MIDTERM COVERAGE STUDY GUIDE

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

A. Describe the major functions of muscle tissue.

B. Describe the structure, location in the body, and function of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
C. Compare and contrast the general microscopic characteristics of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

D. Describe the organization of skeletal muscle, from cell (skeletal muscle fiber) to whole muscle.

E. Name the connective tissue layers that surround each skeletal muscle fiber, fascicle, entire muscle,
and group of muscles, and indicate the specific type of connective tissue that composes each of these
layers.
F. Describe the components within a skeletal muscle fiber (e.g., sarcolemma, transverse [T] tubules, sarcoplas
G. Define sarcomere.
H. Describe the arrangement and composition of the following components of a sarcomere: A-band, I-band, H
I. Describe the structure of the neuromuscular junction.
[Link] the sliding filament model of skeletal muscle contraction.
K. Describe the sequence of events involved in the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber, including events at t
L. Describe the sequence of events involved in skeletal muscle relaxation.
M. Describe the sources of ATP (e.g., glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, creatine phosphate) that muscle fi
N. Describe the events that occur during the recovery period from skeletal muscle activity.
O. Explain the factors that are believed to contribute to skeletal muscle fatigue.
P. Define the following terms: tension, contraction, twitch, motor unit, and myogram.
Q. Compare and contrast isotonic and isometric contraction.
R. Compare and contrast concentric and eccentric contraction.
S. Compare and contrast the function and structure of cardiac and skeletal muscle cells.
T. Describe the cellular features of a cardiac muscle cell.
Describe the sources of calcium in smooth muscle contraction and explain how an i
Compare the signals that initiate smooth muscle contraction to the signal that initia
For a given movement, differentiate specific muscles that function as prime mover,
Define the terms prime mover (agonist), antagonist, synergist, and fixator.
Explain how the name of a muscle can help identify its action, appearance, or locat
Identify the location, general attachments, and actions of the major skeletal muscle
Describe similar actions (functional groupings) of muscles in a particular compartm
d smooth muscle.
, and smooth muscle.

whole muscle.

cle, entire muscle,

oses each of these

erse [T] tubules, sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibrils, thick [myosin] myofilaments, thin [actin] myofilaments, troponin, tropomyosin)

comere: A-band, I-band, H-zone, Z-disc (line), and M-line..

fiber, including events at the neuromuscular junction, excitation-contraction coupling, and cross-bridge cycling.

phosphate) that muscle fibers use for skeletal muscle contraction.

and explain how an increase in cytoplasmic calcium initiates contraction.

o the signal that initiates skeletal muscle contraction.
ction as prime mover, antagonist, synergist, or fixator.

appearance, or location.
major skeletal muscles.
particular compartment (e.g., anterior arm) or region (e.g., deep back).
s, troponin, tropomyosin).
NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. Describe the general functions of the nervous system.
B. Compare and contrast the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
C. Differentiate between the motor (efferent) and sensory (afferent) components of the
D. Describe the nervous system as a control system with the following components: sen
E. Compare and contrast the somatic motor and autonomic motor divisions of the nerv
F. Compare and contrast the somatic sensory and visceral sensory divisions of the nerv
G. Identify and describe the major components of a typical neuron (e.g., cell body, nucle
H. Compare and contrast the three structural types of neurons (i.e., unipolar [pseudoun
I. Compare and contrast the three functional types of neurons (i.e., sensory [afferent] n
[Link] the structure, location, and function of each of the six types of neuroglial (gli
K. Define myelination and describe its function, including comparing and contrasting h
L. Define and describe depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, and threshold
M. Describe the role of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in maintaining the resting
N. List the major ion channels of neurons and describe them as leak (leakage or passive
O. Describe the physiological basis of the resting membrane potential (RMP) in a neuro
P. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials, with particular attent
Q. Explain the impact of absolute and relative refractory periods on the activity of a neu
R. Describe the physiological process involved in the conduction (propagation) of an ac
S. Compare action potential conduction (propagation) in an unmyelinated versus a my
T. Define a synapse, and explain the difference between an electrical synapse and a che
U. Describe the events of synaptic transmission in proper chronological order from the
V. Describe the different mechanisms (e.g., reuptake, enzymatic breakdown, diffusion)
W. List the most common excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter(s) used in the ne
X. Explain how a single neurotransmitter can elicit different responses at different post
Y. Describe the composition and arrangement of the gray and white matter in the CNS.
Z. Compare and contrast the structure and location of a tract and nerve.
Compare and contrast the structure and location of a nucleus and ganglion.
Identify the layers of the meninges and describe their anatomical and functional relatio
Identify and describe the epidural space, subdural space and subarachnoid space assoc
Identify and describe the epidural space, subdural space and subarachnoid space assoc
Describe the structure and location of the dural venous sinuses, and explain their role i
Identify and describe the structure and function of the cranial dural septa.
Describe how the cranial bones and the vertebral column protect the CNS.
Describe the production, flow, and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), from its o
Describe the general functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Compare and contrast the structure of the dura mater surrounding the brain and the sp
Identify and describe the four major parts of the adult brain (i.e., cerebrum, diencephal
Identify and describe the cerebral hemispheres and the five lobes of each (i.e., frontal, p
Compare and contrast the cerebral location and function of the motor speech area (Bro
Compare and contrast the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to the somatic nervous sys
Name the two main divisions of the ANS and compare and contrast the major functions
Describe the major components of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions (e.g
Describe visceral reflex arcs, including structural and functional details of sensory and
Explain the role of the nervous system in the maintenance of homeostasis and give exa
Compare and contrast the effects (or lack thereof) of sympathetic and parasympathetic
Define autonomic tone and explain its relevance in homeostasis.
Connect the functions of the ANS to the stress response and explain how chronic mode
 the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with respect to structure and function.
ent) components of the nervous system.
owing components: sensory receptors, afferent pathways, control (integrating) center, efferent pathway
or divisions of the nervous system.
ry divisions of the nervous system.
on (e.g., cell body, nucleus, nucleolus, chromatophilic substance [Nissl bodies], axon hillock, dendrites, an
i.e., unipolar [pseudounipolar], bipolar, and multipolar) with respect to their structure, location, and fun
e., sensory [afferent] neurons, interneurons [association neurons], and motor [efferent] neurons) with r
types of neuroglial (glial) cells.
aring and contrasting how myelination occurs in the CNS and PNS.
rization, and threshold.
maintaining the resting membrane potential.
eak (leakage or passive) or voltage-gated channels, mechanically gated channels, or ligand-gated (chem
ential (RMP) in a neuron including the ion channels involved, the relative ion concentrations, and the ele
s, with particular attention to their locations in the neuron and the ions and ion channels involved in eac
on the activity of a neuron.
n (propagation) of an action potential, including the types and locations of the ion channels involved.
myelinated versus a myelinated axon.
rical synapse and a chemical synapse.
ological order from the release of neurotransmitter by synaptic vesicles to the effect of the neurotransm
breakdown, diffusion) by which neurotransmitter activity at a synapse can be terminated.
mitter(s) used in the nervous system.
ponses at different postsynaptic cells.
hite matter in the CNS.

d ganglion.
al and functional relationships to the CNS (brain and spinal cord).
barachnoid space associated with the brain and the spinal cord, and identify which space contains cereb
barachnoid space associated with the brain and the spinal cord, and identify which space contains cereb
and explain their role in drainage of blood from the brain.
ural septa.
ct the CNS.
al fluid (CSF), from its origin in the ventricles to its eventual reabsorption into the dural venous sinuses.
 ing the brain and the spinal cord.
, cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum).
es of each (i.e., frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, insula).
motor speech area (Broca area) and Wernicke area.
he somatic nervous system (SNS) with respect to site of origination, number of neurons involved in the
ast the major functions of each division, their neurotransmitters, the origination of the division in the CN
mpathetic divisions (e.g., sympathetic trunk [chain], white and gray rami communicantes, splanchnic ner
details of sensory and motor (autonomic) components.
meostasis and give examples of how the nervous system interacts with other body systems to accomplis
c and parasympathetic innervation on various effectors (e.g., heart, airways, gastrointestinal tract, iris o

lain how chronic modern stress can impact long-term health.

enter, efferent pathways, and effector (target) organs.

on hillock, dendrites, and axon) and indicate which parts receive input signals and which parts transmit
cture, location, and function.
ferent] neurons) with respect to their structure, location, and function.

or ligand-gated (chemically gated) channels, and identify where they typically are located on a neuron.
centrations, and the electrochemical gradient.
hannels involved in each.

channels involved.

ect of the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell.

minated.

h space contains cerebrospinal fluid.

h space contains cerebrospinal fluid.

dural venous sinuses.

eurons involved in the pathway, effectors, receptors, and neurotransmitters.
of the division in the CNS, the location of their preganglionic and postganglionic (ganglionic) cell bodies,
icantes, splanchnic nerves, pelvic splanchnic nerves, CN III, CN VII, CN IX, CN X) and the major ganglia of

y systems to accomplish this.

rointestinal tract, iris of the eye, blood vessels, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles).
d which parts transmit output signals.

e located on a neuron.
ganglionic) cell bodies, and the length of the preganglionic versus postganglionic axons.
nd the major ganglia of each division (e.g., terminal ganglia, intramural ganglia, sympathetic trunk [chain
mpathetic trunk [chain] ganglia, prevertebral [collateral] ganglia).
SPECIAL SENSES
A. Describe the locations and functions of the first-, second- and third-order neurons in a s
B. Describe the locations and functions of the upper and lower motor neurons in a motor p
C. Describe the concept of decussation and its functional implications.
D. Define the term reflex.
E. Describe reflex responses in terms of the major structural and functional components of
F. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of reflexes: intrinsic versus learned, som
G. Describe the following reflexes and name all components of each reflex arc: stretch refl
H. Define sensory receptor.
I. Define transduction, perception, sensation, and adaptation.
J. Distinguish between tonic and phasic receptors.
K. Compare and contrast the types of sensory receptors based on the type of stimulus (i.e.
L. Compare and contrast the three types of sensory receptors, based on their stimulus orig
M. Define and connect the concepts of receptive field and acuity.
N. Explain how the anatomical pathway of pain sensation can confuse pain information in
O. Identify and describe the accessory eye structures (e.g., conjunctiva and lacrimal appara
P. Identify the tunics of the eye and their major components (e.g., cornea, sclera, iris, ciliar
Q. Describe the lens and its role in vision.
R. Identify and describe the anterior and posterior cavities of the eye and their associated
S. Describe phototransduction (i.e., how light activates photoreceptors) and explain the pr
T. Trace the path of light as it passes through the eye to the retina, and describe which stru
U. Compare and contrast the functions and locations of rods and cones.
V. Relate changes in the anatomy of the eye to changes in vision.
W. Given a factor or situation (e.g., macular degeneration), predict the changes that could
[Link] the signal pathway from the retina through the optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tra
Y. Explain how the sense organs relate to other body organs and systems to maintain hom
Z. Classify gustatory receptor cells based on the type of stimulus (i.e., modality).
Describe the primary taste sensations.
Identify and describe the location and structure of taste buds.
 ird-order neurons in a sensory pathway.
tor neurons in a motor pathway.

nctional components of a reflex arc.

nsic versus learned, somatic versus visceral, monosynaptic versus polysynaptic, and ipsilateral versus contrala
h reflex arc: stretch reflex, (Golgi) tendon reflex, flexor (withdrawal) reflex, and crossed-extensor reflex.

he type of stimulus (i.e., thermoreceptor, photoreceptor, chemoreceptor, baroreceptor, nociceptor [pain re

ed on their stimulus origin (i.e., exteroceptors, interoceptors [visceroceptors], proprioceptors).

use pain information in referred pain and phantom pain.

tiva and lacrimal apparatus).
cornea, sclera, iris, ciliary body), and describe the structure and function of each.

ye and their associated humors.

tors) and explain the process of light and dark adaptation.
and describe which structures are responsible for refracting the light rays.

the changes that could occur in the affected sense and the consequences of those changes (i.e., given a cau
, optic chiasm, optic tract, and to the various parts of the brain.
stems to maintain homeostasis.
e., modality).

te buds.
psilateral versus contralateral.
ed-extensor reflex.

tor, nociceptor [pain receptor], mechanoreceptor).

oceptors).

hanges (i.e., given a cause, state a possible effect).

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Describe the major functions of the endocrine system.
Define the terms hormone, endocrine gland, endocrine tissue (organ), and target cell.
Compare and contrast how the nervous and endocrine systems control body functions
List the three major chemical classes of hormones (i.e., steroid, peptide, amino acid-der
Compare and contrast how steroid and peptide hormones are produced and stored in t
Compare and contrast the locations of target cell receptors for steroid and peptide hor
Compare and contrast the mechanisms of action of plasma membrane hormone recept
Describe the various signals that initiate hormone production and secretion (e.g., moni
Describe the locations and the anatomical relationships of the hypothalamus, anterior
Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the release of hormones from the posterior pit
Name the two hormones produced by the hypothalamus that are stored in the posterio
Explain the role of hypothalamic neurohormones (regulatory hormones) in the release
Describe major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary, their control pathways, an
Describe the anatomy of the thyroid gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, t
Describe the anatomy of the parathyroid glands, their location, the major hormone sec
Describe a simple endocrine pathway in which the response is the negative feedback si
Compare and contrast negative feedback for hypothalamic-anterior pituitary-peripher
Describe the anatomy of the adrenal cortex, its location, the major hormones secreted,
Describe the anatomy of the pancreas, its location, the major hormones secreted, the co
Describe the anatomy of the thymus gland, its location, the major hormones secreted, t
Provide some examples of hormones that are secreted from diffuse endocrine tissues o
 rgan), and target cell.
control body functions, the anatomical pathways by which the signals reach their targets, what determin
peptide, amino acid-derived [amine]) found in the human body.
roduced and stored in the endocrine cell, released from the endocrine cell, and transported in the blood.
teroid and peptide hormones.
brane hormone receptors and intracellular hormone receptors, including the speed of the response.
nd secretion (e.g., monitored variables, direct innervation, neurohormones, other hormones).
ypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and posterior pituitary, including the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal
from the posterior pituitary.
e stored in the posterior pituitary, and the hormones’ primary targets and effects.
ormones) in the release of anterior pituitary hormones.
ir control pathways, and their primary target(s) and effects.
r hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets
he major hormone secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormone’s primary
he negative feedback signal (e.g., parathyroid hormone, insulin).
rior pituitary-peripheral endocrine gland pathways to negative feedback for most simple endocrine path
or hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary target
rmones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets and
r hormones secreted, the control pathway(s) for hormone secretion, and the hormones’ primary targets
use endocrine tissues or single endocrine cells.
 targets, what determines the target of the pathway, the speed of the target response(s), the duration of

ansported in the blood.

ed of the response.
hormones).
mic-hypophyseal portal system.

mones’ primary targets and effects.

he hormone’s primary targets and effects.

t simple endocrine pathways.

rmones’ primary targets and effects.
es’ primary targets and effects.
mones’ primary targets and effects.
nse(s), the duration of the response, and how signal intensity is coded.