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Revision Notes
Class – 12 Mathematics
Chapter 5 - Continuity and Differentiability

CONTINUITY

1. DEFINITION

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x  a ; where a  domain of f (x) , if

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  f (a)

x a x a

i.e., LHL  RHL  value of a function at x  a

or lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

1.1 Reasons of discontinuity

If f (x) is not continuous at x  a , we say that f (x) is discontinuous at x  a

There are following possibilities of discontinuity:

1. lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) exist but they are not equal.

x a  x a 

2. lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) exists and are equal but not equal to f (a )
x a  x a 

3. f (a ) is not defined.

4. At least one of the limits does not exist. The graph of the function will show a
break at the location of discontinuity from a geometric standpoint.

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The graph as shown is discontinuous at x  1, 2 and 3 .

2. PROPERTIES OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Let f (x) and g (x) be continuous functions at x  a . Then,

1. cf (x) is continuous at x  a , where c is any constant.

2. f (x)  g (x) is continuous at x  a .

3. f ( x)  g ( x) is continuous at x  a .

4. f (x) / g(x) is continuous at x  a , provided g (a)  0 .-

5. Assuming f (x) be continuous on [a, b] in such a way that the function f (a) and
f ( b) will be at opposite signs, then there will exists at least one solution of equation
f ( x)  0 in the open interval (a, b)

3. THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

Suppose f (x) is continuous on an interval I, and a and b are any two points of I .
Then if y0 is a number between f (a ) and f (b) , their exits a number c between a
and b such that f (c)  y0

The Function f , being continuous on (a, b) takes on every value between f (a ) and
f (b)

Note:
That a function f which is continuous in [a, b] possesses the following properties:

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(i) If f (a ) and f (b) possess opposite signs, then there exists at least one solution of
the equation f ( x)  0 in the open interval (a, b)

(ii) If K is any real number between f (a ) and f (b) , then there exists at least one
solution of the equation f (x)  K in the open interval (a, b)

4. CONTINUITY IN AN INTERVAL

(a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is continuous at each and

every point  (a, b)

(b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if :

(1) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b) and

(2) f is right continuous at 'a' i.e. Limit x a f (x)  f (a)  a finite quantity


(3) f is left continuous at 'b'; i.e. Limit f ( x)  f (b)  a finite quantity

x b 

5. A LIST OF CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Function f(x) Interval in which f(x) is continuous

1. constant c (, )

2. x n , n is an integer 0 (, )

3. x  n , n is a positive integer (, ) {0}

4. | x  a | (, )

5. P(x)  a 0 x n  a1x n1  a n (, )

p( x)
6. where p( x) and (, )  {x; q( x)  0}q( x) are polynomial in x
q( x)

7. Sin x (, )

8. cos x (, )

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 
9. tan x (, )  (2  1) :  
 2 

10. cot x (, )  {n : n  I }

11. sec x (, )  {(2n  1)

12. cos ec x  / 2 : n  I}

13. e x (, )  {n : n  I }

14. log c x (, ) (0, )

6. TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES
Type-1: (Removable type of discontinuities)

In this case, Limit f (x) exists but it will not equal to f (c) . As a result, the function
x c

is said to have a removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the first kind. In such

scenario, we can redefine the function such that Limit f ( x)  f (c) and make it
x c

continuous at x  c . It can be further categorised as:

(a) Missing Point Discontinuity:

Where Limit f ( x) exists finitely but f (a ) is not defined.

x a

E.g. f ( x) 

(1  x) 9  x 2  will have a missing point discontinuity at x  1 , and
(1  x)

sin x
f (x)  will have a missing point discontinuity at x  0
x

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(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity :

Where Limit f ( x) exists f (a) also exists but;

x a

Limit x a  f (a)

x 2  16
E.g. f ( x)  , x  4 and f (4)  9 will have an isolated point discontinuity at x  4
x4

0 if x  I
In the same way f ( x)  [ x]  [ x]   will have an isolated point
 1 if x  I
discontinuity at all x  I .

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Type-2 : (Non-Removable type of discontinuities)

In case, Limit f ( x) does not exist, then it is not possible to make the function
x a

continuous by redefining it. Such discontinuities are known as non-removable

discontinuity or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of discontinuity
can be further classified as:

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(a) Finite Discontinuity:

1 1
E.g., f ( x)  x  [ x] at all integral x; f ( x)  tan 1 at x  0 and f (x)  1
at x  0
x
1 2 x

(note that f  0   0; f  0   1 1  2
  

(b) Infinite Discontinuity:

1 1
E.g., f ( x)  or g ( x)  at x  4; f ( x)  2 tan x
x4 ( x  4) 2

 cos x
at x  and f ( x)  at x  0
2 x

(c) Oscillatory Discontinuity:

1
E.g., f ( x)  sin at x  0
x

In all these cases the value of f (a ) of the function at x  a (point of discontinuity)

may or may not exist but Limit does not exist.
x a

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From the adjacent graph note that

 f is continuous at x  1

 f has isolated discontinuity at x  1

 f has missing point discontinuity at x  2

 f has non-removable (finite type) discontinuity at the origin.

Note:
(a) In case of dis-continuity of the second kind the nonnegative difference between
the value of the RHL at x  a and LHL at x  a is called the jump of discontinuity.
A function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval I is called a piece
wise continuous or sectionally continuous function in this interval.

(b) All Polynomials, Trigonometrical functions, exponential and Logarithmic

functions are continuous in their domains.

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(c) If f (x) is continuous and g (x) is discontinuous at x  a then the product function
 ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x  a . e.g.

 
sin x0
f ( x)  x and g ( x)   x (d) If f (x) and g (x) both are discontinuous at x  a

 0 x0
then the product function  ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) is not necessarily be discontinuous at
x  a. e.g

1 x 0
f ( x)   g ( x)   (e) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous
 1 x  0

eg. f ( x)  1  x  x 1 is not continuous at x  1

(f) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have a range also in closed
interval.

(g) If f is continuous at x  a and g is continuous at x  f (a) then the composite

g[ f (x)] is continous at x  a

x sin x
E.g f (x)  and g (x) | x | are continuous at x  0 , hence the composite
x2  2
x sin x
( gof )(x)  2 will also be continuous at x  0 .
x 2

DIFFERENTIABILITY

1. DEFINITION

Let f (x) bea real valued function defined on an open interval (a, b) where c  (a, b) .
Then f ( x ) is said to be differentiable or derivable at x  c

f (x)  f (c)
if, lim exists finitely.
x c (x  c)

This limit is called the derivative or differentiable coefficient of the function f ( x ) at

d
x  c , and is denoted by f  (c) or ( f (x)) x c
dx

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f (a  h)  f (a)
- Slope of Right hand secant  as h  0, P  A and secant (AP) 
h
tangent at A

 f (a  h)  f (a) 
 Right hand derivative  Lim h 0  
 h 

 Slope of tangent at A (when approached from right) f   a  

f (a  h)  f (a)
- Slope of Left hand secant  as h  0, Q  A and secant AQ 
h
tangent at A

 f ( a  h)  f ( a ) 
 Left hand derivative  Lim h0  
 h 

= Slope of tangent at A (when approached from left) f   a  

Thus, f (x) is differentiable at x  c .

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f ()  f  c 
 lim exists finitely
c  c 
f ()  f  c  f ()  f  c 
 lim  lim
c  c  c  c 
f c  h   f c f c  h   f c
 lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h

f (x)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)

Hence, lim  lim is called the left hand derivative of f ( x )
x c ( x  c) h 0 h
f (x)  f (c) f (c  h)  f (c)
 
at x  c and is denoted by f  c or Lf  (c) While, lim
x c xc
 lim
h 0 h
is
called the right hand derivative of f ( x ) at x  c and is denoted by f  c or Rf  (c)  
If f   c   f   c  , we say that f (x) is not differentiable at x  c .

2. DIFFERENTIABILITY IN A SET

1. A function f ( x ) defined on an open interval (a, b) is said to be differentiable or

derivable in open interval (a, b) , if it is differentiable at each point of (a, b)

2. A function f ( x ) defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to be differentiable or

derivable. "If f is derivable in the open interval (a, b) and also the end points a and
b, then f is said to be derivable in the closed interval [a, b]"

f ()  f (a) f ()  f (b)
i.e., lim and lim , both exist.
a 
a b b

A function f is said to be a differentiable function if it is differentiable at every

point of its domain.

Note:

1. If f ( x) and g ( x)are derivable at x  a then the functions

f ( x)  g ( x), f ( x)  g ( x), f ( x)  g ( x) will also be derivable at x  a and if g ( a )  0 then the
function f (x) / g(x) will also be derivable at x  a

2. If f ( x ) is differentiable at x  a and g ( x) is not differentiable at x  a , then the

product function F(x)  f (x)  g (x) can still be differentiable at x  a. E.g. f (x)  x and
g (x) | x |

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3. If f ( x ) and g (x) both are not differentiable at x  a then the product function;
F (x)  f (x)  g (x) can still be differentiable at x  a. E.g. f (x) | x | and g(x) | x |

4. If f ( x ) and g ( x) both are not differentiable at x  a then the sum function

F (x)  f (x)  g (x) may be a differentiable function. E.g., f ( x) | x | and g (x)   | x |

5. If f ( x ) is derivable at x  a

 f  ( x) is continuous at x  a .

2 if  0
e.g. f ( x)  
0 if  0

3. Relation B/W Continuity & Differentiability

We learned in the last section that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must
also be continuous at that point, and therefore a discontinuous function cannot be
differentiable. The following theorem establishes this fact.

Theorem: If a function is differentiable at a given point, it must be continuous at

that same point. However, the inverse is not always true.

or f ( x ) is differentiable at x  c

 f (x) is continuous at x  c

Converse: The reverse of the preceding theorem is not always true, i.e., a function
might be continuous but not differentiable at a given point.

E.g., The function f ( x) | x | is continuous at x  0 but it is not differentiable at x  0

.

Note:

(a) Let f  (a)  p; f  (a)  q where p q are finite then

 f is derivable at x  a

 f is continuous at x  a

(ii) p  q  f is not derivable at x  a .

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It is very important to note that f may be still continuous at x  a

In short, for a function f:

Differentiable  Continuous;

Not Differentiable  Not Continuous

(i.e., function may be continuous)

But,

Not Continuous  Not Differentiable.

(b) If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at x  a it geometrically

implies a sharp corner at x  a

Theorem 2: Let f and g be real functions such that fog is defined if g is continuous
at x  a and f is continuous at g

(a), show that fog is continuous at x  a .

DIFFERENTIATION:

1. DEFINITION

(a) Let us consider a function y  f (x) defined in a certain interval. It has a definite
value for each value of the independent variable x in this interval.

Now, the ratio of the function's increment to the independent variable's increment,
y f ( x  x)  f ( x)

x x

y
Now, as x  0, y  0 and  finite quantity, then derivative f ( x ) exists and is
x
dy  y  f ( x  x)  f ( x)
denoted by y  or f  ( x) or Thus, f  ( x)  lim    lim (if it exits)
dx x 0
 x  x 0 x
for the limit to exist,

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f (x  h)  f (x) f (x  h)  f (x)
lim  lim
h 0 h h 0 h

(Right Hand derivative) (Left Hand derivative)

(b) The derivative of a given function f at a point x  a of its domain is defined as:
f (a  h)  f (a)
Limit , provided the limit exists is denoted by f  (a)
h 0 h

Note that alternatively, we can define

f (x)  f (a)
f  (a)  Limit x a , provided the limit exists.
x a

This method is called first principle of finding the derivative of f ( x )

2. DERIVATIVE OF STANDARD FUNCTION

(i)
dx
 
d n
x  n  x n 1 ; x  R, n  R, x  0

(ii)
dx
 
d x
e  ex

(iii)
dx
 
d x
a  a x  ln a(a  0)

d 1
(iv) (ln | x |) 
dx x

d 1
(v)  log a | x |  log a e
dx x

d
(vi) (sin x)  cos x
dx

d
(vii) (cos x)   sin x
dx

d
(viii) (tan x)  sec 2 x
dx

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d
(ix) (sec x)  sec x  tan x
dx

d
(x) (cosec x)   cosec x  cot x
dx

d
(xi) (cot x)   cosec 2 x
dx

d
(xii) ( constant )  0
dx

(xiii)
d
 sin 1 x  
1
, 1  x  1
dx 1 x2

1
(xiv)
d
 cos 1 x   , 1  x  1
dx 1 x2

(xv)
d
dx

tan 1 x  1
1 x2
, xR

1
(xvi)
d
dx

cot 1 x  
1 x2
, x R

(xvii)
d

sec 1 x   1
, | x | 1
dx | x | x2 1

1
(xviii)
d

cosec 1 x   , | x | 1
dx | x | x 2 1

(xix) Results:

If the inverse functions f ( g ) are defined by y  f ( x); x  g ( y ). Then

g ( f ( x))  x  g  ( f ( x))  f  ( x)  1

dy dy dx  dy 
This result can also be written as, if exists and  0 , then  1/   or
dx dx dy  dx 
dy dx dy  dx   dx 
  1 or  1/     0 
dx dy dx  dy   dy 

3. THEOREMS ON DERIVATIVES

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If u and v are derivable functions of x , then,

d du dv
(i) Term by term differentiation : (u  v)  
dx dx dx

d du
(ii) Multiplication by a constant (Ku)  K , where K is any constant
dx dx

d dv du
(iii) "Product Rule" (u.v)  u v known as In general,
dx dx dx

(a) If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ,, un are the functions of x , then

d
 u1  u 2  u 3  u 4 .u n 
dx
 du   du 
  1   u 2 u 3 u 4  u n    2   u 1u 3 u 4  u n 
 dx   dx 

 du   du 
  3   u1u2u4 un    4   u1u2u3u5 un 
 dx   dx 
 du 
  n   u1u2u3 un 1 
 dx 

(iv) Quotient Rule

 du   dv 
v   u 
d u  dx   dx  where v  0 known as
 
dx  v  v 2

dy dy du dw
(b) Chain Rule : If y  f (u), u  g (w), w  h(x) then   
dx du dw dx

dy
or  f  (u)  g  ( )  h (x)
dx

Note:
dy du
In general if y  f (u) then  f  (u) 
dx dx

4. METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION
4.1 Derivative by using Trigonometrical Substitution

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The use of trigonometrical transforms before differentiation greatly reduces the

amount of labour required. The following are some of the most significant findings:
2 tan x
(i) sin 2 x  2sin x cos x 
1  tan 2 x

1  tan 2 x
(ii) cos 2x  2 cos x  1  1  2sin x 
2 2

1  tan 2 x

2 tan x 1  cos 2x
(iii) tan 2x  , tan 2 x 
1  tan x
2
1  cos 2x

(iv) sin 3x  3sin x  4sin 3 x

(v) cos 3x  4cos3 x  3cos x

3 tan x  tan 3 x
(vi) tan 3x 
1  3 tan 2 x

 1  tan x
(vii) tan   x  
4  1  tan x

 1  tan x
(viii) tan   x  
4  1  tan x

x x
(ix) (1  sin x)  cos  sin
2 2

 x y 
(x) tan 1 x  tan 1 y  tan 1  
 1 xy 

(xi) 
sin 1 x  sin 1 y  sin 1 x 1  y 2  y 1  x 2 
(xii) cos 1 x  cos 1 y  cos 1 xy  1  x2 1  y 2 
(xiii) sin 1 x  cos 1 x  tan 1 x  cot 1 x  sec1 x  cosec1 x   / 2

(xiv) sin 1 x  cosec1 (1/ x);cos 1 x  sec1 (1/ x); tan 1 x  cot 1 (1/ x)

Note:

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Some standard substitutions:

Expressions Substitutions

a 2
 x2  x  a sin  or a cos 

a 2
 x 2  x  a tan  or a cot 

x 2
 a 2  x  a sec  or a cosec

ax ax
  or   x  a cos  or a cos 2
ax  ax

(a  x)(x  b) or x  a cos 2   bsin 2 

ax  x 
  or  
 x b  ax

( x  a)( x  b) or x  a sec2   b tan 2 

 xa  x 
  or  
 x b   xa

 2ax  x  x  a(1  cos  )

2

4.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

To find the derivative of:

If y   f1 (x)
f 2 (x)
or y  f1 (x)  f 2 (x)  f3 (x) 

f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)  f 3 ( x) 
or y then it's easier to take the function's logarithm first and
g1 ( x)  g 2 ( x)  g 3 ( x) 
then differentiate. This is referred to as the logarithmic function's derivative.

Important Notes (Alternate methods)

1. If y  { f (x)}g (x)  e g (x)ln f (x)  ( variable )varable  x  eln x 

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dy g x lnf x  d d 
  e       g  x   lnf  x   lnf  x   g  x 
dx  dx dx 
gx  f x 
  f  x   g  x    lnf  x   g   x  
 f x 

2. If y  { f (x)}g (x)

dy
  Derivative of y treating f (x) as constant + Derivative of y treating g (x) as
dx
constant
d d
 { f (x)}g (x )  ln f (x)  g (x)  g (x){ f (x)}g (x ) 1  f (x)
dx dx

 { f (x)}g (x)  ln f (x)  g  (x)  g (x) { f (x)}g (x) 1  f  (x)

4.3 Implicit Differentiation:  (x, y )  0

(i) To get dy / dx with the use of implicit function, we differentiate each term w.r.t. x
, regarding y as a function of x & then collect terms in dy/dx together on one side
to finally find dy / dx .

(ii) In answers of dy/dx in the case of implicit function, both x and y are present.

Alternate Method: If f ( x, y )  0

 f 
 
x
  
dy diff of f w.r.t. x treating y as constant
then
dx  f  diff . of f w.r.t. y treating x as constant
 y 
 

4.4 Parametric Differentiation

If y  f (t); x  g (t) where t is a Parameter, then

dy dy / dt

dx dx / dt

Note:

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dy dy dt
1.  
dx dt dx

d 2 y d  dy  d  dy  dt  dy
2.        in terms of t )
dx 2 dx  dx  dt  dx  dx  dx

d  f  (t)  1
   { From (1)}
dt  g  (t)  f  (t)
f  (t) g  (t)  g  (t) f  (t)

 
f  (t)

4.5 Derivative of a Function w.r.t. another Function

dy dy / dx f  (x)
Let y  f (x); z  g (x) then  
dz dz / dx g  (x)

4.6 Derivative of Infinite Series

When one or more terms are removed from an infinite series, the series stays
unaltered. as a result.

(A) If y  f ( x)  f ( x)  f ( x) 

then y  f (x)  y   y2  y   f (x)

dy
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get (2 y  1)  f  ( x)
dx
{f ( x )}1
(B) If y  {f (x)}{f (x)} then y  { f (x)}y  y  e y ln f (x)

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get

dy y{ f ( x)}y 1  f  ( x) y 2 f  ( x)
 
dx 1  { f ( x)}y  n f ( x) f ( x){1  y nf ( x)}

5. Derivative of Order Two & Three

Let us assume a function y  f (x) be defined on an open interval (a, b) . It's derivative,
if it exists on (a, b) , is a certain function f  (x)  or (dy / dx) or y  is called the first
derivative of y w.r.t. x . If it occurs that the first derivative has a derivative on (a, b)

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then this derivative is called the second derivative of y w.r.t. x is denoted by f  ( x)

or  d 2 y / dx2  or y  .

Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t. x , if it exists, is defined by

d3 y d  d 2 y   
  2  it is also denoted by f (x) or y Some Standard Results :
dx dx  dx 

dn m!
(i) (ax  b)m   a n  (ax  b)m n , m n
dx n
(m  n)!

dn n
(ii) n x  n!
dx

d n mx
n 
(iii) e   m n  emx , m  R
dx

dn  n 
(iv) (sin(ax  b))  a n sin  ax  b  , n  N
 
n
dx 2

dn  n 
(v) (cos(ax  b))  a n cos  ax  b  , n  N
 
n
dx 2

d n ax
(vi) n e sin(bx  c)  r n  eax  sin(bx  c  n ), n  N
dx

where r  a 2

 b 2 ,   tan 1 (b / a)

d n ax
n 
(vii) e  cos(bx  c)  r n  eax  cos(bx  c  n ), n  N
dx

where r  a 2

 b 2 ,   tan 1 (b / a)

6. DIFFERENTIATION OF DETERMINANTS
f (x) g (x) h(x)
If F (X)  (x) m(x) n(x) where f , g , h, , m, n, u, v, w are differentiable function of x
u (x) v(x) w(x)
then

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f   x  g   x  h  x  f  x g  x h  x
F x   x m  x n  x     x  m  x  n  x
u  x v  x w x u  x v  x w x
f  x g  x h  x
  x m  x n  x
u   x  v  x  w  x 

7. L' HOSPITAL'S RULE

If f ( x) and g ( x) are functions of x such that :

(i) lim f ( x)  0  lim g ( x) or lim f ( x)    lim g ( x) f ( x ) and

x a x a x a x a

(ii) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are continuous at x  a and

(iii) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are differentiable at x  a and

(iv) Both f ( x) and g ( x) are continuous at xa, Then

f ( x) f  ( x) f  ( x)
Limit xa  Limit xa   Limit xa  & so on till determinant form vanishes.
g ( x) g ( x) g ( x)

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