TOPIC 4 CIT 210 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CLASSROOM TEACHING AND

LEARNING:

INTRODUCTION:
-Teaching refers to the process of imparting knowledge and skills from a teacher to a learner; it
is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and
goals simultaneously and flexibly.
-Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes through experience, study, or
being taught; it is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge,
behaviours skills, values or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of
information.
-The different approaches to classroom teaching and learning are also referred to as inclusive
teaching strategies.
Inclusive Teaching Strategies
Inclusive teaching strategies refer to any number of teaching approaches that address the needs
of students with a variety of backgrounds, learning styles, and abilities. These strategies
contribute to an overall inclusive learning environment, in which students feel equally valued.

Why use inclusive teaching strategies?

“Even though some of us might wish to conceptualize our classrooms as culturally neutral or
might choose to ignore the cultural dimensions, students cannot check their sociocultural
identities at the door, nor can they instantly transcend their current level of development.
Therefore, it is important that the pedagogical strategies we employ in the classroom reflect an
understanding of social identity development so that we can anticipate the tensions that might
occur in the classroom and be proactive about them” (Ambrose et. al., 2010, p. 169-170).

Benefits of different approaches to classroom teaching and learning:

 You can connect with and engage with a variety of students.
 You are prepared for “spark moments” or issues that arise when controversial material is
discussed.
 Students connect with subject materials that are relevant to them.
 Students feel comfortable in the classroom environment to voice their
ideas/thoughts/questions.
 Students are more likely to experience success in your subject through activities that
support their learning styles, abilities, and backgrounds.

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How can you teach inclusively?

1. be reflective by asking yourself the following:

- How might your own cultural-bound assumptions influence your interactions with
students?
- How might the backgrounds and experiences of your students influence their motivation,
engagement, and learning in your classroom?
-How can you modify subject materials, activities, assignments, and/or exams to be more
accessible to all students in your class?
2. Incorporate diversity into your overall curriculum.
3. be intentional about creating a safe learning environment by utilizing ground rules.
4. be proactive in connecting with and learning about your students.
5. Utilize a variety of teaching strategies, activities, and assignments that will accommodate the
needs of students with diverse learning styles, abilities, backgrounds, and experiences.
6. Use universal design principles to create accessible classes. For example, present information
both orally and visually to accommodate both students with visual or auditory impairments in
addition to students with various learning preferences.
7. When possible, provide flexibility in how students demonstrate their knowledge and how you
assess student knowledge and development. Vary your assessments (for example, incorporate a
blend of collaborative and individual assignments) or allow choice in assignments (for example,
give students multiple project topics to choose from.)
8. Be clear about how students will be evaluated and graded. Provide justifications.
9. Take time to assess the classroom climate by obtaining mid-semester feedback from students;
 Pass out index cards during class for anonymous feedback.
 Ask students to rate from 1-5 how comfortable they are in class. Also ask for 2
suggestions for how they could feel more comfortable.
 Discuss your findings in the next class and share any changes you will make
regarding the feedback.

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Definitions
 Strategies of teaching are manoeuvres/tactics a teacher designs and uses to make teaching
effective and efficient. It is the art of planning in advance or skilful plan for maximum
success in teaching.
 This process involves making important decisions with regard to the following:
 Approach used.
 Methodology
 Techniques/skills
 Procedures/events
 It is important to note that many teachers tend to confuse the above and therefore use
them inter-changeably, thus making instruction inefficient and ineffective. However they
are all interrelated although totally different concepts in teaching.
APPROACH (teaching environment)
 Is the way a teacher will handle a class, a subject or a theme in the subject. This is the
decision of a teacher on how to handle a class:
o May handle a class as whole, small groups or individuals.
o Whether to teach indoor or outdoor.
o Whether the subject is to be taught theoretically or by practical approach e.g. in
Agriculture a teacher decides whether it is to be taught both by theory and
practically.
 The general approach of handling a class entirely depends on the subject.

METHODOLOGY
This a teaching method which comprises of the principles and methods used by teachers to
enable student learning. These strategies are determined partly on subject matter to be taught and
partly by the nature of the learner. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and
efficient it has to be in relation with the characteristic of the learner and the type of learning it is
supposed to bring about. Methods are the way the teacher intends to present the lesson or subject
matter to the class. It is more specific in attainment of set objectives. Methods play a pivotal role
in the success of an instruction. Thus the selection and use of a given method should be done
with care.
GENERAL FAMILIES OF TEACHING METHODS
 There are three families of teaching methods:
 Individual methods
 Group methods

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  Class collective methods
INDIVIDUAL METHODS OF TEACHING
 Refers to teaching methods that share orientation towards the individual learner and to
the development of self-hood or self-actualization.
 Examples
 Assignments
 Correspondence work
 Debate
 Library research
 Project
 Resource based earning
 Computer managed learning
USEFULNESS OF INDIVIDUAL METHODS OF TEACHING
 Encourages students to develop critical or independent thinking
 Students learn to organize, construct and present their work independently.
 Students learn at their own pace hence providing for individual differences.
 Students become responsible and accountable for their activities
 Allow students to follow their own interest
 Teachers are able to identify students learning difficulties
 Students become motivated and self-disciplined.
ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
 Students are denied the basic human right of socialization
 Difficult for the teacher to compare individual students’ performance with that of the
other class members.
 Difficult to correct a common learning weakness in the students’ work in class.
GROUP METHODS OF TEACHING
 Emphasis is on social relations either as the goal for learning or as an educational
avenue.
 These methods of teaching aim at developing ideal citizens who are expected to live in
and enhance a very good, perhaps an ideal society and fulfil themselves in the same
society having strong interpersonal relations.

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  To achieve the goal, the teacher will divide the class into several small groups, not
exceeding five students in each group.
Examples
 Project method
 Group discussion
 Debate
 Group activities
 Story telling
 Group enquiry survey
 Problem based learning
 Computer – assisted cooperative learning
VALUE OF GROUP METHODS
 Students develop and acquire desirable personality traits such as tolerance, openness,
articulation and cooperation.
 Students develop or acquire and improve on third language through freedom of
expression.
 Students learn how to socialize with others
 Students learn at their own pace in their individual small groups
 Students become responsible, tolerant to situations and develop leadership qualities.
 Students learn about group dynamics i.e. how groups are organized, how they function
and the impact of these groups on an individual.
 The teacher has an opportunity of knowing individual students in the small groups.
 The role of the teacher changes from that of an authoritarian to that of an organizer of
groups, a counsellor, consultant or friendly critic.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
 Class control is sometimes very difficult due to too many groups.
 These methods require a lot of learning facilities and classrooms
 Extraverts tend to dominate others in the groups, especially the introverts.
 Some students can easily be discouraged because of unquestionable acceptance or even
total rejection of suggestion by group members.
 Group methods require special seating arrangement – conference type or semi-circular,
that are sometimes time consuming.

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  The methods require a dynamic teacher who is active, who plans the group activities
ahead of time and considers the usefulness of these methods in teaching.
 Some subjects do not easily lend themselves to these methods.
 Difficulty to ensure systematic progression in the students learning.
CLASS COLLECTIVE METHODS CLASS COLLECTIVE METHODS
 Refers to a family of teaching methods used in teaching the whole class of e.g. 40
students, all of them facing the teachers and sitting in the conventional Pattern i.e. sitting
straight and not talking, but occasionally taking notes.
 Examples:
 Lecture
 Talk and Chalk
 Dramatization
 Narrative
 Resource based learning
USEFULNESS
 Time saving especially at preparation and presentation stages
 Instruction is usually systematic or logical, hence developing logic into learners
 They are cost-effective in terms of learning resources and facilities.
 It is easier for the teacher to awoken emotion of the whole class rather than individuals.
 Normally help the teacher to control the class easily.
 It is easy to correct common learning weakness in the class.
ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
 Most teachers do not cater for individual differences
 Teachers assume that they are the only sources of information, therefore leading pupils
into passive learning.
 Usually difficult for the teacher to know if all the members of the class are participating.
 There is usually limited teacher – student interaction since there is always only one way
communication system used.
 Slow and average learners in class are usually neglected or ignored by the teacher since
he/she tends to concentrate on the brighter pupils.
TECHNIQUES/SKILLS AS STRATEGIES IN TEACHING

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  Normally Skills/Techniques are used in a lesson to articulate, clarify, elaborate, simplify
or consolidate the teaching points. The commonly used techniques in teaching include:
i. Questioning and reinforcement. Teacher poses a question to class to involve
students. Reinforcements are used to motivate students.
ii. Stimulus variation. Trying to make students in class use nearly all senses i.e.
multi-sensory approach to teaching.
iii. Small Groups Method of Teaching. Divide students in groups to give them a
chance to participate.
iv. Use of examples. These should be relevant to the subject and students.
v. Self-evaluation. Teacher should develop mechanism to evaluate whether learning
was taking place and adjust accordingly.
vi. Use of gesture & illustrations. These ought to be measurable, and to the point.
vii. Integration of skills. Merge all the listed skills in a lesson to cater for individual
differences.
PROCEDURES
 These are the events that the Learners are to experience in the course of teaching.
 These events will make the learner an active participant in the lesson. This will further
enhance achievement of objectives.
COMMON METHODS OF TEACHING
 Methods of teaching generally refers to the way of presenting what is supposed to be
learned by the learner.
 Examples
 Team teaching
 Micro-teaching
 Lecture method
 Demonstration
 Question & Answer
 Discussion method
 Problem solving method
 Field trips
 Laboratory experiments
 Resource based learning
 Computer- assisted cooperative teaching/learning
 Computer- assisted instruction
 Computer managed learning

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CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING A METHOD OF TEACHING
Ask the following questions as the guiding criteria for choosing a suitable teaching
methods:
 Does the method permit adjustments for the abilities of different students?
 Does it encourage the learner to be actively involved in learning activities?
 Does it permit adequate coverage of the content to be learned for all learners?
 Does it provide adequate assistance for students who do not learn from the initial
procedure?
 Does it provide adequate monitoring of student progress?
 Does it provide sufficient practice to permit consolidation and integration of skills?
LECTURE METHOD OF TEACHING
 A lecture is a period of more or less uninterrupted talk from a teacher.
 It is an instructional method involving one way communication from an active presenter
to passive audience.
 It involves presenting information about a subject or a theme to a large class or group of
students.
 A lecture is therefore an organized verbal presentation of subject matter.
Forms of lecturing
There are two main forms of lecturing. They are:
 ‘formal’ and
 ‘Informal’ lectures.
 A ‘formal’ lecture is purely verbal. Communication is basically one-way, from
the presenter to the audience.
 In an ‘informal’ lecture, communication is two-way; from speaker to the listener
and then from the listener to speaker. An informal lecture allows listeners to
interrupt with questions or comments. It frequently incorporates audio-visual
media to enhance the presentation.
MERITS
 Time saving since a large group is taught at once.

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  Instruction is logical or systematic since the information is given in a fairly orderly
manner, adjusting it to the learners’ level.
 It is cost effective and cost beneficial. That is, does not require a lot of learning facilities
and resources. Cost beneficial in that. The teacher doesn’t have to repeat himself.
 Class control is easier for the teacher.
 In the absence of a text book, apparatus or other teaching aids, a lecture can still pass
information.
DEMERITS
 It is, designed and used by the teacher hence resulting to teacher centered students being
passive listeners.
 Difficult to know whether all students in class are involved in the lesson.
 There is limited teacher – individual student contact in the class.
 Provision for individual differences among students/learners in class is usually ignored.
 Encourages ‘Surface’ learning only, which facilitates memorization which is unsuitable.
‘Deep’ learning is required for understanding and problem-solving.
 Inhibits critical thinking and creativity in students.
Situations When Lecture Method Is Appropriate.
 When introducing a new and difficult topic or preparing students for group activities.
 Explaining certain difficulty and theoretical points in the lesson which cannot be easily
demonstrated. E.g. Internal structure of the Earth.
 Use it when explaining the demonstration that may have been conducted in previous
lesson.
 Used in situations where learning facilities and resources are limited
 Used when summarizing and recapitulating certain generalizations and principles at the
end of the lesson.
Situations where Lecture Method is not appropriate
 The lesson objective is other than the acquisition of information (By end of the lesson
each learner should be able to calculate area of a rectangle).
 The instructional objective involves the application of skills
 The instructional objective involves the changing of attitudes or behaviour
 The information acquired is to be retained for a long time e.g. in medicine
 Learner participation in the learning activity is required
Suggestions to Improve This Method

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  It should be used in combination with other methods of teaching.
 Teacher should use a variety of teaching & learning resources
 Students should be actively involved in the lesson through use of appropriate questions
and media resources
 Teacher should show or demonstrate unquestionable interest in the lesson
 There should be clear stimulus variation in the lecture presentation
 The lecture presentation should be pegged on the learning ability of students.
DEMONSTRATION METHOD
 It is defined as a process of showing, either by the teacher or individual students, how
some activity in the lesson is conducted practically e.g. experiment. Many teachers use
this method in the teaching unconsciously i.e. by use of gestures, carry hands up when
emphasizing and kick legs.
 The method therefore, lends itself to almost all the subjects in the school curriculum and
since it is versatile, one must bear the following in mind:
Requirements:
 Demonstration must be simple, brief or short and interesting enough for the class.
 The demonstration must utilize students experience and abilities i.e. must be relevant to
student abilities, needs and interest
 Teacher should make use of relevant learning resources to supplement demonstration
 Students must be actively involved if a demonstration has to succeed.
 Ethical considerations must be remembered at all times.
Merits
 The method uses students experiences and therefore motivates the class
 Student gets a proper concept of whatever is being taught
 Provides a near real situation to the class
 Student gets opportunity to during the lesson
 Students become mentally and physically involved in the lesson
 The method develops and equips students with physical manipulation skills thus
facilitating the development of a total human being.
Limitations
 Not all students will be interested in the demonstration.
 The method can occasionally be very expensive in terms of resources, time and energy.

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  Sometimes the method can be dangerous to student especially when using harmful
equipment.
 Requires thorough and strenuous preparation, Pre-setting to avoid failure during the
lesson e.g. Radio cassette, T.V, PowerPoint preparation etc.
 It is not easy to demonstrate when you have a large class.

Situations When Used

 When attempting to clarify, elaborate teaching learning points in the lesson
 Teachers use it when they want to introduce stimulus variation in learning
 When introducing new and difficult concept in the class
 Used when you want to develop certain special talent in our students.
MICRO-TEACHING METHOD
 It is defined as a scaled down teaching whereby 5-10 students practice a skill/technique
for 5-15 minutes. Therefore the focus in micro teaching is for (skill development).
Groups are small and time is short.
 Basically used in the training of teachers in the skills and techniques discussed earlier in
this topic such as (stimulus variation, small group method use of examples, use of
gestures and illustrations or integrations of skills in the lesson)
Merits
 It is a functional method of teaching, focusing on developing and acquisition of specific
teaching skills. It involves participation of all the students in the small groups of between
5-7 students.
 The method is student centred in that, it is planned, presented and occasionally evaluated
by the students themselves.
 There is always immediate feedback through the comments of the supervisor and other
students reactions or through us of closed circuit T.V. (CCTV)
 The method provides teacher trainees with confidence in teaching and competence of
identifying and using skills in teaching.

Limitations
 Makes learning somehow too mechanical and superficial/artificial
 Learning involves a series of procedures and events, which are occasionally ignored or
neglected e.g. preparation of a lesson for 10 minutes, which has a lot of content.

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  The method is resource; efforts and energy intensive. Therefore microteaching requires
an active, critical and creative teacher.
TEAM TEACHING
 Team teaching involves a group of teachers who share out topic in a subject and teach
them in an organized and rational manner. The teachers are normally assigned or asked
to teach areas of their interests. Therefore teacher must have the same
orientation/specialization in that subject.
Principles of Team Teaching
 If you agree to team-teach, then you need to carefully plan and prepare
 Allocate responsibility according to competence. Each teacher should be given a topic
according to ability.
 Teachers presenting lectures should be articulate as a means of inspiring students.
 Intellectual honesty must be maintained.
 Teachers should not undermine fellow teachers with the students.
 Duplications of work should be avoided
 Teachers should respect each other.
Advantages
 Allows for wide and intense coverage of the topics
 Can easily incorporate large and small group presentations
 It makes remedial work easy (individual attention given). Students will benefit from
varied teachers experiences
 Teachers are generally motivated to prepare thoroughly because they will present to both
students and colleagues. This therefore help avoid mediocrity
 Teachers gain support, experience and knowledge when they sit to listen to their fellow
teachers teaching and this increases their capacity.
 In case of emergency, the other teachers in the team can take over the lessons of the
absentee teacher.

Disadvantages
 Sometimes unnecessary conflicts among team teachers arise over petty jealousy, rivals,
over such things as approaches of teaching
 Occasionally students are confused in their learning through the use of varied teachers
instructional styles.
 Poor planning can lead to confusion and repetition in the presentation of the content.

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HEURISTIC METHODS OF TEACHING
 In these methods, learners are involved in discovering and finding solutions to problems
through the use of past experience and investigation.
 The term Heuristic is obtained from the Greek word ‘Heurico’ which means – find
it/discover. ‘Eureka’ means – I found it. Most of the heuristic methods are products of
the new innovations in education hence the use of the term innovative methods.
 Heuristic methods include: Question and Answer, Discussion , Problem solving learning,
Assignments, Laboratory experiments, Field trips, Simulation/drama ,Computer
cooperative learning, Resource based learning, Computer managed learning
General Characteristic of Heuristic Methods
 There is active students participation in learning
 Students develop and acquire scientific skills of solving problems
 Students develop and acquire the art of critical thinking
 They are basically activity centred methods
 The methods require through and strenuous preparation
 The role of the teacher is more of a facilitator. From authoritarian to that of an organizer,
counsellor and a friendly critic
 Students’ activity is exploration, reflection, enquiry, questioning for meaning etc.
QUESTION – ANSWER METHOD
 It is also known as Socratic Method.
 Purpose of Using Question and Answer
 Best suited for review of lessons/summaries
 Best used when expanding on the content of the lesson in social sickness
 Helps to arouse curiosity of learners
 Learners become very attentive to ensure that their responses are correct
 Leads to discovery
Categorization of Questions
 Narrow questions e.g.
 What is the √81?
 What is the capital city of Uganda?
 These questions require short definite responses, which are known and can never be
changed.

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 Broad Questions
 What is death?
 What is your view on the existence of God?
 What is your view on the theory of origin of earth/man/evolution? Etc
 These questions do not require short definite responses. The answers are not known and
responses vary from one person to another. They require the learner to think in a
classroom situation, questions have been classified into two:
 Formal Questions
 Also referred to as teaching questions. The questioner already has answers which he/she
asks for . Classroom questions may be put under this category. They are sometimes
called teaching questions because the answers are already available in most cases.
 Natural Questions
 The questioner does not know the information about which he asks or makes the
question. The teachers’ questions are formal while those of students are natural.
 Teaching Questions have further been categorized into three:
 Preliminary Questions (Introductory Questions)
 They are asked at the beginning of the lesson
 These questions are to test the previous knowledge
 Link previous knowledge with the already learned.
 Motivate learners and arouse their curiosity
 Test readiness of students mind
 Developing Questions
 They are set to be the backbone of the lesson and their purposes are:
 Develop a particular line of thought
 Lead students to discover facts for themselves
 Formulate new generalizations in an inductive way.
 Focus attention on important points
 Develop knowledge step by step
 Enable the student to use their powers of observation, comparison and concentration.
 Break the monotony and the narrative of the teacher also ensure students
 Sustain attention of the learners.

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  Recapitulatory
 Always put at the end of the lesson at the end of each section of a lesson. They serve
mainly two purposes:
 To enable the teacher know if the learners have picked up the knowledge or ideas which
she/he wants them to learn
 To revise the lesson or a section of the lesson.
Principles of Good Questioning techniques in a Classroom
 Ask questions at all levels of categories i.e. narrow and broad, open rather than narrow
and thought provoking only.
 Ask questions in the language and vocabularies suitable to the learner. At the beginning
of the lesson the questions should be simple and enticing and as the lesson progresses
high order questions should be asked.
 Learners should be given time to think before calling upon them to answer questions.
Pauses are necessary and adequate response time.
 The question should be asked first before asking a particular learner to answer. A student
should not be intimidated or coerced to answer a question if she/he is unable to.
 Questions should be distributed to all members of the class. Do not concentrate on a few
bright ones. Quieter ones should be encouraged to answer questions even if they don’t
get the answers correct.
 It is important that the teacher plans adequately in advance for all types of questions. The
objectives of the lessons should be the guiding principle.
 The teacher should listen to the students’ responses before commenting on them.
 The teacher should avoid asking leading questions e.g. it is true, isn’t it?
HANDLING STUDENTS RESPONSES
 The teacher should not humiliate, embarrass or insult a learner when he/she asks a stray
question or answers a question incorrectly. This will discourage the learners.
 The teacher should accept all genuine answers sincerely and appreciate or approve the
correct responses. If the answer is partly correct and partly wrong, the teacher should
acknowledge that portion which is correct and comment on the wrong part.
 A response, which is wrong, should not be ignored because if you do so students may
mistake them to be correct answers.
 Talkative student should be controlled since they may dominate the classroom.
 The teacher should constantly scan the classroom frequently to take note of the students
who want to answer questions. Although many students raise their hands, there are those
shy and quieter ones who merely raise their fingers in front of their questioning faces.

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  The learner should be reinforced or rewarded positively or making a response to a
question even if the response may be wrong. However, it must be miserable.
 A teacher should portray positive non-verbal messages to the learners whey they are
answering a question.
 The teacher should avoid drawing up hands to express displeasure. Don’t look away
from the learner contributing to the answer but maintain eye contact when listening to
students’ responses while at the same time nodding or smiling or using other positive
non-verbal cues
Merits
 The method motivates the class or keeps the class active and alert
 The method facilitates classroom interaction i.e. interpersonal and multi-traffic
interactions.
 Students learn how to respond to challenges later on in real life.
 It provides the teacher with the opportunity to understand individual student learning
abilities.
 Through it teachers train students to become academically honest.
 The method is an appropriate avenue through which both the teacher and the learner learn
each other very well thus developing good teacher-student rapport.
Demerits
 Extraverts tend to dominate others during class activities.
 If the teacher is not competent enough digressions may emerge.
DISCUSSION METHOD
 A discussion is a talk or writing in which pros and cons or various aspects of a subject are
discussed. It could also be viewed as an activity in which learners, under the supervision
of a teacher, exchange points of view so as to arrive at a collective decision or
conclusion.
Functions of discussion
 Stimulate and develop the thinking ability
 Develop cooperation, listening skill and respect for other learners’ opinions.
 Examine a problem and work out solutions
 Seek information that is not recorded.
 Enquire into a matter
 Involve the learners in a learning process.
Types of discussion method

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  Informal discussion involves the free verbal interchange of the participant’s views
without being governed by a predetermined set of rules. There are specific conclusions
to be reached. The teacher merely guides and not to lead.
 Formal discussion proceeds in a predetermined manner, according to prescribed
procedures. It is expository – oriented discussion where the teacher presents his
objectives, explains the learning activity, demonstrates it and then invites questions from
students before he concludes the teaching activity.
Formal discussion
 Formal discussion assumes the following orientation:
 Debate – is where two are more students holding divergent opinions over an issue present
argument. The teacher may act as a moderator to control the flow of thought; each party
is given an opportunity to argue out his case.
 Symposium – participants will present to the audience their views about the various
aspects of a selected problem or topic through speeches or paper reading.
 Panel – form of discussion which places the discussion in small groups. Usually 4-8
students will constitute a panel. Panels after discussion report back to the large
group/class.
Strengths
 Employs persuasion rather than threats, or coercion.
 Helps a student to discover what he did not know. He may also confirm what he knows
with certainty.
 Helps in clarifying and sharpening issues.
 Students come to realize that differences in opinion need not degenerate into acrimony
and that people believe in the same things for different reasons.
 Teacher can easily discover learners who have leadership potentials.
 It stimulates thinking along the lines of self-evaluation
Weaknesses
 Pupils with language problem or deficiency may shy off from taking part in the
discussion.
 If poorly planned, the discussion easily grounds to a halt.
 Emotions such as anger and fear may creep in as a result of sensitive remarks made by
others.
 Requires a lot of time, which may not be available from the busy learning schedule.
 Lack of information may hinder progress in a discussion
 Introverts may not participate actively.

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COMPUTER - ASSISTED CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
 Computer-assisted co-operative teaching/learning exists when the instructional use of the
microcomputer is combined with the use of co-operative learning groups. The teacher
assigns students to co-operative groups (usually consisting of two, or four students), and
are given a co-operative assignment to complete a task in which a computer is to be
utilized. Positive interdependence among students is typically established at the terminal
so that students are aware of their dependence on other group members in accomplishing
their learning goals.
Problems of Individualistic Learning
 The social isolation involved can create mood states (such as loneliness, boredom, and
frustration) that interfere with sustained effort to complete learning tests.
 It denies learners the opportunity to summarize orally and explain what they are learning.
 Computers cannot provide social models to be imitated or used for social comparison
purposes.
 Approval from a computer is not as potent a reinforce as encouragement and approval
from peers. Experiencing the warmth and approval of a number of classmates is usually
much more reinforcing than having a computer compliment one on the computer is
limited to the evaluation from one’s peers is usually more complex and complete
Computer – Managed Learning (CML)
use of computer in a supervisory or managerial rather than a teaching role, the computer
prescribing work schedules, carrying out diagnostic assessment, maintaining student records
Reasons for use of CML
 Automate certain tasks in teaching such as test generation, scoring, and analysis.
 Individualize instruction given to learners.
 Free teacher time and hence allow greater contact between teachers and learners.
 Obtain information about learners.
 Allow easier decision making.
 Allow easier access to information.
Characteristics of CML
 Integration of computer – base instruction and other learning – related software
applications.
 Capability to manage a flow of information related to sue of the system by individual
learners.
 System – generated progress reports on student progress and achievement.

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  Networking of computers.
How to use CML
The steps followed in using CML are:-
 Identify objectives to be realized.
 Select the appropriate CML system.
 Install the CML system.
 Activate and apply.
 Evaluate attainment of objectives.
Advantages of CML
 Provides continuous feedback to students on their position within the training or learning
programme.
 Enables students to proceed responsibly towards individual goals appropriate to their
needs.
 Relieves teachers of management tasks like scoring and analysis of tests.
 Teachers obtain more information about their students and get to know them better.
 Frees teacher time for interaction with students.
 Rapid access to information for decision making.
 Curriculum developers and course designers have continuous access via the CML system
to vital information for formative and summative evaluation of their innovations.
Disadvantages of CML
 A CML system can highly restrict freedom in the teaching and learning process.
 Control of learning is taken away from students.
 Offers limited individualization of learning, often only individualizing the pace of study
and no more. Content, sequence and method (style) of learning are rarely tailored to the
needs of individual students.
 High prior definition of the role of the ML system by designers, and poor support in
developing the complementary role of the teacher, can lead to disaffection among
teachers and students.

PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

 In problem solving method, the minds of learners are sharpened by confronting them with
real problems and giving them the opportunity and freedom to solve the problems.
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Major approaches in problem solving
 In problem solving, two different approaches are used:
 Inductive approaches.
 Deductive approaches.
Induction Approach
 This is a method of reasoning whereby from a number of particular examples, a general
rule may be formed. Here a learner is enabled to arrive at the general conclusion,
establish laws or formulate generalizations through the observation of particular facts and
concrete examples.
 A universal truth is proved by showing that, if a formula is true for a particular case and
is further true for a reasonably adequate number of cases, it is true for all such cases.
After a number of concrete cases are understood, the student can successfully attempt the
generalization.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
 It is based on actual observation, thinking experimentation
 Gives the opportunity of active participation to the students in the discovery of a
formula/principle.
Limitations
 Inductive approach is not absolutely conclusive.
 Laborious and time consuming.
Deductive Approach
 Learners proceed from general to specific; abstract to concrete formula.
 The proven formula is expanded to the students and they are asked to solve the problem
with the help of that formula.
 The students apply this formula to solve the problems and they memorize it for future
use. Examples:
 Archimedes principle pf floatation
 Law of demand and supply
 ‘Aliye juu mgoja yeye chini.’
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
 The method is short and time saving.

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  Enhances speed and efficiency in solving problems.
Limitations
 Pure deductive work requires a formula for every type of problem. Thus extensive use of
this method will demand the blind memorization of a large number of formulae.
 Students can’t be active learners.
 It is not suitable for the development of thinking, reasoning and discovery.
FIELD TRIPS
 Trips can be made to the surrounding community or to far off places for the purpose of
studying what is not available within the school or what cannot be brought to the
classroom.
Planning for Field trips
 Discuss the possibility of making the field trip with members of the class include cost,
time and permission.
 Make all necessary arrangements and obtain permission from school authorities.
 Make necessary arrangements with responsible personnel at the plant, firm or institution
to be visited.
 Confirm and set all dates and time schedules both with the hosts and your students and
school.
 Make arrangements for transportation.
 Prepare record sheets for collection of money form the students (if need be)
 Prepare written instructions – guidelines during the tour.
 Prepare students for the tour.
 Meet the host and introduce the group.
 Regroup the students at the end of the tour, ensure all are present.
 Report to the school authorities on return to school.
 Make a follow p of the visit with a class discussion.
Conclusion
In all of these approaches, the most powerful thing to recognize is that they focus explicitly on
engaging both the student and the teacher. When teachers are treated like the intelligent
professionals that they are, and given the flexibility to engage in approaches to teaching and
learning that go beyond archaic models that they are often bound to, students respond differently,
and education is improved.
References:

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Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M.W., DiPietro, M. & Lovett, M.C. (2010). How learning works:
Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

Armstrong, M.A. (2011). Small world: Crafting an inclusive classroom (no matter what you
teach). Thought and Action Fall, 51-61.

Hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress. New York, NY: Routledge Press.

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