Flowing Wells

Most flowing well completions employ at least one string of tubing and one or more
packers ( Figure 1 ,

Figure 1

Single-string flowing wells: (a) temporary; (b) tubingless gas well; (c) simple low cost;
and Figure 2 , (d) high pressure; (e) high-rate liner completion).
 Figure 2

Although a single-string flowing well can be completed without a packer, this can
result in heading due to the large volume of highly compressible gas stored in the
annulus. Heading can result in alternating slugs of liquids and gas being produced up
the tubing. Under most conditions, it is therefore advisable to include a packer in a
flowing well installation. Use of a packer also protects the casing from corrosive fluids
and high pressures. Since artificail lift is likely to become part of a well's producing
life at one point or another, it is common to plan the completion for eventual
conversion to artificial lift.

Beam Pumping Completions

Many low to moderate rate wells (less than 2000 b/d, [320 m3/d]) are produced with
beam pumps because of their ability to provide high formation drawdowns and their
familiarity to North American operators (many low rate wells exist in North American
oil fields).

Figure 1 (Rod pump completions: (a) simple; (b) improved) includes schematics of
pumping well completions.
 Figure 1

There are three main elements: the bottomhole pump, the rod string, and the
pumping unit.

From a completion viewpoint, the key considerations are

an open annulus

anchoring of the tubing (if required)
adequate pump diameter to displace the target, or maximum production, volume
a pump-seating nipple
a gas anchor (if required)
easy installation and pulling of tubing, especially if a tubing pump is used
properly sized rods
Sucker rods transmit the tensional loads from the plunger to the pumping unit. Their main design
criteria are dynamic effects including fatigue, stretch, and rod fall. Since the mathematical
description of these physical phenomena is complex, rod strings and pumping loads are normally
designed using semiempirical techniques which have been well documented by the API (API RP
11L, Bul. 11L3 and 4). Computer programs, which are available from various pumping unit
manufacturers, can be used to solve the partial differential equations directly.
Individual sucker rods are generally 25 ft long and come in diameters from 5/8 in. to
1 1/8 in. A combination of sizes (a tapered string) is normally used. Continuous rod is
also available and becoming more common, although a special service rig is needed.

There are two principal grades of steel sucker rods: "C" Grade, with a tensile strength
of 90,000 psi (0.6 GPa), used in shallow wells; and "D" Grade, with a tensile strength
of 115,000 psi (0.8 GPa), used in deeper wells. Fiber glass rods are also sometimes
used in deep wells or severely corrosive environments.

Table 1, below, provides some useful rules of thumb on design of a pumping system.

Tubing Size (in) 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00

API Pump Type Pump Bores (in)
Rod pump Heavy wall 1 1/16 1 1/4 1 1/2 1 3/4 2 1/4
Rod pump Thin wall 7/8 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 1/4
Tubing pump Heavy wall 1 3/4 2 1/4 2 3/4 3 3/4
Approximate Fluid
50 100 300 500 700 1500
rate (BPD)
Normal depths (ft) 10,000 8000 6000 5000 4000 3000

These are typical values, not maximums.

Rules of Thumb

1. First 100 BPD requires 1-1 1/4-in bore pump. Each additional 100 BPD requires 1/4-in
addition to pump bore.

2. Speed times stroke length is usually less than 1500 in/min as a practical
limit.

3. Pump stroke

3 ft at depths less than 3000 ft

4 ft at depth of 4000 ft

5 ft at depth of 5000 ft

6 ft at depth of 6000 ft

4. Pump rate (N) is a function of stroke length, viscosity, etc., but is usually between 8
and 20 SPM.

5. Pump efficiency (Ep) = 75 to 95%, but is usually 90% (a function of rod

stretch)

7. Pump displacement (PD) = Ep x 0.1166 S Es N D2

Table 1. Rules of thumb for beam pump applications

Rod pump wells are generally completed with an open annulus through which the gas
is bled off at the surface ( Figure 1 ). All pumping systems (except plunger lift)
become increasingly inefficient in the presence of gas.

Failure to anchor the tubing in rod pumping installations decreases the efficiency of
the pump because of tubing stretch, and can result in rod or tubing wear because of
buckling. However, a tubing anchor may not be necessary where clearances between
casing and tubing are small (less than 0.3 in or 0.76 cm), provided the pump is
modified accordingly. Shallow wells (< 3000 ft or 900 m) often are not equipped with
tubing anchors.

Gas Lift Completions

In essence, continuous gas lift is simply a matter of supplementing the natural flow
process by the addition of compressed gas as either a constant stream or as
intermittent injections ( Figure 1 , Gaslift system schematics).

Figure 1
The gas lightens the fluid head in the tubing, reduces the fluid's viscosity, reduces
friction, and supplies potential energy in the form of gas expansion. It can be seen
from the gradient curves presented in Figure 2 (Vertical flowing pressure gradient
curve) that for each tubing size and production rate, there is a decrease in pressure
loss with increasing gas-liquid ratio. An upper limit exists for each given set of
conditions.

Figure 2

From a completion viewpoint the key issues in gas-lift design are sizing the tubing
and determining the number and setting depths of the necessary gas-lift valves.
Figure 3 (Gaslift design) presents the gas-lift system design as a depth versus
pressure plot.
 Figure 3

Intersection of the optimum gas-liquid ratio curve (drawn down from the THP) and
the formation GLR gradient curve (drawn up from the FBHP) gives the position of the
operating valve. This position may have to be modified if available gas pressure is
limited and the designated depth cannot be reached.

Additional valves are generally required uphole to "kick the well off," particularly if
the tubing will be loaded with kill fluid from time to time. These unloading or "kickoff"
valves will normally be closed during routine gas-lift operations and only reopen
when the tubing pressure exceeds a certain preset limit.

The minimum depth of the first kickoff valve is determined by

· the kill fluid gradient

· the system pressure the well is to be kicked off against (flow line pressure,
blowdown separator pressure, service line pressure, etc.)

· the gas supply pressure during kickoff. (Some companies use special high
pressure compressors for this purpose.)

As shown in Figure 3 , this depth is determined by drawing in a workover fluid

pressure gradient down to the point where it intersects the gas supply pressure
gradient line. If some other method is going to be used to remove workover or kill
fluids (i.e., tubing, swabbing), the depth of this valve is determined by the gradient of
dead formation fluid that will exist after the producing well is closed in. Normally, a
mini-mum gradient of 0.5 psi/ft (11 kPa/m) is used for this purpose.

The additional unloading valves required are set at depths determined by the
intersecting of successive kill fluid gradient lines drawn between the design gradient
and the gas design pressure.

Figure 4 (Gaslift design for future development) illustrates a design for the same well,

Figure 4

based on the assumptions that future conditions will include an increase in gas
supply pressure (e.g., installation of new compressor or high pressure gas source)
and increasing water cuts (typical in older fields with active water drive production
mechanism). The additional valves that are required for future conditions are
accounted for in many gas-lift installations by including side pocket mandrels holding
dummy valves at the appropriate depths. When conditions change, the dummy
valves are replaced with functioning valves to allow continued efficient operation.
Some gas-lift completions utilize a packer to isolate the annulus from well fluids. In
continuous gas-lift installations, the use of a packer will not prevent the bottomhole
gas injection pressure from being transmitted to the formation and lessening the
drawdown that could be achieved. The production casing must be able to contain the
lift gas pressure without leakage and some companies therefore use premium
couplings for the production casing in gas-lifted wells operated under high lift gas
supply pressures. High pressures are needed in particularly deep wells and where
single point gas lift is used to avoid servicing and leakage problems at multiple
unloading valves.

Servicing of the gas-lift valves is typically needed every 18 to 24 months. If

conventional tubing-mounted gas-lift valves are used, this means a service rig job.
However, wireline-retrievable gas-lift valves are more commonly used today.
Retrievable valves are positioned into a side pocket mandrel by means of a kick-over
tool. Such tools can be either wireline- or TFL-operated.

Electrical Submersible Pump Completions

Electrical submersible pumps have their greatest application in moving large volumes
of low gas-liquid ratio fluids from reservoirs with temperatures below 250° F (390° K).
They are a particularly attractive artificial lift method for water supply wells, high
water cut producers, and high deliverability, undersaturated oil wells. Modified design
procedures and equipment improvements are allowing effective operation at up to
1000 scf/bbl (200 m3/m3). High rate units are best suited to a total head of around
4000 to 5000 ft (1200 to 1500 m). Figure 1 (Submersible pump lift capacity for
various casing sizes) shows that the critical limitation is the casing size, which will
determine the available horsepower and capacity.
 Figure 1

Submersible pumps are available from a number of manufacturers (TRW-Reda,

Centrilift-Hughes, Westech-Dresser, etc.) all of whom provide design services,
engineering manuals, and customer support. It is usually advantageous to select the
supplier at an early stage and then to work with that supplier in finalizing the design
and equipment selection. To do this effectively and fairly the production engineer
needs to have some appreciation of submersible pump design and electrical
engineering. If a submersible system is selected, it is strongly recommended to
include electrical engineers in the design and operations groups, since this can lead
to considerable improvements in performance and overall costs. Moreover, a total
systems approach to power generation (or purchase), distribution, and utilization can
then be implemented.

Most submersible pump installations are simply run on the tubing and landed off
above the perforations or openhole section ( Figure 2 , Components of the electrical
submersible pump system).

Figure 2

The motor is run on bottom so that the produced fluid will dissipate the heat
generated. If the pump has to be set below the perforations, a shroud (or flow tube)
is used to draw the produced fluid past the motor at sufficient velocity to provide
cooling. Bottom discharge pumps are also available for injection wells in powered
"dump" waterfloods.

The cable-suspended pump has been developed to reduce pulling costs in offshore
applications, although results to date have been discouraging. The pump is locked
into a shoe with dogs, while a sealing element supports the fluid head. A safety valve
operated by the pump discharge pressure is often mounted below the pump to
provide a positive shutoff when the pump is pulled and to meet SSSV regulations.
The main problems with the cable-suspended pumps have been failures and shorts in
the cable, pot-head, and wellhead splice. Gas penetration and armor corrosion are
the main causes, since the cable is exposed to direct contact with the produced fluids
at high temperatures.

Effective fluid removal and correct choice of the insulation materials for the actual
operating temperatures are often cited as keys to efficient submersible pumping
operations. The clearance past the pump should be small enough for the fluids to
flow by at more than 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/s) but not so small as to generate significant
friction. Operating outside of the design range and, particularly, below the design
rate, results in increased heating of the produced fluid and greater heat transfer to
the cable. If this is coupled with the well being nearly pumped off, with resultant
reduced heat transfer capacity to the formation via the annulus, serious earth
leakage problems can be expected. It is therefore imperative to understand the
proper operating conditions and design for them.

Submersible pump completions should have

open annuli for gas venting (exceptions to this at offshore locations)

special wellheads for sealing around the cable

enough clearance for the pump and cable

adequate cable protection

adequate cooling of the motor

adequately sized tubing for handling the large volumes of produced fluid,
with a minimum of backpressure on the pump, to minimize wasted energy

Hydraulic Pump Completions

There are three types of hydraulic pumping systems: the piston pump, the jet pump,
and the hydraulic turbine.

Hydraulic pumping has a wide variety of applications. The piston pump ( Figure 1 and
Figure 2 ,
 Figure 1

Schematic of closed power fluid surface system) is particularly attractive for deep
wells.
 Figure 2

In the moderate to high volume range, the jet pump is used where flowing gas-liquid
ratios are moderate to low.

Hydraulic pumps are well suited to offshore applications, crooked holes, heavy oils,
and variable production conditions. Their major disadvantages are the high initial
investment and the maintenance costs of the high pressure power fluid supply
system. The critical factor determining operating efficiency is the maintenance of a
clean, solids-free power fluid.

In open power fluid (OPF) systems, the spent power fluid is mixed with the produced
fluid in the return line. This reduces the number of conduits required, and therefore
the operating pressures, and permits a higher production rate. The closed power fluid
(CPF) system reduces the cleaning and chemical treatment requirements and costs,
especially when water is used as the power fluid. As a result, equipment maintenance
and metering problems tend to be reduced.

So-called free pumps are run in the power conduit and can be pumped in and out of
the well for servicing by simply reversing the flow. The ease with which the
bottomhole operating assembly can be recovered, inspected, and replaced, and the
interchangeability of jet and piston pumps with well conditions, make this type of
hydraulic pump particularly attractive. This option comes at the cost of reduced
pump capacity, and such trade-offs must be considered in the design.

A subsurface safety valve can be mounted under the hydraulic pump operating unit
and controlled by power fluid pressure. This can be recovered for servicing by either
wireline or TFL methods.

From a completion design viewpoint, the critical considerations for hydraulic pumping
are

· the number of fluid conduits

· pressure losses in the power and return lines

· whether the produced fluid can return up the casing

· the need for a packer

· the need for lubricator access and/or flow loops to pump in the jet or piston
unit

· the fact that hydraulic turbine pumps require large casings like electrical
submersible pumps

· whether or not an SSSV is needed

Plunger Lift Installation

The plunger lift is a very low liquid rate lift system in which stored gas energy is used
to drive a piston, or plunger, carrying a small slug of liquid, up the tubing when the
well is opened at the surface ( Figure 1 , Typical plunger installation).
 Figure 1

The well is then closed in and the plunger falls back to the bottom. This lift method is
particularly useful for dewatering low rate gas wells. Plunger lift efficiency decreases
with depth and productivity, but increases with tubing size. Requirements include the
following:

· tubing must be carefully drifted and swaged prior to installation

· the annulus must be open to store the required lift gas

· a nipple or collar stop must be installed to support a catcher and shock

absorber