Growth and reproduction

4
HAVE YOU EVER
WONDERED…
• how babies grow inside their
mother?
• why there are so many
different types of flowers?
• why animals have different
sexes?
• why males and females
look different?

After completing this chapter students should be able to:

• compare reproductive systems of organisms • describe the structure of each organ in a system
• distinguish between sexual and asexual • recall that cells reproduce via cell division
reproduction • research the use of reproductive technologies.
• identify the organs and overall function of a
system of a multicellular organism

131
 Life cycles
4.1

You were once a single cell, then

a baby, a toddler and a young
child. In the next five years or
so you will change into an adult.
Eventually you might be a parent
yourself. The changes that happen
to your body during this journey
are part of the human life cycle.
For any species, reproduction is
a major event in the life cycle.

What is a life cycle? Insect life cycles

A cycle is something that goes around and around, The life cycle of the wanderer butterfly is shown in
repeating itself. The seasons occur in a cycle, where the Figure 4.1.1. It starts when an adult male and an adult
weather changes through spring, summer, autumn and female mate. Mating results in the female laying an
winter, and then back to spring again. All organisms egg on a leaf. In the next stage, the egg hatches into
go through a cycle in their lives. Organisms change as a larva, which is commonly called a caterpillar. The
they grow, but they do not return to their starting point. caterpillar eats steadily and grows bigger. It then
Instead, the organisms reproduce, and the pattern of changes into a pupa (plural: pupae), a life stage where
growth begins again in their young. Reproduction is it does not eat. Inside the hard case of the pupa some
the process of parents producing new individuals, or amazing changes take place. The caterpillar’s body
offspring. For example, in humans, the life cycle goes completely rearranges and re-forms itself into a
through the stages of a developing baby, a toddler, a butterfly. It grows wings, different eyes, antennae, legs
child, an adult and finally a parent. and many other body parts. The butterfly is known as
At each stage the organism might look different and the adult, or imago stage. The butterfly breaks out of
have different roles. For example, when young, an the pupal case and flies away to find a mate and start
organism may be dependent on its parents. Later in life, the whole cycle again.
the organism may care for its own young. Life cycles
can be very different in different types of organisms. For
example, the life cycles of insects, frogs and grasses are
very different from the life cycle of humans.

132 PEARSON science

 Growth and development
The changes in body form and shape in the course of an
organism’s life are called development. Development
is different from growth. For an insect, growth means
becoming larger, whereas development in an insect is
egg lava
about changes such as wings or legs forming. Usually as
an organism grows, it also develops.

Metamorphosis
The life cycle of the wanderer butterfly has four stages—
egg, larva, pupa and adult. These stages look very different,
and show a metamorphosis. Metamorphosis means
adult pupa
‘changing form’, referring to the changes in structure that
happen as an organism develops into an adult.
The butterfly life cycle is known as complete
metamorphosis. Most insects have this type of life cycle,
including moths, bees, wasps, flies, mosquitoes and
beetles.
Figure The life cycle of the wanderer butterfly shows Other insects have different life cycles. An example is the
4.1.1 four different life stages—egg, larva, pupa
grasshopper, which has a life cycle called incomplete
and adult.
metamorphosis. You can see in Figure 4.1.2 that
grasshoppers have no pupa. The young is called a nymph,
and looks like a smaller version of the adult but with a few
parts still undeveloped. The nymph slowly changes into
the adult, developing wings as it matures. Insects such

science fun as cockroaches, earwigs, termites, dragonflies and all the

true ‘bugs’ have this type of life cycle.

adult

Garden life cycles

Can you see a life cycle in the garden? @LZ
nymph
Do this …
1 Search in a garden for insects. Look for
evidence of different stages in the life cycle of
an insect, such as egg, larva, pupa or adult.
2 Carefully observe the area to see if there are
different stages of the life cycle in the same
place. You could use your mobile phone or
camera to take a photo if you are not sure egg
what you have found and identify it later in adult laying eggs after mating
class.

Record this … Figure The life cycle of the grasshopper shows

4.1.2 incomplete metamorphosis, with three
Describe what you observed.
stages—egg, nymph and adult.
Explain what happens to the insect in this part of
the life cycle.

1 4.1
p138

Growth and reproduction 133

 Hind limbs appear first,
Frog life cycle Gills turn into then forelimbs emerge;
breathing tube. internal gills are replaced
As you can see in Figure 4.1.4, frog and toad life cycles by lungs.
have four stages—egg, tadpole, metamorph and adult Tadpole
Metamorph
frog. The life cycle begins with two parents mating.
external Tadpole
During mating the male clings onto the female until gills hatches
she passes her eggs into the water. Then the male sheds from egg.
(spreads) a fluid over the eggs that contains special
cells called sperm. Sperm are special cells involved in tail bud
reproduction. One sperm cell fertilises the egg. Most Tadpole
Tail shortens.
develops
frog parents then leave the eggs and give them no Metamorphosis
in the egg
is nearly complete.
parental care. Tiny tadpoles develop inside the fertilised
eggs, then break out of the egg and gradually grow larger. Egg divides.
sexually
As the tadpole grows, it develops legs. It is now known as
mature frog
a metamorph (or froglet). The gills it used for breathing
in water are gradually replaced by lungs for breathing
fertilised egg
air. The metamorph slowly absorbs its tail as its legs Egg
grow longer. Eventually it becomes an adult frog and can
Adult
produce its own offspring.

The female lays 500–5000 eggs,

Figure which the male fertilises.
4.1.4

The life cycle of a frog, showing

four main stages: adult, egg, 2 4.2
tadpole and metamorph (or froglet) p138

Plant life cycles

Plants have many different types of life cycle. In Figure
4.1.5 you can see the life cycle of a eucalyptus tree (gum
Stomach breeders tree), which is a flowering plant. The tree produces
The females of flowers, special structures that make seeds. Flowers
Queensland’s gastric produce tiny particles called pollen, which contain a
brooding frogs protected Figure
special male reproductive cell called a sperm. This must
their young by swallowing 4.1.3
their fertilised eggs. The join with the female egg in a different part of the flower.
SciFile

female frogs did not eat A gastric brooding When these two particles join up, they develop to form
while the young frogs frog giving birth to its a seed. The seed will sprout (germinate) and grow into a
developed in their young after raising
new adult tree.
stomach. They gave birth them in its stomach.
by vomiting out the The paperclip shows
Figure
froglets just when their how small this frog is. The life cycle of a eucalyptus tree
4.1.5
legs were developing.
Gastric breeding frogs
haven’t been found in the pollen grain
wild for many years and
may be extinct.
Seeds develop
to another Seeds fall out.
in fruit (‘gumnut’).
one flower flower
(enlarged
view)

adult tree
Seed sprouts.
young plant

134 PEARSON science

 Plant and animal material Use and influence of science
shows up brown and orange
and will be checked for pests
and diseases. Customs and quarantine

Figure This is what a quarantine inspector

4.1.6 might see when your bag is X-rayed.

At airports and shipping ports, Australian Customs Sometimes living organisms can be imported under
Service officers can be seen inspecting passengers’ licence. For example, racehorses, dogs and cats
luggage. Sometimes instead they check X-rays of the can be imported but need to be placed in quarantine
luggage. This is shown in Figure 4.1.7. They are not (away from other organisms) and observed to make
just looking for drugs. They are also looking for items sure they do not have infectious diseases. Non-
that could accidentally bring serious diseases or pests living items such as wood and cane furniture and
into Australia that could affect our health or destroy souvenirs can be fumigated with chemicals to kill any
our agriculture and tourism. Preventing the entry of live insects, worms and bacteria they may contain.
disease-causing organisms and pests into a country is A specialist division of the customs service called
known as biosecurity. the Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)
carries out these tasks. One of their posters is shown
Items brought back from overseas can carry live
in Figure 4.1.8 on page 136.
organisms at various stages in their life cycles. For
example, the souvenirs you bring home might contain
insects as eggs, larvae, pupae or adults. Some may
be hard to see, such as insect larvae living inside
wood or plants. Pupae can be found inside wood
or on leaves. Adult insects, such as weevils, can be
found inside seeds. Food can contain microscopic
bacteria and viruses and these will be impossible
to find on inspection at the airport. Soil can carry all
these organisms too.
For these reasons, the following items are not allowed
into Australia:
• dairy products (such as cheese)
• uncanned meat (such as salami)
• seeds (such as spices)
• fruits and vegetables
• live animals and plants (some might be hidden
inside souvenirs made of wood or cane)
Figure A customs officer checking X-ray images for
• soil, dirt or mud (some might be trapped in the 4.1.7 prohibited items in passengers’ luggage
treads of your shoes).

Cells 135
 Some of the biosecurity threats to us are shown in
Table 4.1.1.

Table 4.1.1 Biosecurity threats to Australia

Threat Where is
What is the threat?
organism it found?
Red South An insect that is aggressive
imported America, and has a painful sting that
fire ant USA can cause allergic reaction and
even death in humans. Will
prevent an outdoor lifestyle
and can kill native wildlife.

Varroa mite Worldwide A mite that feeds on European

(Figure honey bee larvae and adults,
4.1.9) destroying the colony. Could
destroy beekeeping and the
orchards and nurseries that
depend on bees.

Asian China, An insect that burrows into the

longhorn Korea, wood of trees and into timber.
beetle Japan, Could destroy Australia’s
(Figure USA forests and timber industry.
4.1.10)

Guava rust North and A fungus that affects eucalypts,

South corymbias, bottlebrushes and
America paperbarks and other plants
in the myrtle family. Can kill
young trees and seriously slow
the growth of adult trees.

Rabies Most of A virus that infects animals

This poster from the Australian Quarantine virus the world such as dogs, foxes and
Figure
except humans, causing death in
4.1.8 Inspection Service (AQIS) shows organisms Australia, about four days. Can be
that pose a threat to our health and industries. New treated, but about 40 000
Zealand, people die each year from it.
UK

Bird flu Worldwide, A virus that infects and often

virus though kills birds. Some strains can
rarely in infect humans and some
Australia deaths have occurred.

Varroa mites

Figure Figure Asian longhorn beetles burrow

Varroa mites on a honey bee
4.1.9 4.1.10 into the wood of trees

136 PEARSON science

 4.1 Unit review

Remembering Analysing
1 Name the process by which parents produce 14 Compare the life cycles of a grasshopper and a frog.
offspring.
15 Compare the life cycles of a butterfly and a
2 List the four stages in the life cycle of a butterfly. grasshopper.
3 List the three stages of an incomplete 16 Refer to the life cycle of the wanderer butterfly to
metamorphosis life cycle in insects. help you compare growth with development.
4 Recall what happens inside a butterfly pupa.
5 List five types of item that are not allowed to be
Evaluating
brought into Australia. 17 The gastric brooding frog protected its young in the
mother’s stomach. A biologist claims this gave the
Understanding young a greater chance of surviving than the young
of other frogs. Justify this claim.
6 Explain why reproduction is a necessary part of a
18 The larvae of houseflies are called maggots.
life cycle.
They feed on decaying plant and animal matter.
7 Describe some structural changes that occur when a Understanding the life cycle of the housefly could
tadpole becomes a frog. help home owners to control houseflies. Propose
how.
8 Describe some structural changes that occur as a
grasshopper nymph becomes an adult.
9 Define the following terms.
Creating
a reproduction b life cycle 19 Construct a pamphlet for airline travellers about
c growth d development the dangers of bringing banned substances into
e biosecurity Australia from overseas.

10 Explain the role of the Australian Customs Service

and AQIS. Inquiring
11 If you move overseas and take your dog with you,
it may have to stay in isolation at a quarantine 1 Research how Aboriginal people survived by
area for several months. Explain why quarantine is observing the life cycles of plants and animals
necessary. that they hunted or harvested. In your answer give
relevant examples of a plant and an animal.

Applying 2 Research how methods in agricultural science,

farming or fishing have improved through knowing
12 Identify the following stages in the life cycle about life cycles of plants and animals. Choose
of a mosquito, which undergoes complete one plant and one animal. Some plants you could
metamorphosis. research are crops, introduced weeds and poisonous
a This stage lives in water and feeds on native plants. Animals you could research include
microscopic plants. livestock and native animals.
b This stage breaks out of its skin at the water
3 Life cycles such as that of a butterfly puzzled
surface and flies away.
biologists for a long time. Research and report on
c These are laid by the parent in water. the advantages to the insect of having very different
d This stage does not feed at all, but develops stages in its life cycle.
wings, different eyes and long legs.
13 A person arrives by plane in Australia with some
plant seeds, honey and dried flowers in their luggage.
Identify possible problems they might have with
Customs.

Growth and reproduction 137

 4.1 Practical activities

1 Animal life cycles 2 Plant life cycles

Purpose Purpose
To compare different animal life cycles. To compare different plant life cycles.

Materials Materials
• live or dead specimens from the life cycle • specimens or diagrams from the life cycle of
of animals such as fruit flies, mosquitoes, plants such as flowering plants, moss, ferns,
houseflies or silkworms conifers and cycads
• information sheets on each animal • hand lenses or stereo microscopes
• glass jars Procedure
• cotton wool Move from one plant specimen to another. Observe
• food scraps each and decide on the order in which the stages
• hand lenses or stereo microscopes occur in the life cycle.

Procedure Results
Move around the room from one animal to another.
1 Draw each stage in a simple outline diagram.
Observe each and decide on the order in which the Name the plant, label each stage and connect
stages occur in the life cycle. the stages with arrows.

Results 2 Write on your diagram any additional

information that may be on an information
1 Draw each stage in a simple outline diagram. sheet near the specimens.
Name the animal, label each stage and connect
the stages with arrows. Discussion
Compare the life cycles of the plants you observed.
2 Write on your diagram any additional
information that may be on an information
sheet near the specimens.

Discussion
Compare the life cycles of the animals you observed.

Figure Both the wild chicory plant and the bee have
4.1.11 life cycles but each is very different.

138 PEARSON science

 Reproduction and survival
4.2
Nothing lives forever. An insect may
live for only a few weeks. A tree may
last thousands of years. Since every
individual will eventually die, there
must be a way of producing new
individuals or the species will
become extinct. This production of
new individuals by parents is called
reproduction. It is one of the most
amazing processes in nature.

science fun
Methods of reproduction
Unless you have an identical twin, no one else is like
Flowers you. However, all the plants in a crop of potatoes can
What is in a flower? 5V be identical. This is because humans and potatoes
reproduce in different ways.
Collect this … There are two basic methods of reproduction:
• 2 different garden flowers (make sure they are
• sexual (needing two parents)
not poisonous)
• pair of tweezers • asexual (needing only one parent). ‘Asexual’ means
• knife or fine pair of scissors ‘without sex’.
Although most plants and animals use only one of these
Do this … methods, some can use both.
1 Look at each flower and identify parts of the
two flowers that look similar.
2 Carefully pull each flower apart and place its
different parts into separate piles. Each pile Sexual reproduction
should have parts that look similar. Sexual reproduction happens when a sperm (from
3 Try to find some seeds. a male) and an egg (from a female) join together in a
4 Think about the function (role) of the different process called fertilisation. Sperm and eggs are special
parts of the flower. reproductive cells, called gametes. The male sex cell is
sperm and the female sex cell is the egg. Fertilisation
Record this … results in a new cell (called a zygote), which then grows
Describe what you observed. by dividing to form many copies of itself. The zygote
Explain how each part might contribute to the life eventually grows and develops into a new individual.
of the flower. In Figure 4.2.1 on page 140 you can see many human
sperm around a single egg.

Growth and reproduction 139

 Sex-change
fish
sperm Clownfish all start
off life as males,
but can change

SciFile
sex to female.
This happens if
the dominant
female in an area
dies. The
dominant male
egg then changes sex
to female. Some
wrasse fish can
change sex from
This sperm
female to male.
has fertilised
the egg.

Sexual reproduction in
Figure Human sperm and an egg. Sperm have a tail flowering plants
4.2.1 to help them swim. During fertilisation only Flowers are reproductive structures in plants that
one sperm enters the egg. produce the gametes and allow fertilisation to occur.
This results in a seed. You can see a typical flower in
Humans, dogs, cattle, birds and kangaroos undergo Figure 4.2.3.
sexual reproduction and need two parents, one male
To form a seed, the pollen produced in the anther
and one female.
needs to be deposited on the stigma. The transfer
A few species like tapeworms have individuals that have of pollen to the stigma is known as pollination. The
both male and female sex organs. They can therefore pollen grain develops into a long tube called the pollen
produce both sperm and eggs. Individuals with both sex tube that grows through the style. The pollen tube
organs are known as hermaphrodites. In Figure 4.2.2 grows down to the ovary and into the egg. In flowering
you can see a flatworm, which is a hermaphrodite. The plants, the egg is inside a structure known as the ovule.
ovaries make the female gametes and the testes make During this process, the male gamete passes down
the male gametes. the pollen tube to join the female gamete in the ovule.
After this joining of male and female gametes, a seed
gradually develops.

oviduct
testis genital pore
ovary

penis

Figure This flatworm is a hermaphrodite, with both male sex organs

4.2.2 (shaded blue) and female sex organs (pink). The penis passes
sperm to another flatworm through a small tube called the genital
pore. The oviduct is a tube for the egg to move to the genital pore.

140 PEARSON science

Seeds develop in a structure in plants called the fruit. The embryo in a seed is dehydrated (dried out) and
A fruit is the remains of the ovary, plus all the seeds it requires water and warmth before it will grow. The
contains. In some plants, fruit will appear as seed cases seed swells up by absorbing water, and this triggers the
or pods. This means that fruit range from very juicy (like growth of the embryo.
an apple) to hard and dry seed cases like a gumnut. The embryo then sprouts out of the seed in a process
A seed is a capsule containing a new plant, called called germination. The embryo uses the stored food in
an embryo. The embryo is at a very early stage of its the seed and begins to grow. It will begin making its own
development, supported by a food supply inside the food when it reaches the sunlight above the ground.
seed. You can see a seed in Figure 4.2.4.

1 2 4.3
Petal p148 p149
Stigma Coloured parts that attract
Site for pollen animals to allow pollination
to be deposited

Anther
Style Produces pollen that
Connects the contains the male gamete
stigma to the ovary

Ovary
Produces the Filament
eggs (ovules) and Holds the anther
encloses the seeds
when they form
Sepal
Covers the flower in
the bud and protects it

Flower stalk Ovule

Supports and displays The name for
the flower the egg in plants

first shoot
Figure
A flower is a reproductive structure.
4.2.3

developing root

Figure A seed is an embryo with cotyledon

4.2.4 a food supply. This seed (food supply)
has been split open.
seed coat

Growth and reproduction 141

 Plants other than flowering plants have different Internal fertilisation is better for land environments
methods of sexual reproduction. Conifers such as pine because sperm shed into the air may dry out and die.
trees also make seeds, but they do not have flowers. The act of joining together of the male and female to
They produce seeds in a cone. Ferns and mosses do not transfer sperm is called copulation. There are many
make seeds, but they still produce embryos. But all plant different ways this happens. In dogs, the male inserts his
groups show the basic feature of producing male and penis into the female. In the octopus, the male transfers
female gametes that then join to form a new individual. sperm with one of his tentacles.

Development
Sexual reproduction in animals Development is the process in which the new individual
Sexual reproduction can be very different in different changes to look like others of its type. The young can
animals. The differences are: develop inside or outside the parent’s body. Most
• how and where fertilisation occurs mammals (animals that feed their young on milk) have
• where the young develop internal development—the young develop inside the
• the amount of parental care. mother’s body. Marsupials such as kangaroos have
part internal and part external development. Most
Site of fertilisation other animals, such as spiders, amphibians, birds and
Fertilisation takes place outside or inside the body, most reptiles and fish have external development. For
depending on the animal involved. example, birds lay eggs and the young develop inside the
External fertilisation happens outside the body. Figure egg until they hatch. This is happening in Figure 4.2.6.
4.2.5 shows fish fertilising eggs in the water. The sperm Most aquatic animals also have external development.
are also shed into the water and swim through it to
reach the eggs. Frogs and most fish do this, and so do Parental care
sea urchins and jellyfish. The water stops the sperm Parental care is common in animals such as mammals
from drying out and they can swim through it. and birds. These animals have relatively large brains that
need time to develop.
Internal fertilisation happens inside the body. All land
animals use internal fertilisation, as do some water- A human baby stays with its parents until it is mature
based (aquatic) species. enough to live independently. Birds also show a period
of parental care. Most other animals show little or
no parental care, especially once the eggs hatch. The
general rule is that more complex animals need more
parental care. As a human, you are a very complex
animal and require a lot of parental care.
internal
fertilisation

external internal
development development

external
fertilisation
Figure Figure
4.2.5 4.2.6

External fertilisation is used External development

mainly by water animals like fish, occurs in birds, while
and internal fertilisation is used mainly humans have internal
by land animals such as insects. development.

142 PEARSON science

Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction in plants
In plants, asexual reproduction can occur by vegetative
Asexual reproduction requires only one parent.
reproduction or by spores. Vegetative reproduction in
It occurs when a new individual grows from part of
plants is shown in the Table 4.2.1.
the parent’s body. It does not involve sperm or eggs.
An example is the freshwater animals called hydra. Table 4.2.1 Methods of vegetative reproduction
Hydra are relatives of jellyfish, and can reproduce
both sexually and asexually. Figure 4.2.7 shows a Vegetative Plants that Structures
reproduction show this involved
young hydra growing from its parent. The young method
one was formed by asexual reproduction. It will
Runners Many Stems run new plant old plant
break off the parent and lead a separate life.
grasses, along the growing
strawberries, ground surface. tip
ivy, violets They send
down roots at
intervals.

adult
roots runner

Stem tuber Potato, yam Swellings

called tubers leaves
are attached
young to the stem stem
underground tuber roots
and full of
stored food.

Bulbs Onions, Underground

Figure This adult hydra has a young hydra leaves
tulips, ‘leaves’ are full
4.2.7 that was produced asexually still daffodils of stored food.
attached to it. The young one has
caught a small water animal to eat. bulb
roots

Underground Bamboo, Stems run

old leaf
stem bracken along
new leaf
underground
science fun and send
up leaves at
intervals.
underground stem

Hydra breakdown Root suckers Some Roots send up

What grows on a hydra? eucalypts stems where
they come near leaves
the surface.
Collect this … 5V

• a live budding hydra in cavity

slide without a coverslip (or a prepared
microscope slide) root
stem
• hand lens sucker

Do this … roots
Use the hand lens to observe your hydra
carefully. Search its whole body looking Tap root Carrot, Swollen roots leaves
beetroot are full of
for a bud. stored food.
stem
Record this …
Describe what you observed. tap root
Explain what its function is.

Growth and reproduction 143

 Fungi and plants such as ferns and mosses use spores to
Figure
asexually reproduce. A spore is a microscopic single cell.
4.2.9
Spores are used by plants and fungi to help them spread
to many other places. This spread is called dispersal. This protozoa has
Spores have a protective wall around them but are very nearly completed
light and easily carried by wind or water. They can also the process of
be carried by animals. You can see some places where dividing into two.
spores are produced in Figure 4.2.8.

moss spore case Asexual reproduction in animals

Few animals reproduce asexually. One that does is the
hydra. Budding is the name for the process of asexual
reproduction in the hydra, shown in Figure 4.2.7 on
page 143. Another type of asexual reproduction is
called parthenogenesis, where offspring develop from
eggs that have not been fertilised by a male
gamete. Parthenogenesis happens in water
3
fleas, aphids, some bees, and a small number p150
of reptiles and fish.

Reproduction and the

environment
Each type of reproduction, sexual and asexual, has
fern spore case advantages and disadvantages. The type of reproduction
an organism uses is related to its environment.

Asexual reproduction and the

environment
In some environments, asexual reproduction is an
mushroom spores effective method of reproduction, particularly for:
within the folds on
the underside of • organisms that live a long way from others of their
the mushroom kind—they are able to reproduce without having to
find a mate
• organisms that cannot move very far—they do not
have to find a mate
• environments that do not change much—the
offspring will all be identical and therefore all will be
Figure Plants such as ferns and mosses suited to surviving in the environment.
4.2.8 produce spores, as do fungi. However, asexual reproduction can have disadvantages.
The major problem is if the environment changes in
some way. Then the problem is that all the individuals
Asexual reproduction in simple in a species that uses asexual reproduction are identical.
organisms Imagine if a new disease swept through a population.
Many simple organisms have bodies made of only one If every individual is identical, then they will all be
cell. One such group of single-celled organisms is the vulnerable to the disease and they could all die. You can
protozoa. Protozoa reproduce by dividing in two in a see an example of this in Figure 4.2.10. In this way, a
process called fission. You can see this in Figure 4.2.9. species could become extinct.

144 PEARSON science

 Figure
4.2.10

Disease can
easily wipe out a
whole crop of
plants if all the
plants are similar.
This is a fungus
attacking a grass
lawn and killing
almost every
plant. Figure
Cross-fertilisation in snails
4.2.11

Sexual reproduction and the transferred to a different plant. The flowers avoid self-
environment fertilisation by having the stigma mature at a different
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are all time from the anthers. So the pollen cannot stick to the
different from each other. This helps a species survive in stigma of the same flower or even flowers on the same
a changing environment. bush. An example is the geranium in Figure 4.2.12.
The survival of a species depends on some individuals Cross-fertilisation is important for the survival of a species
being different enough to survive any changes in their that uses it. This is because it produces greater differences
environment. When a change occurs, there are likely in the offspring than with self-fertilisation. This is the
to be some individuals that are able to cope with the same reason why sexual reproduction is an advantage to
new conditions. They can then breed and continue the species in a changing environment—because
species. So having differences means a greater chance of it can produce greater differences in the
survival for the species. offspring than asexual reproduction can. 4.4

An example of some individuals surviving because they

are different occurred during the Great Plague. In 1346 Anthers mature
in England and some other parts of Europe, a disease Stigma not
yet mature Anthers mature
commonly called the Black Death killed up to half of the
population of some towns. But not everyone who was
exposed to the disease died. Some people had a natural
resistance to the bacteria that caused it. Their bodies
could fight the bacteria. Being different gave them a
survival advantage.

Sex and differences Stigma matures

Snails are unusual animals. They are hermaphrodites Stigma opens
with both male and female sex organs on the one
individual. However, they do not fertilise themselves.
They mate with another snail, each passing sperm to
the other and each having its eggs fertilised by the other.
Cross-fertilising is what is happening in Figure 4.2.11. Anthers die
This process is called cross-fertilisation.
Cross-fertilisation is also common in flowering plants.
Most species have flowers that are both male and
female. But the pollen rarely ends up on the stigma Figure This geranium avoids self-fertilisation
of the same flower. Occasionally it may be carried 4.2.12 because the anthers and stigma mature at
to another flower on the same plant. Usually it is different times.

Growth and reproduction 145

 4.2 Unit review

Remembering Applying
1 Name the two main types of reproduction. 12 Identify whether each of the following is cross-
fertilisation or self-fertilisation and give a reason for
2 a List five different ways that plants reproduce
your answer.
asexually.
b For each way identify one plant reproducing a A worker bee is produced from a queen that had
mated with a male.
that way.
b A flatworm individual lives alone in a cow
3 Name two methods of asexual reproduction in intestine for years and keeps reproducing.
animals and for each give an example of an animal c Platypus are mammals and are male or female.
that uses the method. However, they lay eggs that have already
4 Name the parts of the flower that have the following been fertilised before they are laid. The young
functions. platypus hatches from the egg and is cared for
by the parents.
a produce pollen
d An Australian pea plant grown nowhere near
b attract pollinators to the flower
others of its species flowered and produced seed
c produce female gametes in England.
d hold the seeds as they form
5 State where fertilisation takes place in: Analysing
a flowering plants
13 Compare the processes of sexual and asexual
b frogs
reproduction.
c dogs.
14 Compare the processes of copulation and
6 State the type of reproduction that made you. fertilisation.
15 Compare the processes of internal and external
Understanding development.
7 Explain what is meant by reproduction and why it is 16 Compare the suitability of sexual and asexual
necessary. reproduction for the survival of a species in a
8 If you were told an animal was produced by sexual changing environment.
reproduction, discuss whether you could identify
how many parents it had. Evaluating
9 Define the following terms. 17 Honeyeaters are birds that drink sugary nectar made
a fertilisation by plants such as eucalypts and banksias. They
b copulation are attracted to the bright colours of the flowers.
c embryo Propose why these birds are important to these
d internal fertilisation flowering plants.
e external development
f hermaphrodite
10 Explain some advantages of asexual reproduction.
11 Explain some disadvantages of asexual
reproduction.

Figure Honeyeaters have long thin beaks that allow

4.2.13 them to get to the nectar inside the flowers.

146 PEARSON science

18 Propose whether internal development is more
likely to occur in animals that are internally fertilised
Inquiring
or externally fertilised. Justify your answer.
1 Research reproduction in the platypus and echidna,
19 Animals such as frogs produce hundreds of fertilised explaining why they are so unusual.
eggs and usually give them no parental care.
Humans usually produce one at a time and give 2 Research how temperature affects the proportion of
it lots of care. Propose a reason why there is such male and female crocodiles hatched.
a large difference in the number of fertilised eggs 3 Research how plants are grown from
produced by frogs and humans. cuttings. Design experiments that will test
20 Whales are mammals that had ancestors that the suitability of several different plants
lived on land millions of years ago. The way they for propagation by cuttings. Ask your
reproduce still shows this relationship to their land teacher if you can try your experiments.
ancestors. Propose whether whales have: 4 Research the impact of plant cloning techniques in
a internal or external fertilisation agriculture, such as horticulture, fruit production
b internal or external development. and vineyards.
21 Propose what advantage there could be to a species 5 Research the amazing life cycle of aphids, which
that uses sexual reproduction to produce many can reproduce by sexual reproduction and another
offspring in an environment that is changing rapidly. process called parthogenesis. Use your research to
explain why the aphid uses the different methods of
22 Asexual reproduction is more commonly found
reproduction in different seasons.
in water environments than terrestrial (land)
environments. Propose reasons why this may be so. 6 Research examples of animals that can change sex
once they are born (this is known scientifically by
23 Consider the following situations and classify
the term sequential hermaphroditism).
them from those producing the most differences
among the offspring to those producing the fewest
differences. Justify your answer.
a Bamboo plants connected to one underground
stem
b Plants from the seeds of one flower that was
pollinated from another flower on the same
bush
c Plants from the seeds of one flower that was
pollinated from a flower from a different bush
d Plants from the seeds of a self-pollinated pea
plant
e Grass plants in a lawn grown from stem cuttings
from three different gardens

Creating
Figure All barramundi under 3–5 years old are male.
24 Construct a table summarising some differences
4.2.14 They then all turn into females!
between animals in:
a where the gametes are produced
b how and where fertilisation occurs
c where the young develop.

Growth and reproduction 147

 4.2 Practical activities

1 Flower structure and pollination

Purpose Results
To compare the structure of different flowers and to 1 Construct a quick sketch of the basic shape of the
propose the method of pollination of each. flowers. Do not draw in fine detail. Write the name
of the plant species on your diagram.
Materials
2 Identify all the flower parts and label these on your
• blade and forceps
diagram.
• hand lens or SAFETY 3 On your diagram, write down the general features of
stereomicroscope
Take care with the flower, such as its size and colour.
• selection of flowers sharp instruments.
4 Using the table below, decide which method of
Procedure pollination the flower may have.
Carefully observe the structure of each
flower. To do this you may have to:
Discussion
For each flower, justify your choice of the method of
• use a stereo microscope or hand lens pollination.
to study them
• dissect the flowers carefully using the forceps
and blade.

Method of Flower structure/colour/size Anther/stamens Stigma/style

pollination
Wind Often small but many flowers in one head, Long stamens with large Long style with exposed
often no petals, not brightly coloured, no anthers exposed stigma, stigma has large
nectar, no scent surface area—often look
like brushes

Insect Usually small, some with many flowers Often has short stamens Short style, small stigma
in one head, brightly coloured petals and small anthers, which close to nectar source
especially blues and yellows, small are close to nectar source in
amounts of nectar, strong scent, often most flowers, sticky pollen
strongly marked with ‘landing guides’

Bird Large strong flowers, some have petals Often has long, strong Long style, smallish
but many don’t, lots of nectar, often red stamens and large anthers stigma, a long way from
a long way from the nectar the nectar source
source

Mammal Large strong flower heads, much nectar, Strong and rigid Strong and rigid
often not brightly coloured and hidden in
plant, nectar produced at night

148 PEARSON science

2 Germination

Purpose 1 Label the test-tubes with your name and the correct
To find out what factors affect the germination of seeds. letter A to E.
2 Put a centimetre of cotton wool in the bottom of
Materials test-tubes A to E as shown in Figure 4.2.15.
• 5 test-tubes
3 Add about 1 mL of tap water to test-tubes A,
• 25 wheat seeds B and E.
• cotton wool
4 Add five seeds to each of test-tubes A to E.
• labels or waterproof pens
5 Add about 10 mL of boiled (but cooled) water to
• 1 mL (cool) boiled vegetable oil test-tube D. Add the boiled (but cooled) oil to this
• 10 mL (cool) boiled water test-tube.
• 100°C thermometer 6 Put a loose cotton wool plug in the mouth of each
• lamp test-tube.
• access to dark cupboard and fridge 7 Place test-tube A under a fluorescent lamp. Your
• digital camera or mobile phone with camera teacher will place a thermometer next to the test-
function (optional) tubes to check the temperature. Place test-tubes B,
C and D in a dark cupboard. Place test-tube E in a
Procedure fridge.
The test-tubes will have the following conditions:
8 Observe or photograph the experiment each day for
about 5 days. Record the results in a table.
Test-tube Conditions
Discussion
A Light, moisture, oxygen, warmth
1 List which test-tubes had seeds that germinated,
B Dark, moisture, oxygen, warmth
and the conditions in those test-tubes.
C Dark, no moisture, oxygen, warmth
2 Deduce the conditions necessary for germination.
D Dark, moisture, no oxygen, warmth
3 Explain which test-tubes you compared to form
E Dark, moisture, oxygen, cold this conclusion.
4 Explain the result in test-tubes C, D and E.

light in dark

boiled
cool
oil

seeds boiled
cool
we
wet
we
et
water
cotton
o
otton
Figure
wool
w
wo
o
ool
4.2.15 A B C D E
no moisture
moisture
m s no oxygen
o yg
oxy gen in fridge
f

Growth and reproduction 149

 4.2 Practical activities

3 Asexual reproduction
Purpose 2 Place a leaf from a tree of life or a geranium on
To observe examples of asexual reproduction. some soil in an ice-cream container. Place a glass
slide over the top of the leaf to keep it pressed
Materials against the soil. Water the soil. Put the container in
a cupboard and check it over the next few weeks.
• onion, garlic, potato, African violet or tree of
life (Bryophyllum), geranium, grass, bamboo or Keep the soil moist.
bracken 3 If you are provided with African violets, place the
• glass jars leaf stalk in a jar of water. When roots appear, plant
it in soil.
• soil
• toothpicks 4 Cut a piece of geranium stem about 10 cm long.
Strip the leaves off. Stick it in soil, leaving a few
• glass slides centimetres above the soil and then water it.
• ice-cream containers
5 If you have some bamboo stem or bracken stem,
• stereo microscope break about 10 cm off it and cover it in soil, watering
• digital camera or mobile phone with camera it well.
function (optional)
Discussion
Procedure
1 After several weeks, observe or photograph your
1 Take an onion, a piece of garlic and a potato. experiment. Describe the appearance of the plant
Stick some toothpicks in them so that they can be parts.
supported on top of a jar of water and just touch
2 Identify the method of reproduction for each of the
the water at the bottom. Figure 4.2.16 shows how to
specimens you studied.
do this using an onion. Fill each jar with water and
place them away in a cupboard somewhere. You
will check them over the next few weeks.

Figure onion
4.2.16

toothpick

water

jar

150 PEARSON science

 Human reproduction
4.3 and growth

The human reproductive

system enables us to
produce offspring. Its
structure suits that
function, but it also
affects how humans
function as an organism.
Chemicals from your
reproductive organs
affect your behaviour,
the way you grow, your
appearance and how
your body works.

The female reproductive The eggs, or ova, are produced in the ovaries. The
ovaries are similar in size to an olive. They usually
system release only one ovum (a single egg) each month,
alternating between left and right ovaries. The egg
The female reproductive system has the role of forms in a capsule called a [Link] egg then bursts
producing a baby. All of its parts shown in Figures 4.3.1 out of the follicle.
and 4.3.2 cooperate in achieving this.
The fallopian tubes, or oviducts, are tubes down which
the egg passes on its way to the uterus. If the egg meets a
sperm and becomes fertilised, it is usually in this tube.

fallopian tube
(oviduct) oviduct
(fallopian tube)
ovary
cervix
uterus (womb)
ovary
bladder
pubic hair
pubic bone
urethra
vagina
clitoris cervix
bladder (here shown vagina
labia vulva moved to one side; urethra
it normally lies in front of
the uterus)

Figure A side view of the human female

4.3.1
Figure A front view of the human female
reproductive system 4.3.2 reproductive system

Growth and reproduction 151

 The uterus (or womb) is a thick-walled muscular
brain
organ in the female reproductive system that is about
7 cm long and 5 cm wide. It has a lining called the
FSH LH lining
endometrium that can change and become rich in breaks
blood vessels. The fertilised egg enters the uterus and follicle grows ovulation down
burrows into the endometrium. This process is called
implantation. The baby grows and develops in the
uterus until birth. The uterus can swell up to many estrogen estrogen
times its normal size to allow the baby room to grow.
lining growing lining ready menstruation
If the egg was not fertilised, then it passes out of the thicker for baby
uterus through the lower end.
At the lower part of the uterus is a ring of muscle called Figure The menstrual cycle is controlled by
the cervix. The cervix has the job of contracting tightly 4.3.4 hormones.
to hold the uterus closed while the baby is developing.
This protects the baby in the womb. The cervix opens up
If the egg is not fertilised and implanted, the thickened
when the baby is about to be born.
lining of the uterus breaks down. Over the next few days
The role of the vagina is to allow the male penis to be some blood, along with much of the lining of the uterus,
inserted to deposit the sperm inside the female body. passes out of the body. These events are called a period
It is also the birth canal down which the baby passes. or menstruation.

The menstrual cycle

Reproduction in females is controlled by chemicals called
Menstrual cycles
hormones that are produced in the female body and
Menstrual cycles can vary greatly in length,
travel around in the bloodstream. One hormone (known
especially when they first begin. A typical
as FSH) causes the follicles to mature. A follicle is shown menstrual cycle is about 28 days once it
in Figure 4.3.3. Another hormone (known as LH) makes becomes fairly regular. In a typical 28-day
the egg burst out of the follicle. This is called ovulation. cycle, the first day of menstruation (bleeding) is
A third hormone called estrogen (also spelled oestrogen) counted as day 1, and typically lasts 3–7 days.
makes the lining of the uterus grow thicker and develop Ovulation occurs at day 14 of the cycle.
an increased blood supply. Estrogen comes from the You can see this in Figure 4.3.5. In some cycles,
follicles in the ovaries. There are other hormones ovulation can occur as early as day 9, while
involved as well. The amounts of these hormones in others it may be after day 20. The part of
change in a cycle over the cycle that stays the same is the time from
a month. These ovulation to the start of menstruation. This is
changes in the always 14 days.
body over the Average cycle
month are Start 14 days 28 days
called the menstruation ovulation
menstrual
cycle. The
Short cycle
menstrual
Start 9 days 23 days
cycle is menstruation ovulation
shown in
Figure 4.3.4.
ovary Long cycle
follicle Start 20 days 34 days
menstruation ovulation

Figure A photo inside a woman showing

4.3.3 the ovary (the whitish area), and a Figure The menstrual cycle can vary in length.
4.3.5
follicle (red) starting to swell

152 PEARSON science

 coiled tube called the epididymis. There is one on the
WORKED EXAMPLE
outside of each testis. There the sperm mature.
Time of ovulation
To get to the outside of the body, sperm are squeezed
Problem by muscles lining the epididymis. They are pushed into
In a 25-day cycle, on what day would ovulation occur? a hollow tube about 45 cm long called the sperm duct,
or vas deferens. This tube has muscles in its walls that
Solution
squeeze the sperm along. On the way, fluid is added
Time from ovulation to menstruation is always 14 days. to the sperm from glands called seminal vesicles. This
Therefore 25 – 14 = 11 days fluid contains various chemicals such as sugars that
provide an energy source for the sperm. There is also
So ovulation would have been on day 11 of the
fluid added to the sperm by the prostate gland and
25-day cycle.
Cowper’s glands. This mixture of sperm and other fluid
is called semen. Semen passes out of the penis through
the urethra, the same tube through which
Male reproductive urine flows. However, urine cannot pass
1
through at the same time as semen.
system p157

The role of the male reproductive system is to produce

and deliver sperm. All of its parts cooperate in achieving
Acidic women
this. The main parts are shown in Figures 4.3.6 and 4.3.7.
and basic men

SciFile
The sperm are produced in the testes. There are two The vagina produces acid to kill
testes (singular: testis), each about the size of a golf infectious organisms like fungi.
ball. Testes are also known as testicles. They hang This acid would kill sperm if the
fluid carrying it (semen) did not
outside the male abdominal cavity in a sac called the contain a chemical called a base.
scrotum. This is because sperm are killed or deformed This destroys the acid and allows
if they become too hot and it is cooler in the scrotum the sperm to survive.
than inside the abdomen. The sperm are produced in
tubes inside the testes. Then they are squeezed into a

bladder
bladder ureter

front of
pelvic girdle seminal vesicle
seminal
vesicle

prostate Cowper’s
Cowper’s gland gland
gland

prostate gland
urethra vas deferens
(sperm duct)
sperm duct urethra

erectile
tissue epididymis
testis epididymis
penis
testis
foreskin

4.5
Figure A side view of the human male Figure A front view of the human male
4.3.6 reproductive system 4.3.7 reproductive system

Growth and reproduction 153

 Muscle and bone
Puberty Voice ‘breaks’ and mass increases.
deepens due to thickening
Puberty refers to the time in a person’s
of vocal cords.
life when they become able to reproduce.
Puberty involves physical changes that bring
Growth spurt
sexual maturity. The physical changes of occurs.
puberty take several years to complete. For
boys, puberty is when fertile sperm are able
Facial hair
to be produced. For girls, it is when the first Pubic, underarm,
begins to
ovulation occurs. chest and leg
grow.
hair grow.
The time in the life cycle when puberty
begins varies greatly. In Australia, girls begin
puberty on average around 12 years of age, Penis lengthens
while boys are generally about 13, but it is and widens.
not unusual to differ from this. Every person
is different, and reaches puberty when their
Testes develop
body is ready.
and begin
to produce
Changes in males sperm.
The early changes of puberty in males are
increased levels of some hormones such as
testosterone. These lead to some changes
you can observe, such as:
• enlargement of the testes More sweat and sebaceous oil on the
• sperm formation by the testes Figure Changes in skin is produced, possibly resulting in
4.3.8 males during increased body odour and acne.
• growth of the penis
puberty
• the voice ‘breaking’ to become deeper
• hair growth on the face, arms, chest and
groin
• increased muscle and bone growth and
strength Breasts
Growth spurt
develop.
• sudden increase in height and chest occurs.

capacity.
You can see these changes in Figure 4.3.8.
Pubic hair and
some underarm
Changes in females hair develop.
In girls, the early changes are increased
levels of hormones such as FSH and LH.
These hormones cause an increase in Buttocks
estrogen. These hormonal changes result in develop and hips
observable changes such as: become wider.

• the breasts begin to enlarge—generally

the first sign of puberty Reproductive organs
grow and mature.
• hair grows on the armpits and groin Menstruation begins.
• a sudden growth spurt
• the first period
• widening of the hips
• more fat deposited in the hips.
You can see these changes in Figure 4.3.9. 2 4.6 Figure Changes in females
p157
4.3.9 during puberty

154 PEARSON science

 4.3 Unit review

Remembering Applying
1 Name the parts of the female reproductive system 13 If a woman reaches puberty at age 12 and produces
that have the following functions. one egg each a month from puberty until she is 50
a Produces eggs years of age, calculate how many eggs she releases
b Keeps the uterus closed during pregnancy in her lifetime.
c Carries the egg to the uterus 14 Identify the male reproductive part that has
d Where the baby grows and develops until birth functions in both the reproductive and excretory
e Site of fertilisation systems, and describe its role in each.

2 Name the parts of the male reproductive system that 15 Figure 4.3.10 shows how the proportions of a human
have the following functions. body change as they grow.
a Produces sperm
b Carries sperm to the penis
c Holds the testes
d Places sperm in the vagina
e Gland beginning with ‘p’ that adds chemicals to
the semen
3 Name the female cycle that shows regular changes
in hormonal levels.
4 Name the female hormones that have the following
functions.
a Triggers ovulation Birth 2 years 11 years 15 years Adult
b Starts eggs maturing each month
c Causes the lining of the uterus to thicken Figure
4.3.10
5 List the changes in males during puberty.
6 List the changes in females during puberty.
a Calculate the fraction of a newborn body taken
7 Recall on what day of a 28-day menstrual cycle a up by the head.
woman would ovulate. b Calculate the fraction of an adult body taken up
by the head.
Understanding c Identify the area of the body that appears to
have grown fastest in the womb.
8 Explain why the lining of the uterus is important in
reproduction. 16 If ovulation occurs at day 23 in a particular cycle,
calculate when menstruation occurs.
9 Explain the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle.
17 Calculate the time from menstruation to ovulation
10 Define the following terms. in a 36-day cycle.
a ovulation
b period
c puberty
11 Explain the importance of the testes being held in a
sac outside the abdomen.
12 a Name two components of semen.
b Explain the function of these components.

Growth and reproduction 155

 4.3 Unit review

Analysing Inquiring
18 Compare ova, ovulation and oviduct.
Research how twins are formed. Find out what the
19 Compare oviducts and sperm ducts. differences are between:
20 Compare ovaries and testes in: • identical twins
a their position • fraternal twins
b number of gametes produced. • conjoined twins.

Evaluating
21 Propose why there are millions of sperm in a single
ejaculation, but usually only one egg is produced in
each menstrual cycle.
22 Study a diagram of the male reproductive system
and then propose why swelling of the prostate gland
could cause difficulty in urinating.

Creating
23 Construct a diagram of the female reproductive
system from the front. Next to each organ write its
function.
24 Construct a diagram of the male reproductive
system from the front. Next to each organ write its
function.

Unisex
While in the womb
SciFile

everyone has the same

basic reproductive parts
up to about the first eight
weeks of development.
Then these are reshaped
and turn into male or
female organs.

156 PEARSON science

 4.3 Practical activities

1 Reproduction models
Purpose 2 You can either suspend the model from string or
To construct models representing the structure of the cotton, or have it on a stand.
male and female reproductive systems. 3 When all the models are complete, display them
around the room.
Materials
Choose from the different materials provided by the 4 Observe the other models and decide which ones
you think are the best.
teacher, such as cardboard, scissors, felt-tip pens,
sticky tape, modelling clay, string. Discussion
1 Justify why you chose a particular model as the
Procedure
best.
1 Make a model of the male or female reproductive
2 Evaluate your model and suggest improvements
system. Use the materials provided. Your model
you could have made to produce a better teaching
should be 3D, and can have cutaway sections to
model.
show what the insides of different parts look like.
The aim is to make a model that teaches people
about the structure of the reproductive system.

2 My changing body 4 Swap outlines with your partner and read their
page. Identify any differences with yours. Discuss
Purpose differences with your partner and combine the
To identify the changes that occur in the human body information onto one of the outlines and stick it
at puberty and to discuss why these changes occur. up on the wall to create a gallery with the other
students.
Materials
5 When all the outlines in the class are up, wander
• A3 sheet of paper or roll of butcher’s paper around the gallery. Read all the posters and then
• coloured sticky note place a sticker on the one you think best represents
• sticky tape, Blu-Tack or similar all the changes that occur during puberty.

Procedure 6 Your teacher will ask the class what was good about
the poster that won. Listen carefully and remember
1 Choose a partner. Trace or draw an outline of your what is said so that you can answer the questions
bodies on separate sheets of paper. below.
2 On your outline, add labels to each part of your Discussion
body that changes as you go through puberty.
Describe the changes that occur to each body part 1 Justify why the class chose a particular outline as
as puberty proceeds. being the best representative of changes during
puberty.
3 At the bottom of your page, demonstrate in a
sentence or two that you understand what causes 2 Evaluate your page and suggest improvements you
these changes. Be as specific as possible, giving could make to it.
correct terms if possible. 3 Summarise in 25 words what causes the changes
during puberty.

Growth and reproduction 157

 Pregnancy
4.4
Pregnancy and birth are often
described by people as the most
amazing experiences of their
lives, reducing many parents to
tears. They are overwhelmed by
the realisation that they have
created a life. You are in the
womb for close to 9 months
before you are born. A lot
happens in those 9 months!

Copulation Sperm enter the uterus (womb) through the cervix.

They swim through the uterus and into the fallopian
Copulation is the term for two individuals joining tube. Most sperm die along the way, leaving a few
together for sexual reproduction. In humans it is also hundred healthy sperm to make it to the upper fallopian
called sexual intercourse. In sexual intercourse, the tube to meet the egg. When they encounter the egg,
penis becomes stiff and erect. It is then inserted into the the sperm swarm over its surface (Figure 4.4.2). One
vagina. Stimulation causes sperm to be squeezed out of sperm manages to bury its head into the egg, and the
the penis in a process called ejaculation. tail breaks off. The egg surface changes as soon as one
Ejaculation deposits several hundred million sperm near sperm head makes it through to ensure that no more
the cervix. Sperm can swim, propelled by their tail. Their sperm can enter the egg.
energy source is sugar in the semen. However, not all
sperm are healthy. Some have two tails and some have
deformed tails. There are many different ways a sperm
can be defective, as you can see in Figure 4.4.1.

normal large small two two coiled shapeless

head head tails heads tail head

Figure Sperm can swim, but defective sperm are Figure Sperm swarm around an egg,
4.4.1 poor swimmers. 4.4.2 trying to penetrate its surface.

158 PEARSON science

Implantation chemical that can affect cells could damage the embryo.
In Figure 4.4.4 you can see an embryo.
When the egg is fertilised, the first cell of the new
individual is called a zygote. The zygote begins to divide
as it continues its journey down the oviduct. You can
placenta Figure
see this in Figure 4.4.3. The zygote keeps dividing until
4.4.4
it forms a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. About
five days after fertilisation, the blastocyst reaches the
Major tissues,
uterus. Then the blastocyst burrows into the wall in a
organs and
process called implantation. Now it is correct to say the systems form
umbilical cord
woman is pregnant. during the early
development of
the embryo.

Embryonic development
A baby takes about 38 weeks to develop from fertilisation
to birth. The first 8 weeks are called the embryonic
period and the developing baby is referred to as an
embryo
embryo. During this time, all the different types of cells,
such as nerve, muscle and bone, are developing. These
are being built into the different organs and systems of
the body. In this critical period of development, the baby
can be severely affected by many things. This means that
A fast but brief life
smoking, alcohol and some drugs (legal and illegal) have
The fastest sperm take about
the potential to cause damage. So, too, do some illnesses, 15 minutes to make their

SciFile
such as rubella. These can cause deformities such as journey to the fallopian tube.
missing limbs and can also cause brain damage. Any Sperm can live for up to 2
days and fertilisation is
possible if the egg encounters
the sperm in this time. This
Zygote means that intercourse up to
Begins a 5-day journey two days before ovulation can
to the uterus. On its result in pregnancy.
way, it divides several
times to form new cells.

The zygote
cell has split to
become four.
Blastocyst
A ‘large’ fluid-filled
ball of cells

Fertilisation
Many sperm reach
the egg but only one
can penetrate it.

ovum Morula
A clump of up to 80
cells, the stage before
Figure The sequence of steps from becoming a blastocyst, Implantation
4.4.3 ovulation to implantation that is about to enter The blastocyst buries ifself in the
the uterus. lining of the uterus and starts to
takes about 5 days.
absorb nourishment from it.

Growth and reproduction 159

 Amniotic fluid Figure 4.4.6 shows how the placenta is connected to the
embryo by the umbilical cord. This contains blood vessels
The embryo floats in a fluid enclosed in a ‘balloon’
from the embryo. The blood supplies of the mother and
or membrane (thin layer of living tissue) called the
embryo do not mix together. They are kept apart by a
amnion. The amniotic fluid acts as a shock absorber,
membrane. The materials to be exchanged between the
protecting the embryo from bumps. It also helps keep
mother and embryo pass across this membrane.
the embryo’s temperature constant.

Food and Carbon dioxide

The placenta oxygen
pass from
and urea pass
from baby’s
In its early development, the embryo is fed from the yolk the mother’s blood into the
blood into mother’s blood.
sac and secretions (fluids) from the lining of the uterus. the baby.
The yolk sac is similar to the yolk in a chicken egg. Later,
another structure called the placenta develops. The mother’s mother’s mother’s
placenta develops from branching structures called blood out blood in blood out

villi, which are on the outside of the blastocyst. You mother’s

can see these in Figure 4.4.5. The placenta is a highly blood
folded series of membranes and blood vessels. It allows
blood placenta
nutrients and oxygen from the mother to enter the vessels of (includes
baby. It also allows embryo blood vessels
of embryo)
Belly buttons the embryo’s waste
The umbilical cord joins materials such as
umbilical
SciFile

the embryo in its carbon dioxide to enter cord

abdomen. Your ‘belly the mother’s blood so amnion
button’ is where your her body can remove it.
umbilical cord joined
you to your mother in amniotic
the womb. fluid embryo

Figure The placenta allows exchange of materials

uterus 4.4.6 between the mother and the developing baby.

placenta Weeks pregnant

The period during which the baby develops in
the uterus is known as the gestation period.
A baby develops for about 266 days (38 weeks)
from fertilisation to birth. However, doctors
amniotic villi
can’t be sure when ovulation actually occurred
fluid
in a cycle, because cycles can vary in length.
So, they usually talk about ‘weeks pregnant’,
umbilical counted from the start of the last menstrual
cord
amnion cycle. Since this is usually about 14 days before
fertilisation, birth is at ‘40 weeks’, or 280 days,
endometrium from the last menstruation. So a doctor talking
fetus about ‘weeks pregnant’, is probably referring to
the weeks since the last menstrual period. But
the actual time it took for the baby to develop
was really 38 weeks, or 266 days.

Figure The umbilical cord connects the baby

4.4.5 to the placenta.

160 PEARSON science

Fetal development During birth

Most of the major organs and systems have been

formed when the embryo reaches about 9 weeks old.
The external appearance looks more human-like. The
developing baby is now classified as a fetus (also spelled
foetus.) During the fetal period, the developing baby
increases in size and the organs mature so they can
function at birth.

umbilical
cord
placenta
Birth
Birth is part of the process called labour, which can After the birth
last for a few hours to a day or more. The first sign
of labour is pain in the abdomen. This is due to the
uterus contracting and relaxing. The pains come and
go. These gradually get stronger and more painful and
come closer together. When the pains are regularly a few
minutes apart, birth is not far away. The cervix relaxes
umbilical
and widens. This process is called dilation. The amniotic cord
sac usually bursts, and then the baby’s head begins to
pass through the cervix. Usually the head goes through placenta
first, as you can see in Figure 4.4.7. Then the baby is
born. This may take from 10 minutes to a few hours.
The umbilical cord is cut and tied. A short time after the
Figure Labour involves birth of the baby and
baby is born the placenta is expelled from the mother. 4.4.7 expulsion of the afterbirth.
This is called the afterbirth.

Big baby
The largest baby on
record was born to Anna
Bates, in Canada in 1879.
SciFile

The baby boy had a mass

of 10.77 kg, about three
times as heavy as the
average baby born in
Australia. He survived for
only about 9 hours.
Both his parents were
over 2.2 metres tall.

Pregnancy tests
The blastocyst produces
SciFile

a hormone known as
HCG. This keeps the
lining of the uterus thick
to support the blastocyst.
HCG is detected in
pregnancy tests of the
mother’s urine.

Growth and reproduction 161

 Use and influence of science
Drugs and pregnancy

Scientists have known for over 50 years that Figure Alcohol and smoking can do great
some drugs can damage the developing baby. 4.4.8 harm to a developing fetus.

One of the earliest examples of drugs doing damage Some serious effects are:
to babies was discovered by the Australian scientist • low intelligence, poor memory and learning
Dr William McBride in the 1960s. He identified a difficulties (because the growing brain is damaged)
drug called thalidomide as the cause of deformities
• behaviour problems, for example ADHD (attention
in babies. Many pregnant women experience
deficit hyperactivity disorder)
morning sickness, a feeling of wanting to vomit that
is particularly strong in the morning, and the drug • increased risk of mental illness
was taken by mothers as a sedative to help relieve • increased risk of alcohol and drug misuse.
these symptoms. Thalidomide crossed the placenta
and entered the developing embryo. It affected cell Smoking and pregnancy
development, resulting in missing or deformed limbs.
Smoking during pregnancy damages both the mother
Thalidomide is now banned for use by pregnant
and the baby. Effects can include:
women, but it is still used to treat many diseases in
people who aren’t pregnant. • death of the fetus in the womb
• miscarriage—bleeding and expulsion of the fetus
• premature birth
Alcohol and pregnancy
• retarded growth and development
Drinking alcohol while pregnant can also have
• increased risk of facial deformities such as cleft lip
consequences for the baby. Alcohol crosses the
and cleft palate
placenta, which means the baby has the same blood
alcohol level as the mother. If the mother is drunk, the • lower birth weight
baby is too, and can be damaged. • twice the risk of sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS).
High alcohol intake may cause a condition known as
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Some signs of FAS are: Smoking damage can cause health problems in the
• low birth weight baby for years to come once it is born.
• smaller head Effects may include:
1
• small eyes and flattened face and nose • decreased lung function p164
• heart defects. • higher incidence of asthma
The children are affected for life and cannot be cured. • increased risk of developing behavioural
problems, such as antisocial behaviour. 4.7

162 PEARSON science

 4.4 Unit review

Remembering Evaluating
1 Name the following. 15 A pregnant woman complains that she is feeling
a The cell formed by fertilisation sick every morning. She wants to use a natural
b Both terms for the place where fertilisation remedy that a friend suggested. What would you
occurs recommend she do, and why?
c The site of implantation 16 A baby’s skull bones do not lock together to make
d The fluid that surrounds the embryo the skull rigid until well after birth. Propose why this
e The connection between the embryo and the is an advantage in childbirth.
placenta
17 To induce labour (to make it happen), a chemical
f The time period from fertilisation to birth called oxytocin can be injected into the mother.
2 List the major events from fertilisation to Propose what effect the chemical would have on
implantation. the uterus.

3 List the signs that labour is occurring.

4 List some events in childbirth after dilation of the
Creating
cervix. 18 Construct a diagram of a developing fetus and the
uterus. Next to each part on the diagram, write its
function in reproduction.
Understanding
19 Create a pamphlet for pregnant women to warn
5 Explain the function of the amniotic fluid. them how drugs might hurt their unborn baby.
6 Explain the function of the placenta.
7 Define the following terms. Inquiring
a copulation b ejaculation
c implantation d blastocyst 1 Research the use of the following in prenatal
e placenta f labour diagnosis (checking the health of the developing
baby).
8 Explain what prevents mixing of the blood supply of
a ultrasound
the mother and the fetus.
b amniocentesis
c chorionic villus sampling
Applying
2 Research dietary advice for pregnant women,
9 If a woman last had a period on 1 January, and is particularly the recommended type and amount of
clearly pregnant, calculate the date when her baby food (for example, should they eat soft cheeses and
should be born. ‘cured’ raw meat products?).
10 If a zygote was definitely formed on 1 January, 3 Research how in-vitro fertilisation can help with
calculate the date when the baby should be born. infertility problems.
4 Research the effect and treatment of the condition
Analysing called incompetent cervix.
11 Compare the major features of an embryo and a 5 Research the condition called placenta previa and
fetus. the problems it can cause.
12 Distinguish between the placenta and umbilical 6 Research the condition called eclampsia,
cord. particularly the threat it poses to the mother and
13 Compare the meaning of labour and birth. baby.

14 Distinguish between fertilisation, implantation and

pregnancy.

Growth and reproduction 163

 4.4 Practical activities

1 Interview a mother
Purpose 2 After compiling your list of questions, discuss
To interview a mother to discover her experiences of them with another student to get their opinion on
pregnancy and the advice she received. them. Check with your teacher if you are not sure.
3 Show the questions to the mother and ask her if
Materials she could help you. Tell her that her name will not
• paper appear in the report and that her answers will not
• pen be shown to anyone else other than the teacher. It
would be best if you could actually talk to her and
• tape recorder if available write out what she says. If she doesn’t want to talk
Procedure about it, but would be happy to write out some
answers, then accept the offer. Don’t hassle her to
1 You are going to interview a woman who has been tell you things. Some things may be personal.
a mother—either your own mother, or someone
you know who is keen to help. It is important that 4 Obtain the answers to your questions by interview
the woman agrees to participate freely. If your or in writing from the person. Make sure that you
mum does not want to do it, ask someone else. keep your promises about her privacy.
The aim is to find out what advice they received Discussion
about pregnancy and birth before they occurred,
Assess what you learnt in this activity, including any
and what they think of their experiences.
lessons that could help if you become a parent.
The first step is to think about the questions you
should ask them, and write these down. Some
examples follow:
• What changes did you think having a baby
would make to your life?
• What changes did you find you had to make to
your life after having a baby?
• What advice were you given about diet during
pregnancy?
• What did you know about the possible effects of
alcohol and smoking?
• What advice were you given about exercise?
• What care did you take during the pregnancy?

164 PEARSON science

4 Chapter review

Remembering Analysing
1 Name the following: 9 Compare the life cycles of a human, a butterfly and
a the type of insect life cycle with four stages a frog, discussing the main stages and processes.
b changes in body form and shape in an 10 Compare the processes of sexual reproduction in
organism’s life plants and animals.
c sex cells that must join together in sexual
reproduction 11 Compare the structures involved in sexual
reproduction in plants and animals.
d the human organ that produces male gametes
e the human organ that produces female gametes. 12 Contrast between sexual and asexual reproduction.
2 State the following times: 13 Compare cross-fertilisation and self-fertilisation.
a the length of human gestation in weeks and days 14 Compare the effects of alcohol and smoking on the
b the average age for the start of puberty in girls developing fetus.
and boys
15 Compare the changes in male and female bodies
c how long a sperm can live in the oviduct
during puberty.
d when ovulation occurs in a typical 28-day
menstrual cycle
e when a blastocyst implants after fertilisation. Evaluating
3 List five different methods of asexual reproduction 16 Sexual reproduction is superior to asexual
and for each name an organism reproducing that way. reproduction if the environment is changing.
Justify this statement.
Understanding 17 Justify the argument that illegal drugs should not be
taken during pregnancy.
4 Discuss the advantages of:
a sexual reproduction
b asexual reproduction. Creating
5 Discuss the role of hormones in human 18 Make flash cards about the male and female
reproduction. reproductive systems. Each card can be either a
6 Explain the important role of the lining of the uterus word or a diagram. Do some as words and some
in human reproduction. as diagrams. Write the answer on the back without
your partner seeing it. Use the flash cards to test a
partner. If you flash a word, they must tell you the
Applying function or meaning. If you flash a diagram, they
must tell you the name. Take turns testing each
7 Identify the following: other with your flash cards.
a a structure in a pregnant woman that allows the
19 Use the following ten key terms to construct a
embryo’s carbon dioxide to enter the mother’s
visual summary of the information presented in this
circulation
chapter.
b a drug that can affect the fetus and cause brain
damage, behavioural problems, reduced brain life cycle development
size, and learning difficulties for life. sexual asexual
8 Animals such as humans, dogs, sheep and plant animal
horses are classified into a group called placental reproductive structure reproductive process
mammals. The echidna and platypus are classified fertilisation placenta
into a different mammal group called monotremes
because they lay eggs. Identify the key difference 4.8
between these two mammal groups.

Growth and reproduction 165

 Thinking scientifically

Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following diagram of Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following table
the life cycle of a housefly. listing some reproductive structures in a human
and a flowering plant.
1 adult
Pair number Human part Flowering plant part
1 testis stigma
2
2 uterus seed

3 sperm pollen

4 egg anther
pupa eggs
5 fetus ovule
4 6 fallopian tube fruit
larva

Q4 Which of the following pairs in the table

names parts that have the same role in human
3
reproduction as they do in plant reproduction?

A pair 1 B pair 2
Q1 Between which two stages does fertilisation C pair 3 D pair 6
occur?
Q5 Which of the following pairs in the table names
A 1 and 2 B 2 and 3 parts found in the female human and the female
C 3 and 4 D 4 and 1 part of the flower?

A pair 1 B pair 3
Q2 Between which two stages is this cycle most
similar to the stage in the life cycle of a flowering C pair 4 D pair 5
plant when the seed germinates (the plant
breaks out of the seed)? Q6 The methods of reproduction of several species
are shown below.
A 1 and 2 B 2 and 3
Organism Method of reproduction
C 3 and 4 D 4 and 1
Pea Self-fertilisation
Q3 Bats are placental mammals. Which of the Bracken fern Underground stem, spores, sexually—
following should occur in the life cycle of a bat? mostly self-fertilisation

A Bats would lay eggs in nests, like birds. Amoeba Asexually by fission
B Bats would give birth to live young and carry Dog Cross-fertilisation
them in a pouch like marsupials.
C Bats would give birth to babies that go Which of the following species would probably
through a metamorphosis like butterflies. show the greatest variation in its offspring?
D Bats would develop in a uterus with the fetus A pea B amoeba
connected to the mother by an umbilical C bracken fern D dog
cord.

166 PEARSON science

 Glossary

Unit 4.1 Copulation: two

individuals joining
to allow gametes to
Biosecurity: preventing pest and disease organisms
become fertilised
from entering our country
Cross-fertilisation:
Development: changes in body form and shape in an
when gametes
organism’s life Asexual
from two separate
Egg: female cell that must be fertilised to start a life individulas join reproduction
cycle together
Growth: an increase in Development: the process by which the cell formed by
body size fertilisation divides and develops to begin to look like
Imago: the adult stage in an an adult
insect life cycle (complete Embryo: a developing offspring at a very early stage of
metamorphosis) development
Larva: the second stage in an Fertilisation: the joining of
insect life cycle (complete gametes
metamorphosis)
Flower: the reproductive
Life cycle: the changes that structure in plants that makes
happen to an individual male sex cells and female sex
from its formation until Larva cells
it has produced offspring
Fruit: the structure that the
similar to it
ovary of a flowering plant
Metamorphosis: the changes in structure that happen turns into as the seeds ripen Fertilisation
as an organism develops into an adult
Germination: when the young
Nymph: the stage of an insect life growing plant sprouts out of the seed
cycle that gradually develops into
Hermaphrodite: an individual with both male and
the adult without becoming a pupa
female sex organs
(incomplete metamorphosis)
Parthenogenesis: where offspring develop from eggs
Pupa: the stage in an insect life cycle
that have not been fertilised by a male gamete. A form
when the larva changes into an
of asexual reproduction
imago (complete metamorphosis)
Pollination: transfer of pollen from the anther to the
Reproduction: the process of parents
stigma
producing new individuals, or
offspring Pupa Self-fertilisation: when gamates from the same
individual join together
Sexual reproduction: the process of a sperm and an
Unit 4.2 egg joining together and then growing into a new
individual
Anther: the part of the flower
Stigma: the flower part that receives the pollen
that produces the pollen
Anther
Style: connects the stigma to the ovary
Asexual reproduction: a new
individual growing from part Zygote: the first cell of the new individual after
of its one parent’s body with fertilisation
no joining of gametes

Anther

Growth and reproduction 167

 Glossary

Unit 4.3 Unit 4.4

Cervix: part of the uterus that keeps it closed while the Afterbirth: placenta expelled from the mother after birth
baby is developing
Amniotic fluid: fluid surrounding the embryo that acts
Fallopian tubes (oviducts): tubes down which the egg as a shock absorber and helps to maintain a constant
passes and where fertilisation occurs temperature
Hormones: chemicals made in the body to control Blastocyst: a hollow ball
reproduction and physical characteristics of cells that becomes an
embryo
Implantation: process of the blastocyst burrowing into
the lining of the uterus Copulation: two individuals
joining together for sexual
Menstrual cycle: regular monthly changes in the
reproduction
hormones and reproductive organs of adult females
Ejaculation: process of sperm Blastocyst
Menstruation: blood and tissue loss from the lining of
being squeezed out of the
the uterus at the start of a
penis
menstrual cycle
Embryo: early stages of development before the major
Ovaries: organs that
organ systems are formed
produce the eggs or ova
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): damage caused by
Ovulation: the egg bursting
ovaries alcohol in pregnancy where the baby is small, has a
out of the follicle
small head, unusual facial features, and heart defects
Period: shedding of blood
Fetus (foetus): stage of
and dead tissue from the
the lining of the uterus
Ovaries development when most of
the major organs and systems
Puberty: the time in life when physical changes bring are present
sexual maturity
Gestation: the time period from
Semen: a mixture of sperm and other fluid released fertilisation to birth
from the penis
Labour: process leading to
Sperm duct (vas birth, from first contractions fetus
deferens): tube carrying of the uterus to expulsion of
sperm from the testes to the afterbirth
the urethra
Placenta: membranes of the Fetus
Testes: male organs that fetus and mother that allow
produce the sperm nutrients and oxygen to be
sperm
duct exchanged and waste to be
Uterus (womb): organ in
removed
which the fetus grows
and develops Sexual intercourse: a male
and female copulating
Vagina: organ that allows Sperm duct
the male penis to be
inserted to deposit the
sperm and also acts as the birth canal down which the
baby passes
Labour

168 PEARSON science

 SCIENCE
TAKES YOU
PLACES Look who is using science

CHIROPRACTOR
HAIRDRESSER
My name is Dr James
My name is Aldijana Nicola and I’m a
Petovic and I am a chiropractor at The
hairdresser at a salon Parker Clinic.
called Stylistic. Damage to the joints of
My job is to colour, cut your skeleton can cause
and style clients’ hair. pain and affect your
I have a ten-minute general health. It’s my job
meeting with clients to to use the science I’ve
discuss what look they’re learnt to work out what
trying to achieve. During has happened to these
this consultation I check joints and how they can
the condition and colour of the client’s hair. be fixed.
Then I know what type and strength of coloured The adult human skeleton consists of 206
dye or peroxide I need to use to give them the bones that are very different from any non-
colour they’re after. Peroxide is a chemical used living bones you may have seen in a museum.
in salons that bleaches (removes) the colour Living bone is like a green branch on a tree;
from the hair. If the client hasn’t used our brand it’s strong yet flexible. Dead bone becomes
before, then I do a skin test, where I apply a like a dried-up dead branch. While still quite
small amount of the dye behind the ear. If the strong, dead bone loses its flexibility, making
person is allergic to it, they will feel a burning it more brittle (easy to break). Your spine is
sensation on the test spot and the skin will particularly remarkable because it allows a
redden. When using chemicals, I wear gloves so significant amount of movement while still
that I won’t get colour stains on my skin or burns protecting the body’s most vital and delicate
from the peroxide. organs, the brain and spinal cord.

called a prosthesis, to suit the needs and

PROSTHETIST lifestyle of the patient. I try to select the
most appropriate prosthetic foot, ankle and
My name is Amy Emons and knee joint components to build into the
I am a prosthetist, which means prosthesis.
I fit artificial limbs for people who
Some components are now controlled using
have lost all or part of their arm
computer microprocessors. The prosthesis
or leg.
has a soft gel or foam part to fit onto the
I meet with patients who patient’s skin and a hard outer covering of
have lost a limb through accident or disease, or fibreglass or carbon fibre. I make sure that the
who have been born with a limb missing. First, prosthesis fits the patient comfortably and I assist
I complete a full physical and biomechanical the patient with learning to use it. I enjoy my work
assessment of the patient’s motion. Then I because I love helping my patients get back to the
make a cast from the patient’s remaining limb lifestyle they once had and I enjoy working with
and construct an artificial replacement, which is developing technology.

169