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Feature: Strength Fundamentals

7 Basic Principles of Strength Training and
Conditioning
By John M. Cissik, M.S., CSCS
The three fundamental principles of strength training and conditioning are specificity, over-
load and progressive overload. This article explains how to apply these principles to make the
training gains that you desire.

14 Strength, Size, or Power?

By Helen M. Binkley, Ph.D., CSCS, *D, NSCA-CPT
Do you lift to gain strength, size or power? And do you understand the difference? Follow
these guidelines to identify your primary strength training goal and design a progam that will
help you reach your objective.

Departments
3 Ask the Experts
How can I make the most of my workouts?
By Brian Newman, M.S., CSCS

4 Fitness Frontlines
By Edmund R. Burke, Ph.D., CSCS*D

5 Mind Games
Talking Yourself into It
By Suzie Tuffey, Ph.D., NSCA-CPT
Does your internal dialogue inspire you to greater achievement, or does it bring you down?
This article shows you how to discipline your thinking so that you are your own best friend.

12 Your Body
Muscle Fiber Types
By Lee E. Brown, Ed.D., CSCS*D
Any particular individual’s ceiling of human performance is to a large extent restricted by his
or her general muscle make-up. Learn about the role muscle fiber types play in athletic per-
formance.
 AskTheExperts
Q. “I don’t have a lot of time to work out. How can I make
the most of my time in the gym?”

A. Here are five tips for maximizing your workouts:

NSCA’s Performance Training Journal is a publication of 1. Find a training partner. A training partner can help you
the National Strength and Conditioning Association reach your goals by giving you that extra push when you
(NSCA). Articles can be accessed online at don't want to push, give you physical support as well as
[Link] mental support, and help you stay focused during a work-
out. The best training partner will have goals similar to
All material in this publication is copyrighted by your own.
NSCA. Permission is granted for free redistribution of 2. Vary your routine. Variety in training helps prevent
each issue in its entirety. Permission to reprint or burnout, staleness and boredom, and will prepare your
redistribute altered or excerpted material will be body for a variety of challenges and activities. Variety in
granted on a case by case basis; all requests must be your exercise routine will also continue to stimulate your
made in writing to the editorial office. muscles or cardiovascular system, preventing you from
over-training or reaching an unwanted plateau.
Editorial Office 3. Get adequate rest/recovery. Recovery between sets will
help you attain your goals. Rest between workout days
1955 North Union Boulevard will allow your body to repair itself before the next work-
Colorado Springs, CO 80909 out, and will help prevent over-training. Symptoms of
719-632-6722 over-training include elevated resting heart rate, emo-
tional and sleeping disturbance, diminished appetite,
Staff plateau in workouts or a decrease in workout results, feel-
ing of exhaustion on an average day, and increased fre-
Editor quency of illness.
Rebecca Milot-Bradford, M.B.S. 4. Use weight belts only when necessary. Weight belts
rmilot-bradford@[Link] should be used only when lifting near or at maximum
weight. Take the weight belt off between sets, or at least
Editorial Review loosen the belt. If weight belts are used when lifting light
Michael Barnes, [Link]., CSCS loads, they prevent your core musculature from gaining
mbarnes@[Link] the strength needed to keep your torso stable during
Keith Cinea, M.A., CSCS everyday use.
kcinea@[Link]
Brian Newman, M.S., CSCS 5. Water, water and more water. Nothing out there can
bnewman@[Link] replace water., and proper hydration throughout the day
will benefit your workout. Drink water between sets and
Advertising Sales exercises—don’t wait until you are thirsty to get a drink.
Robyn Curtis About the Author
rcurtis@[Link] Brian Newman, MS, CSCS, earned a B.S. from the University of
Southern Mississippi in Coaching and Sports Administration and
Sponsorship Information an M.S. in Exercise and Sport Science from Colorado State
Susan Weeks University. Brian is the Senior Education Programs Coordinator
sweeks@[Link] at the NSCA, and serves as a personal strength and conditioning
coach for junior high and high school athletes.
Mission

As the worldwide authority on strength and condi-

TalkToUs
tioning, we support and disseminate research-based Share your questions and comments. We want to hear from
knowledge and its practical application to improve you. We will choose one question each month for the “Ask the
athletic performance and fitness. Experts” column. Write to Performance Training Editor,
NSCA, 1955 North Union Blvd., Colorado Springs, CO
80909 or send email to webmaster@[Link].

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FitnessFrontlines
Edmund R. Burke, Ph.D., CSCS

Runners’ anemia . . . Benefits of corporate fitness . . .

Runners’ anemia is caused by the pounding of the feet on Despite the prevalence and popularity of corporate wellness
pavement. Symptoms include an increase in plasma with dis- programs in America, documentation regarding their effec-
integration of red blood cells, and in long-distance runners, tiveness has managed to remain a bit elusive. Now there is a
gastrointestinal blood loss. This syndrome was probably first growing body of evidence to support the fact that such pro-
noted in 1881 when a German soldier passed dark urine after grams are doing exactly what they’re intended to do—i.e.,
long strenuous field marches. It was documented in 1943 reduce healthcare costs. A new study conducted at a Xerox
through studies of long-distance runners, but it was not Corp. manufacturing complex in Rochester, NY, has found
until 1964 that an explanation was provided. It was suspect- that employees who participate in a corporate wellness pro-
ed that forceful striking of the feet destroyed red blood cells gram can significantly reduce the frequency, seriousness, and
in two track runners. Runners’ anemia is often elusive in the corresponding costs of work-related injuries. The study,
diagnosis process as symptoms may indicate a wide spectrum published in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental
of possible diagnoses. This article works with a case study of Health, examined on-the-job injuries of over 3,000 Xerox
a female patient suffering from eight years of chronic fatigue workers between 1996 and 1999. Approximately one-third of
that occurs at the end of a normal working day. Her normal the workers had taken part in the company’s health risk
exercise regimen included an eight-kilometer run every appraisal program—a key component of its wellness plan. Of
other day. She was eventually diagnosed with Runners’ ane- those who took part in the appraisal, only 5.6% made work-
mia after numerous diagnostic tests over a long period of ers compensation claims, compared with 8.9% of the non-
time. Recognition of the symptoms of Runners’ anemia is participants. The former group also had a lower average cost
important in exercisers with a complex presentation of ane- per injury—$6,506 versus $9,482 for non-participants.
mia and chronic fatigue. Reaching a diagnosis at an earlier According to an estimate by the National Safety Council, in
stage may circumvent many diagnostic tests, as well as reas- 1999, on-the-job injuries cost the American economy $125
sure the runner and avoid unnecessary therapies. The author billion, including $62 billion in lost wages and productivity
suggests that individuals with mild anemia that is tolerated and $19.9 billion in medical costs—or approximately three
by an avid runner should raise the possibility of a diagnosis times as much as the cost of workers compensation insurance
of Runners’ anemia. for that year.

The Journal of the American Medical Association. 286(6): 714 - Club Business International, February 2002, page 21
716, 2001
About the Author
Strength key to throwing per- Edmund R. Burke, Ph.D., CSCS, is Professor and Director of the
formance? Exercise Science Program at the University of Colorado at
Colorado Springs. He served as Coordinator of Sports Sciences for
Can weight training improve baseball players’ throwing
the U. S. Cycling Team leading up to the Olympic Games in 1996
speed? Researchers from the University of Sydney, Australia,
and was a staff member for the 1980 and 1984 Olympic Cycling
showed that 71% of the variation in throwing speed of ado-
Teams. Dr. Burke is a Fellow of the American College of Sports
lescent baseball players, ages 13 to 16, could be explained by
Medicine and a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist
measuring the isometric (static) strength of the shoulder
(CSCS) with the NSCA. He has authored or co-authored fifteen
internal rotators and the concentric strength of the elbow
books on training, fitness and nutrition.
extensors. In other words, the greater the strength in these
particular areas, the faster the player could throw a ball.

Physical Therapy in Sport 2(3): 123-131, 2001

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MindGames
Suzie Tuffey, Ph.D., NSCA-CPT

Talking Yourself into It

“I’ll never make this putt . . . win this point . . . be able to hold this pace.”
“I’ve never lifted this much before; there is no way I can do it.”

D o you find yourself saying

these types of things

in your mind when

you exercise

or participate in a sport? Is

this type of internal self-talk

familiar to you? Do you tend

intervals. The self-reported feedback
was shocking, to say the least!
Athletes turned in the completed
forms to me and were embarrassed
and amazed at how they talk to
themselves— saying
things like “This
hurts”; “I hate
this”; “There’s no
way I can con-
tinue to go
faster.” This type
to do a great job of telling of feedback to
yourself all the things you can oneself certainly
does not help per-
not do (as the examples above illus- formance. One can only
imagine how much performance would
trate) as opposed to telling yourself what be improved by self-talk such as “Keep
you can do? It becomes very difficult achiev- your stroke smooth and steady,” “Be
quick off the wall,” or “Keep it up, you
ing your athletic goals when you bombard feel great.”

yourself with the message that you can’t be Let’s look at how you can take better
control of your internal dialogue to
successful. To make matters worse, most peo-
support your efforts, whether in sport,
ple are unaware of the negativity of their inter- business, or personal matters, rather
than set yourself up for defeat.
nal dialogue and do not see the link between self-
A critical first step is to increase your
talk and performance.
awareness—of both what you say and the situ-
ations that seem to trigger negative self-talk.
I was involved in a study of swimmers looking at self-talk
Random and purposeful internal “ramblings” are going
in training—but the swimmers were unaware of what we
on all the time; the challenge is to become more aware of the
were studying. They were asked to complete a test set of 6 x
times when negative, defeatist talk rears its ugly head. For
200 meter swims on increasingly faster intervals. They were
example, you may find that negativity is triggered by defeat
then asked to try to recall their self-talk on each of the 6
(losing a point in tennis, slicing a drive in golf), new chal-

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lenges (attempting a Personal Best lift), or discomfort (work-
ing hills in cycling or threshold training).

The next step is to figure out what you would rather be

saying to yourself in these situations. Instead of telling
yourself “I hate squats; my legs are weak” how about “focus
on being powerful and keep proper form?” Or, instead of
“this hill is going to kill me,” you could be telling yourself
“slow and steady.” The key is to identify more productive self-
talk— figure out the internal dialogue that is more likely to
help your performance.

The last step is to replace your negative talk with the

more productive talk that you have identified. You can be
proactive and use your identified positive self-talk when you
find yourself in one of your “trigger situations”—the key is
to use it before the negative self-talk manifests itself. For
example, every time you ride or run towards a hill, tell your-
self “slow and steady” throughout the hill. There will be no
“mental room” to tell yourself how much hills hurt.

Or, when you find that your self-talk is already destructive,

cue yourself to STOP this thinking then replace this mental
“void” with the more positive self-talk you have already iden-
tified. I find it much more productive to replace positive self-
talk rather than simply trying to clear your mind of the neg-
atives as this void in thinking is tough to maintain.

Now, it is time for you to give it a try. Discipline your think-

ing so you are your own best friend. You know the saying ...
“if you think you can or think you can, either one is probably
true.” Start thinking that you can.

About the Author

Suzie Tuffey received her Master’s and Ph.D. in Sport
Psychology/ Exercise Science from the University of North
Carolina-Greensboro. She has worked for USA Swimming as the
Sport Psychology and Sport Science Director, and now is Associate
Director of Coaching with the USOC where she works with vari-
ous sport national governing bodies (NGBs) to develop and
enhance coaching education and training. Additionally, Suzie is an
NSCA-certified personal trainer.

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Basic Principles of Strength
Training and Conditioning
John M. Cissik, MS, CSCS

W hether you are a recreational

weight trainer, a weekend

athlete, or a strength coach

working with elite athletes,

it is important to be principled when designing strength and

conditioning programs. By adhering to certain fundamental

principles you will ensure that your workout programs pro-

The Principle of
Specificity of
Training
The principle of specificity
is deceptively simple and it
drives all the gains that one
makes from a strength train-
ing program. Specificity
states that the body makes
gains from exercise
according to how the
duce the desired gains.
body exercises. This
principle is important
The principles that this article will cover are:
because applying it cor-
rectly will allow one to
1. specificity; have a focused, effi-
2. overload; and cient, effective pro-
3. progressive overload. gram that will lead to the
desired
gains.
The first principle deals with designing a training program
so you get the kind of gains you want, because nothing
happens by accident. The second principle deals with
making sure that you continue to make the gains you
want from one workout to the next. The final principle
makes sure that you continue to make gains over a life-
time of training without becoming injured or burned
out.

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Failing to apply it will result in wasted energy and time, and include: the back squat, the front squat, the power clean, the
it will result in frustration as gains do not materialize. power snatch, and the jerk to name a few. While exercises like
the leg extension and the leg curl may strengthen the knee
When developing a conditioning program, you should con- flexors and extensors, they do not involve exerting force
sider the following: against the ground and do not prepare the athlete to use his
or her hips, knees, and ankles together.
! the movements to be trained;
While movements are important, there are times when you
! the muscles and joints to be trained;
may want to address specific muscles or joints in a condi-
! the energy system(s) to be trained; and tioning program. This may be to prevent injuries, to rehabil-
! the speed of movement. itate injuries, or to achieve a certain appearance. For example,
a baseball pitcher may want to train the rotator cuff muscles,
Strength and conditioning programs can be designed to or a sprinter may want to address the hamstring muscles.
enhance movements that are performed in athletics. This is You may want to target certain muscles to make them hyper-
important because this may improve an athlete’s perform- trophy for appearance, for example a body builder’s biceps.
ance. It may do this by strengthening the movement; it may While movements are important for designing a condition-
also accomplish this by allowing the athlete to practice the ing program, addressing specific muscles or joints may be
movement with resistance. It is also important because it can necessary at times.
maximize an athlete’s training time and be used to help pre-
Addressing movements, muscles, or joints assists with select-
vent injuries in the athletic event. A number of questions
ing exercises. Things like workload, rest, and intensity are
should be considered to help with this:
driven by the energy system(s) that you want to train.
Energy system training is critical to improving athletic per-
1. Is the activity performed standing? formance. Often performance is limited by your energy
2. What joints perform the activity? stores and your ability to replenish them, both of which are
3. Do the joints work together or sequentially? If sequen- trainable. You can design conditioning programs to enhance
tially, what is the sequence of movement? the energy system(s) that are used in an athletic event. To do
this, consider the following:
4. What motions are performed by each joint?
1. How long does the event last?
For example, basketball players want to become better verti- 2. Is the event performed continuously? Or does the athlete
cal jumpers. The vertical jump is performed stand- get to rest?
ing up. Both feet are in line and approximately hip- 3. If the event is not continuous, how
width apart. The descent is performed by pushing much time does the athlete actually spend
the hips down and back, followed by knee moving before he or she gets to rest?
flexion until a quarter squat has been
achieved. There is little or no pause at
the bottom of the squat. The athlete Examining how long an event lasts will
then explosively extends the knees, help you determine what energy sys-
hips, and plantar flexes the tem(s) contribute to performance.
ankles until he or she has left For example, a sit up test that is
the ground. There are a num- conducted for two minutes will
ber of exercises that share rely heavily on glycolysis for
similarities with the energy and performance
movement that has been will be limited by the accu-
described, these mulation of lactic

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acid. A hundred meter sprint that lasts ten performed at. If exercises are performed at slow speeds, then
seconds will rely heavily on the available we become stronger at slow speeds; however, there is lit-
stores of ATP and will be limited by tle transfer to faster speeds. If exercises are performed
the amount on hand. at faster speeds, then we become stronger at faster
speeds. This is important for athletics because few
The length of the event can be sports are performed
deceptive, however. For example, a at slow speeds.
football game might last two hours.
Just looking at the length of time If one is
might seem to indicate that the designing a
aerobic energy system needs conditioning
to be trained for football play- program for a
ers. In this case one needs to sport that is
consider if the athletes are performed at high
moving continuously. In the speeds, then one will need to
case of football the answer is no, include exercises that make ath-
the athletes rest between plays and letes stronger at high speeds. These
have a chance to recover their ener- include things like the variations of the
gy stores. In this case one should Olympic-style lifts (the clean, the snatch, and
consider how much time the athlete the jerk), plyometric exercises, and sprints.
actually spends moving before they get
to rest. The average play may only last The principle of specificity is important
five or six seconds, which would indi- because it dictates what gains are made. The
cate that the sport is primarily next principle is important because it ensures
dependant upon the levels of ATP that you continue to make gains from your
in the muscles. training.

Energy system training is an The Principle of

important consideration because
it helps to dictate how much
Overload
The overload principle states that in order
weight to use, how many repeti-
to keep making gains from an exercise pro-
tions to perform, and the amount
gram, you must find some way to make it
of recovery time. If you are
more difficult. This is because bodies adapt to
interested in increasing the
exercise. The problem is that once your
stores of ATP, then training
body adapts to a given workload, it will not
will involve heavy weight, low
continue to adapt unless the workload is
repetitions, and lots of rest.
increased somehow. If you do not continue
Glycolytic training will involve
to adapt, then eventually you will plateau
moderate reps, moderate
and regress.
weight, and little rest.
Aerobic training means
Having stated that it is necessary to make
lighter weights, many repeti-
conditioning programs more difficult, one
tions, and no rest.
caution should be kept in mind: you must
observe specificity when applying the
A final consideration with
overload principle. Performing a set of
specificity concerns the
twenty might be a way of making the
velocity of movement.
workout more difficult, but if you need
The gains from exer-
to enhance the phosphagen energy
cise are specific to
system then you are violating speci-
the velocities that
ficity.
the exercises are

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There are a number of this means that you
ways to apply the over- do not have to rely
load principle to a on one exercise to
strength and condition- train a given area.
ing program: For example, the
back squat trains the
1. increase the weight muscles of the hip,
lifted; knee, and ankle in
a manner that
2. increase the volume
involves exerting
of work;
force against the
3. change the exercis- ground, it loads
es employed; the bones of the
4. modify the order of vertebral column and
the exercises; and lower body, and is per-
5. alter the rest periods. formed standing up. There are a
number of exercises that do the same
thing and that may be substituted for
Increasing the weight that is lifted will make the back squat:
the workout more difficult. Heavier weights
will force your muscles, connective tissue, ! Pause squats;
bone and nervous system to adapt. Lifting ! Eccentric squats;
heavier weights will also cause you to initially
! Front squat; and
perform fewer repetitions with the weight.
! One-legged squats.
Increasing the volume of work—either num-
ber of sets, number of repetitions, or some
combination thereof—will result in your Any of the above exercises may be
body having to adapt to it. This is one of the used to increase lower-body strength
main ways to elicit larger muscles and con- in a way that also loads the bones of
nective tissue adaptation from strength the spine and lower body and is per-
training. One should be careful with this formed standing up.
method of applying overload; a volume that
is too great will train the wrong energy sys- The order that exercises are per-
tem. formed is another way to provide over-
load. By changing when exercises are
Changing the exercises employed is a way to performed, you make some exercises
increase overload that many individuals are more difficult to perform and others
reluctant to use. Many people feel that the easier. For example, in your current
exercises they are performing are the only workout your exercise order may look
ones that can elicit certain gains. This is not like this: bench press, incline press,
so. Changing the exercises has a number of dumbbell flies. Now, let’s change the
benefits, including keeping the workouts order of exercises so that the new
interesting and requiring your body and workout looks like this: dumbbell flies,
nervous system to adapt to resistance incline press, bench press. The result
imposed in a totally different way. of this change is that you will be able
to lift more weight on the dumbbell
There are many exercises that train the same flies and incline press, because they
movement and the same muscle groups, are performed while you are fresh-
er. You will lift less weight on the

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bench press, because it will be performed while you are front squat, overhead squat, pause squat, eccentric squat,
fatigued. Not only will you become stronger on the first two etc., will be much more difficult to learn.
exercises, but you will also keep your workouts interesting ! Generally the Olympic-style lifts are learned from the top
and this will also help your body to adapt in a different man- down. This breaks down a complicated exercise and
ner because you are focusing on the first two exercises makes it easier to master. For example, by learning the
instead of the bench press. power clean initially with the bar above the knees, we
learn to explosively extend the hips while shrugging the
A final way to provide overload is to modify the amount of shoulders up and plantar flexing the ankles. We learn to
rest. This must be used carefully to ensure that you are receive the bar in a quarter squat and how to recover from
observing specificity. By increasing the amount of rest in that position. This is difficult to learn. Adding correct
between sets, you allow your body to recover more complete- starting posture with the bar on the ground, lifting the
ly. This means you will be able to lift heavier weights with a bar from the ground to the knees, getting the bar around
greater number of repetitions. The benefit oft this approach the knees, and then explosively extending the hips while
to training is that it allows you to increase your strength on shrugging the shoulders up and plantar flexing the ankles
exercises. Conversely, if you shorten the amount of rest in will prove too much for many to master initially.
between sets, you do not allow yourself as much recovery. It
becomes more difficult to lift a given amount of weight.
While this does not do as good a job of increasing strength, In order to make gains from training over time, you must find
it does force the muscles to grow to adapt to the rest period. a way to perform more work. This may be more weight lift-
ed, more repetitions performed, more sets, or some combina-
Overload is not something that only needs to be applied on a tion of the three. As we discussed in the overload section,
daily basis, it must be applied over a lifetime of training. The this is necessary to keep your body making adaptations. This
final principle deals with the importance of applying over- also needs to be conducted with caution, as progressing too
load logically over time. quickly can result in injury and burnout. The best way to do
this is to apply some type of systematic approach to training.
The Principle of Progressive The one most commonly used is periodization of training,
Overload which essentially consists of breaking the training process
Progressive overload involves two areas: down into smaller, more manageable units. Periodization is a
way to organize your training over your career; this includes
! The exercises that are employed in a training program; the weight lifted, the volume of work, the exercises
and employed, rest, recovery methods, etc. All of this is done in a
way that ensures that you are in the best possible shape when
! The total amount of work that is done in a training pro- it counts—during the competition.
gram.
The principles of exercise that this article have covered are
The exercises that are performed by an individual beginning very important for making sure that you get the most out of
his or her training career should be less complicated than one your strength and conditioning programs. Applying speci-
who has been training for a longer period of time. A begin- ficity means designing conditioning programs to elicit the
ner should be expected to master certain fundamental skills development of desired qualities. Applying overload means
in the training program. Once those skills are mastered, they that strength and conditioning programs will be difficult
may be applied to more complicated exercises. Failure to enough to be effective. Applying progressive overload allows
master these skills may result in injury, wasted time in the for strength and conditioning programs to be effective over
weight room, and incomplete development. Two examples of your training career.
learning fundamental skills before progressing to more com-
plicated ones concern the back squat and the Olympic-style About the Author
lifts: John M. Cissik, MS, CSCS is the Director of Wellness Services at
Texas Woman’s University. He also owns and operates Fitness and
! The back squat is typically learned before the front squat, Conditioning Enterprises, which provides speed and agility
overhead squat, or other variations. This is because the instruction primarily to children and teens. He is the National
back squat teaches correct posture when squatting, foot Strength and Conditioning Association’s State Director for Texas.
placement, keeping the heels on the ground, squatting by
pushing the hips back and then flexing the knees, ascend-
ing with the hips and shoulders moving up at the same
speed, etc. If one does not posses those skills then the

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YourBody
Lee E Brown, Ed.D., CSCS,*D

Muscle Fiber Types

T o paraphrase George Orwell, “All mus-

cle fibers are not created equal, some

are more equal than others.” In the

course of everyday life—and especially

in sporting activities—we call upon our muscles to exert

force against objects around us in order to complete func-

tional activities or perform in athletic events. Each muscle in

ber of fibers per unit their capacity to produce force or veloc-
ity is very limited—but they can produce low levels of each
for long periods of time. Type I fibers are the workhorses of
daily life because they are constantly contracting at a sub-
maximal rate in order for us to accomplish all the every day
activities required of us. They are used in sports for long
repetitive bouts of exercise such as long distance running or
cycling or swimming. Therefore, Type I fibers are primarily
used during long duration aerobic activity involving sub-
maximal force requirements4.

our body is made up of many thousands of individual fibers.

Type II
Type II fibers are also called White, Large or Fast. They are
They are bundled together in units of 10 to 1,000 and each the second to contract when a brain signal is received because
they wait for the demands of the activity to exceed that of
bundle is controlled by one nerve. the Type I’s, thus the term Type II. They work well in the
absence of oxygen (White), contain many hundreds of fibers
Simply stated, these units receive a signal from the brain and per unit (Large) and contract at a high rate of speed (Fast).
then contract to make themselves shorter. Each unit is con- Since they are both large and fast they are able to produce
nected to a neighboring unit, so in the course of thousands high force and velocity outputs, but since they contract in the
of individual fibers contracting, the entire muscle contracts. absence of oxygen they can work for only brief periods of
The muscle is connected to tendons, which are in turn con- time. Therefore, Type II fibers are primarily used for short-
nected to bones—thus we have movement of our limbs. This term anaerobic emergency actions during daily life or explo-
is skeletal muscle, and it is made up of two primary fibers sive sporting activities such as jumping or sprinting or
called Type I and Type II that occur in varying percentages weightlifting4.
in every human being. There are many other sub-types,
maybe as many as eight or ten3, but they are primarily deriv-
atives of either Type I or II and therefore we will confine our
Conclusion
Any particular individual’s ceiling of human performance is
discussion to the major two. to a large extent restricted by his or her relative percentage
of each muscle fiber type. In other words, it may be that we
Type I do not pick the sports we participate in as much as the sports
Type I are also called Red, Small or Slow. These fibers are the pick us based on our general muscle make-up. Laboratory
first to contract when the brain sends a signal, thus the term procedures can be used to determine an individual’s relative
Type I. They use oxygen gathered from the blood in meta- percentage of each type of muscle fiber5 and it has been well
bolic processes (thus the term Red) and are designed to work documented that different fiber types will produce different
repetitively (aerobic). They generally consist of only a few levels of performance when asked to execute force3 or veloc-
number of fibers per unit and contract at a gradual rate when ity1 specific activities. This information may assist in choos-
stimulated, thus the terms Small and Slow respectively. ing a specific type of activity best suited to an individual’s
Because they contract slowly and contain only a small num- musculature.

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References About the Author
Lee E. Brown, Ed.D., EPC, CSCS,*D, is Assistant Professor and
1. Brown LE, Whitehurst M, Gilbert R, Findley BW, Director of the Human Performance Laboratory at Arkansas State
Buchalter D. Effect of Velocity on the Bilateral Deficit University. He received his Doctorate at Florida Atlantic
During Dynamic Knee Extension and Flexion Exercise University, where he was Health Sciences Lab Coordinator. Dr.
in Females. Isokinetics and Exercise Science, 4(4):153-156, Brown is a Fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine, a
1994. USAW Certified Club Coach and a Certified Strength and
2. Coyle EF, Feiring DC, Rotkis TC, Cote RW, Roby FB, Lee Conditioning Specialist with Distinction (CSCS,*D) with the
W, & Wilmore JH. Specificity of power improvements NSCA. He will be exploring topics of human physiology each
through slow and fast isokinetic training. Journal of month in this column.
Applied Physiology, 51(6):1437-1442, 1981.
3. Fleck SJ & Kraemer WJ. Designing Resistance Training
Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
4. Hill AV. The heat of shortening and the dynamic constants
of muscle. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B128:263-274,
1938.
5. Thorstensson A & Karlsson J. Fatiguability and fibre com-
position of human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, 98(3):318-322, 1976.

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Strength, Size, or Power?
Helen M. Binkley, Ph.D., CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT

W hich one are you training for

—strength, size, or power?

First, let’s identify what each

of these are. Strength is the

ability to produce or generate force. Size, also referred to as

hypertrophy, is the growth or enlargement of muscle. Power

is the ability to produce or generate force quickly, which is a

Strength
Strength, in some form, is involved in every sport. It is
important to develop a general base strength, and then
enhance the general strength with sport specific strength
training. The strength training exercises selected should fol-
low specific movement patterns and muscle actions that are
involved in your sport. Muscular balance should also be con-
sidered when strength training to avoid injuries, especially
not having one muscle or group of muscles significantly
stronger than another. Strength training uses concentric
(tension in a muscle as it shortens), eccentric (tension in a
function of time and/or speed of movement. There are spe- muscle as it lengthens) and isometric (tension in a muscle
when the length does not change) muscle actions to produce
cific differences in training for strength, size, or power, even strength gains. This type of training emphasizes the force
produced and increases the activation of the neuromuscular
though at times there may be some overlap in your training
reaction to build strength. One can become stronger without
related to your sport. getting significantly bigger using this type of training. The

Figure 1: Needs Analysis for Identifying Primary Goals

Sport Specific Primary Metabolism Injury Prevention Exercise Technique

Exercise Movement Used Experience
Analysis
! specific muscles used ! ATP-PC ! muscle balance ! novice, intermediate,
! joint angles and posi- ! anaerobic glycolysis ! joint laxity advanced exercise
tions technique skill level
! aerobic glycolysis ! common sites of injury
! contraction type (iso- ! equipment available
! previous injury
metric, concentric, for use
eccentric) ! time available for train-
! load needs ing

Primary Goals/Objectives

Design Resistance Training Program

! season (pre-, in-, post-, off-)
! strength, size, or power

Modified and adapted from Baechle and Earle1, and Fleck and Kraemer4.

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 movements that are most important to point of muscle exhaustion, with high
your sport should be emphasized early in repetitions, and back-to-back sets of
the workout in order to focus on the exercises for the same muscle group,
skills most similar to the sport move- with short rest periods (see Figure 2).
ment before the muscles become Hypertrophy can be used as part of the
fatigued. Strength training uses heavy beginning phase of an off-season (2 - 4
intensities of work, with low repetitions, weeks) and pre-season (1 - 2 weeks)
moderate to high number of sets, with training program in a year-round train-
moderate to long rest periods (see ing program. If you want to get big, but
Figure 2). you are not as concerned about absolute
strength or power, then hypertrophy
Hypertrophy training is for you. If muscular strength
Hypertrophy training is best represent- and power are your primary concerns,
ed in the sport of bodybuilding (see then hypertrophy training should be
photo). However, this type of training kept to a minimum.
can also be used with beginning lifters to
increase muscular development, with Power
athletes that want to go up a weight class Power training is used to cause an
(in sports like boxing and wrestling), or increased speed of movement and explo-
with athletes such as football linemen siveness in muscles generating a force;
and shotputters who will benefit from an therefore strength and velocity need to
increase in mass. Hypertrophy training be emphasized in this type of training.
uses a variety of exercises including iso- Power exercises help to enhance the
lation exercises with concentric and nervous system and the coordination of
eccentric movement patterns using a muscle actions to become faster,
variety of joint angles. Muscle groups smoother and more precise. There are
that the athlete wants to emphasize are many ways to train for power using con-
targeted first or very early in the work- centric and eccentric exercises; plyomet-
out. Hypertrophy training uses moder- rics (an exercise where the muscle is
ate to high intensities of work to the loaded eccentrically followed by and

Figure 2: Summary of Training Types and Variables

Training Goal Load (% 1RM) Repetitions Sets Rest between

Sets
Strength >85 <6 2-6 2 - 5 minutes

Power

Single-effort 80 - 90 1-2 3-5 2 - 5 minutes

Multiple-effort 75 - 95 3-5 3-5 2 - 5 minutes

Hypertrophy 67 - 85 6 - 12 3-6 30 seconds -

1.5 minutes

Modified and adapted from Baechle and Earle1.

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immediate concentric contraction, also know as the stretch- Figure 3: How to Test One Repetition Maximum (1RM)
shortening cycle), and isokinetic exercises involving changes
in the speed of movement through a motion with a constant 1. Warm up with a light resistance that allows 5 - 10 rep-
resistance. Power training typically involves exercises that etitions easily.
employ multiple joint movements (i.e. running, jumping, 2. Rest for 1 minute.
Olympic-type exercises such as the power clean, hang-pulls, 3. Estimate a warm up load that will allow 3 - 5 repeti-
snatches, push press, etc.). These exercises are performed tions:
early in the workout before other strength exercises. Power
10 - 20 lbs (5 - 10%) for upper body
training uses high intensities of work, with low repetitions,
moderate number of sets, with moderate to long rest periods 30 - 40 lbs (10 - 20%) for lower body
between sets (see Figure 2). In order to improve power pro- 4. Rest for 2 minutes.
duction, a base level of strength needs to be in place to
5. Estimate a conservative near maximum load that will
increase performance and decrease risk of injury. Power
allow 2 - 3 repetitions:
training can be done year round. However, more emphasis
may be placed on power toward the end of the off-season and 10 - 20 lbs (5 - 10) for upper body
during pre-season training because it prepares the body to 30 - 40 lbs (10 - 20%) for lower body
respond and react in a way to mimic sports movements clos- 6. Rest 2 - 4 minutes.
er to the actual speed of performance.
7. Add load:
Identify Primary Goal 10 - 20 lbs (5 - 10) for upper body
In order to determine which one of these resistance-training 30 - 40 lbs (10 - 20%) for lower body
programs is correct for you, identify your primary goal by 8. Attempt 1RM.
evaluating your needs and objectives (See Figure 1). Even
though you may have more than one goal, it is best to focus 9. If successful, rest 2 - 4 minutes then repeat step 7 and
on one goal at a time. For example if you wanted to increase [Link] unsuccessful, rest 2 - 4 minutes then subtract:
your size and strength, focus on hypertrophy first for a time 5 - 10 lbs (2.5 - 5%) for upper body
(i.e. 4 - 6 weeks) and then switch to focus on strength (i.e. 4 - 15 - 20 lbs (5 - 10%) for lower body
6 weeks) after size has been developed. (Remember that
and then go back to step 8.
hypertrophy and strength overlap—you cannot completely
separate the two.) This gets into an area of training called 10. Continue increasing or decreasing the load until 1RM
periodization, which involves manipulating workouts in cal- can be completed with proper exercise technique.
endar time periods for specific goals and objectives3. A gen- Typically this should be accomplished in 5 testing sets.
eral seasonal guideline is indicated in Figure 4. So focus on
your goals, know what you are training for and why you are
training.

Figure 4: General Sport Season Training Focus

Sport Actual Sport Resistance Resistance Focus of Resistance Training

Season Practice Training Training
Emphasis Emphasis Frequency
Pre-Season Moderate level Moderate level 3-4 Sport-specific (strength, power, endurance)
movements are emphasized.

In-Season High level Low level 1-2 Maintenance of pre-season goals.

Post-Season Variable level Variable level 1-3 May include a variety of any type of sport
or movement skill. Also known as an active
rest period with no specific training.

Off-Season Low level High level 4-6 Progression from hypertrophy and muscular
endurance training to strength and power
(specific to and dependent on sport).

Modified and adapted from Baechle and Earle1.

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 Figure 5: A Sample Program Differentiating the Types of Training

Exercise Selected Hypertrophy Training Strength Training Power Training

(load x repetitions x sets) (load x repetitions x sets) (load x repetitions x sets)
(exercise order) (exercise order) (exercise order)

Lower Extremity
Back Squat 75 x 10 x 5 90 x 4 x 6 75 x 5 x 5
1 1 3
Dead Lift 75 x 10 x 5 90 x 4 x 4 75 x 5 x 3
3 2 4
Leg Press 67 x 12 x 4 90 x 4 x 6 No
4 3
Quadriceps Extension 67 x 12 x 4 85 x 6 x 4 No
2 4
Hamstring Curls 67 x 12 x 4 85 x 6 x 4 No
5 5
Calf Raise 75 x 10 x 6 85 x 6 x 6 No
6 6
Clean No No 80 x 3 x 4
1
Snatch No No 80 x 3 x 4
2

Upper Extremity
Bench Press 75 x 10 x 4 90 x 4 x 6 75 x 5 x 5
1 1 2
Overhead Press 67 x 12 x 3 85 x 6 x 5 No
2 2
Bent-over Row 75 x 10 x 4 90 x 4 x 6 No
4 3
Lat. Pull-down 67 x 12 x 3 85 x 6 x 5 No
5 4
Biceps 67 x 12 x 4 90 x 6 x 4 No
6 5
Triceps 67 x 12 x 4 90 x 6 x 4 No
3 6
Wrist Curl 67 x 12 x 3 85 x 6 x 2 No
7 7
Push Jerk No No 80 x 3 x 5
1
Rest 1 minute betw. sets Rest 3 minutes betw. sets Rest 5 minutes betw. sets

Performing a four-day split routine with upper extremity on Monday and Thursday, and lower extremity Tuesday and Friday. The exer-
cises selected on this table are not all inclusive. This program is a sample of how to manipulate the load, repetitions, sets and exercise order
to obtain the desired training results. Some exercises are performed in one type of training, but not necessarily in other types of training.
A percentage of the 1RM is listed for the load. When “no” is next to an exercise, it would not typically be performed for that type of train-
ing session.

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Designing the Program
Once a training program has been selected, one must design
the actual program. To determine the intensity of each exer-
cise you need to determine your one repetition maximum
(1RM)( see Figure 3). From the 1RM, your weight load for a
particular exercise is calculated based on a percentage of the
1RM. Your workouts will be designed based on the calculat-
ed weight loads. After training for a while (when the exercise
becomes easier to perform, or when repetitions are complet-
ed with additional repetitions), it will become necessary for
the intensity to change. A conservative method of increasing
the weight load is the “2-for-2 rule.” This suggests that when
an athlete can perform two or more repetitions over their
assigned repetition goal in the last set of the exercise for two
consecutive workouts, weight should be added to that exer-
cise for the next workout.2 Using this rule will help to keep
the training workouts progressing and maintaining intensity
as strength, power and size are improved. A sample program
differentiating the types of training is shown in Figure 5.

Summary
There is a specific use for training strength, size and power
in sport. Knowing your sport and your goals will help to
determine what you should focus on in your year-round
training program. Hypertrophy for muscle growth, strength
for generating force, and power for generating force with
speed. For more information and direction in this area con-
tact a local Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist.

References
1. Baechle, T.R. & Earle, R.W. (Eds). Essentials of strength
training and conditioning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
2000.
2. Baechle, T.R. & Groves, B.R. Weight Training: Steps to
Success 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1998.
3. Bompa, T.O. Periodization training for sports. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics. 1999.
4. Fleck, S.J. & Kraemer, W.J. Designing Resistance Training
Programs 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1997.

About the Author

Helen Binkley, Ph.D., CSCS*D, NSCA-CPT is Assistant
Professor/Assistant Athletic Trainer at Elon College, NC. Dr.
Binkley teaches advanced strength training and conditioning class-
es. She coaches club swimming and diving, and holds certificates in
Water Safety Instruction, Lifeguarding, Professional Rescuer CPR
from the American Red Cross. Dr. Binkley is a Certified Strength
and Conditioning Specialist through the NSCA.

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