVER, Z_STEP_PIN, Z_DIR_PIN); // Z-axis
(Spindle)

void setup() {
// Set max speed and acceleration for each axis
[Link](1000); // X-axis: Table movement
[Link](500);

[Link](800); // Y-axis: Spindle horizontal movement

[Link](400);

[Link](500); // Z-axis: Spindle vertical movement

[Link](300);
}

void loop() {
// Move the table (X-axis)
[Link](1500); // Move forward by 1500 steps
[Link](); // Wait until the movement is complete
delay(500); // Pause for 500ms

// Move the spindle horizontally (Y-axis)

[Link](1000); // Move right by 1000 steps
[Link](); // Wait until the movement is complete
delay(500); // Pause for 500ms

// Move the spindle vertically (Z-axis)

[Link](-500); // Lower the spindle by 500 steps
[Link](); // Wait until the movement is complete
delay(500); // Pause for 500ms

// Return all axes to their original positions

[Link](0); // Reset X-axis (Table)
[Link](0); // Reset Y-axis (Spindle horizontal)
[Link](0); // Reset Z-axis (Spindle vertical)

// Run each axis to its zero position

[Link]();
[Link]();
[Link]();

delay(1000); // Pause for 1 second before repeating

}
Code Explanation:

a) Pin Definitions:
• Pins for the X, Y, Z axes are defined.
• X is dedicated to controlling the table, while Y and Z are for the
spindle movement.
b) Speed and Acceleration:
• Speeds and acceleration values are set for each axis:
▪ X: Faster speed as the table usually covers larger distances.
▪ Y and Z: Slower speeds for the spindle to ensure more
precision.
c) Movements:
• The X-axis moves forward by 1500 steps.
• The Y-axis moves horizontally by 1000 steps.
• The Z-axis lowers the spindle by 500 steps.
• After all movements, the axes return to their original positions.
d) Delays:
• Small delays are added to ensure each movement completes before
proceeding to the next.